70:. They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another similar context and how "improvement in one mental function" could influence a related one. Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on how similar the learning task and transfer tasks are, or where "identical elements are concerned in the influencing and influenced function", now known as the
131:, or basic units of knowledge, in long-term memory. When new information enters the working memory, long-term memory is searched for associations which combine with the new information in working memory. The associations reinforce the new information and help assign meaning to it. Learning that takes place in varying contexts can create more links and encourage
85:
expected little transfer of learning. Guthrie recommended studying in the exact conditions in which one would be tested, because of his view that "we learn what we do in the presence of specific stimuli". The expectation is that training in conditions as similar as possible to those in which learners
160:
Learners can increase transfer through effective practice and by mindfully abstracting knowledge. Abstraction is the process of examining our experiences for similarities. Methods for abstracting knowledge include seeking the underlying principles in what is learned, creating models, and identifying
33:
occurs when people apply information, strategies, and skills they have learned to a new situation or context. Transfer is not a discrete activity, but is rather an integral part of the learning process. Researchers attempt to identify when and how transfer occurs and to offer strategies to improve
135:
of the skill or knowledge. Connections between past learning and new learning can provide a context or framework for the new information, helping students to determine sense and meaning, and encouraging retention of the new information. These connections can build up a framework of associative
139:
When
Thorndike refers to similarity of elements between learning and transfer, the elements can be conditions or procedures. Conditions can be environmental, physical, mental, or emotional, and the possible combinations of conditions are countless. Procedures include sequences of events or
279:
Transfer is less a deliberate activity by the learner than it is a result of the environment at the time of learning. Teachers, being part of the learning environment, can be an instrument of transfer (both positive and negative). Recommendations for teaching for transfer include the
54:
which viewed the mind as a collection of separate modules or faculties assigned to various mental tasks. This approach resulted in school curricula that required students to study subjects such as mathematics and Latin in order to strengthen reasoning and memory faculties.
307:
Hugging is when the teacher encourages transfer by incorporating similarities between the learning situation and the future situations in which the learning might be used. Some methods for hugging include simulation games, mental practice, and contingency learning.
119:). However, there remains controversy as to how transfer of learning should be conceptualized and explained, what its prevalence is, what its relation is to learning in general, and whether it exists at all.
140:
information. Although the theory is that the similarity of elements facilitates transfer, there is a challenge in identifying which specific elements had an effect on the learner at the time of learning.
136:
networks that students can call upon for future problem-solving. Information stored in memory is "flexible, interpretive, generically altered, and its recall and transfer are largely context-dependent".
50:) approach to learning believed that specific mental faculties could be strengthened by particular courses of training and that these strengthened faculties transferred to other situations, based on
311:
Bridging is when the teacher encourages transfer by helping students to find connections between learning and to abstract their existing knowledge to new concepts. Some methods for bridging include
66:
in 1901 postulated that the transfer of learning was restricted or assisted by the elements in common between the original context and the next context. The notion was originally introduced as
156:
Association: connections between multiple events, actions, bits of information, and so on; as well as the conditions and emotions connected to it by the learner.
74:. Thorndike urged schools to design curricula with tasks similar to those students would encounter outside of school to facilitate the transfer of learning.
727:
252:
High-road transfer occurs when the learner consciously and deliberately ("mindfully") evaluates the new situation and applies previous learning to it.
212:
Near transfer occurs when many elements overlap between the conditions in which the learner obtained the knowledge or skill and the new situation.
691:
434:
111:
Today, transfer of learning is usually described as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences (also referred to as the
447:
Thorndike, E. L. and
Woodworth, R. S. (1901) "The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions",
716:
708:
Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners' errors. International Review of
Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 5, 161–170.
268:
High-road transfer that is backward reaching occurs when learners in a new situation think about previous situations that might apply.
288:
strategies; providing authentic environment and activities within a conceptual framework; encouraging problem-based learning;
667:
410:
169:
Transfer of learning can be cognitive, socio-emotional, or motor. The following table presents different types of transfer.
236:
Figural transfer occurs when applying general knowledge to a new situation, often making use of analogies or metaphors.
736:
Vignati R.(2009) Il transfer cognitivo nei processi di apprendimento: un paradifma del cambiamento e della creatività?
519:
749:
260:
High-road transfer that is forward reaching occurs when learners think about possible other uses while learning.
304:
Hugging and bridging as techniques for positive transfer were suggested by the research of
Perkins and Salomon.
89:
The argument is also made that transfer is not distinct from learning, as people do not encounter situations as
754:
567:
514:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall. pp. 20, 45, 57, 165, 217–224.
559:
733:
Tinberg, H. (2017). Teaching for
Transfer: A passport for writing in new contexts. Peer Review, 19, 17–20.
590:"Transfer of Learning and Teaching: A Review of Transfer Theories and Effective Instructional Practices"
191:
150:
Similarity: commonalities between original learning and new, such as environment and other memory cues.
372:
132:
293:
220:
Far transfer occurs when the new situation is very different from that in which learning occurred.
244:
Low-road transfer occurs when well-established skills transfer spontaneously, even automatically.
161:
analogies and metaphors, all of which assist with creating associations and encouraging transfer.
481:
468:
455:
82:
362:
289:
228:
Literal transfer occurs when performing the skill exactly as learned but in a new situation.
405:. Hergenhahn, B. R., 1934-2007 (Ninth ed.). New York. pp. 37–38, 60–62, 208–209.
342:
337:
8:
63:
685:
428:
51:
24:
196:
Negative transfer occurs when prior learning hinders or interferes with new learning.
759:
673:
663:
627:
563:
525:
515:
416:
406:
352:
147:
Context and degree of original learning: how well the learner acquired the knowledge.
78:
20:
589:
485:
472:
459:
97:
considered it more a continuum, with no bright line between learning and transfer.
59:
712:
367:
357:
94:
743:
677:
631:
420:
316:
312:
105:
529:
204:
Zero transfer occurs when prior learning has no influence on new learning.
90:
728:
Rocky roads to transfer: rethinking mechanisms of a neglected phenomenon
553:
347:
489:
476:
463:
328:
186:
Positive transfer occurs when prior learning assists new learning.
108:'s concept of a response to a stimulus occurring to other stimuli.
333:
153:
Critical attributes: characteristics that make something unique.
662:(Fifth ed.). Thousand Oaks, California. pp. 154–186.
115:) affect learning and performance in a new situation (the
741:
555:Transfer: review, reconstruction, and resolution
86:will have to perform will facilitate transfer.
512:Learning theories: an educational perspective
551:
726:Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. N. (1989).
690:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
433:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
143:Factors that can affect transfer include:
730:. Educational Psychologist, 24, 113–142.
505:
503:
501:
499:
274:
122:
721:International Encyclopedia of Education
653:
651:
649:
647:
645:
643:
641:
583:
581:
579:
403:An introduction to theories of learning
396:
394:
392:
390:
388:
299:
742:
723:(2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
587:
547:
545:
543:
541:
539:
509:
164:
657:
496:
400:
638:
615:
576:
441:
385:
100:Transfer may also be referred to as
536:
13:
702:
14:
771:
621:
401:Olson, Matthew H. (2015-07-22).
658:Sousa, David A. (2016-12-02).
16:Educational psychology concept
1:
588:Jajian, Shiva (Summer 2019).
378:
58:Disputing formal discipline,
315:, developing analogies, and
7:
552:Helfenstein, Sacha (2005).
322:
296:; and game-based learning.
37:
10:
776:
597:IAFOR Journal of Education
77:In contrast to Thorndike,
18:
626:. The Macmillan Company.
373:Instructional scaffolding
624:The Transfer of Learning
510:Schunk, Dale H. (2004).
294:cognitive apprenticeship
72:identical element theory
19:Not to be confused with
560:University of Jyväskylä
750:Educational psychology
711:Perkins, D. N., &
363:Classical conditioning
755:Experiential learning
290:community of practice
275:Teaching for transfer
123:Transfer and learning
717:Transfer of learning
660:How the brain learns
449:Psychological Review
343:Priming (psychology)
338:Analogical reasoning
300:Hugging and bridging
68:transfer of practice
31:Transfer of learning
165:Transfer taxonomies
64:Robert S. Woodworth
52:faculty psychology
25:knowledge transfer
669:978-1-5063-4630-4
412:978-1-317-35068-2
353:Language transfer
272:
271:
265:Backward reaching
83:law of contiguity
79:Edwin Ray Guthrie
48:mental discipline
44:formal discipline
21:Transfer learning
767:
696:
695:
689:
681:
655:
636:
635:
619:
613:
612:
610:
608:
594:
585:
574:
573:
549:
534:
533:
507:
494:
490:10.1037/h0071363
477:10.1037/h0071280
464:10.1037/h0074898
445:
439:
438:
432:
424:
398:
257:Forward reaching
178:Characteristics
172:
171:
60:Edward Thorndike
775:
774:
770:
769:
768:
766:
765:
764:
740:
739:
705:
703:Further reading
700:
699:
683:
682:
670:
656:
639:
620:
616:
606:
604:
592:
586:
577:
570:
550:
537:
522:
508:
497:
452:
446:
442:
426:
425:
413:
399:
386:
381:
368:Gavriel Salomon
358:Problem solving
325:
302:
277:
167:
125:
117:transfer target
113:transfer source
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
773:
763:
762:
757:
752:
738:
737:
734:
731:
724:
709:
704:
701:
698:
697:
668:
637:
614:
575:
568:
535:
520:
495:
493:
492:
484:, pp. 553–564
479:
471:, pp. 384–395
466:
458:, pp. 247–261
440:
411:
383:
382:
380:
377:
376:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
331:
324:
321:
301:
298:
276:
273:
270:
269:
266:
262:
261:
258:
254:
253:
250:
246:
245:
242:
238:
237:
234:
230:
229:
226:
222:
221:
218:
214:
213:
210:
206:
205:
202:
198:
197:
194:
188:
187:
184:
180:
179:
176:
166:
163:
158:
157:
154:
151:
148:
133:generalization
124:
121:
102:generalization
93:. Perkins and
39:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
772:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
747:
745:
735:
732:
729:
725:
722:
718:
714:
710:
707:
706:
693:
687:
679:
675:
671:
665:
661:
654:
652:
650:
648:
646:
644:
642:
633:
629:
625:
622:Ellis, H. C.
618:
602:
598:
591:
584:
582:
580:
571:
565:
561:
557:
556:
548:
546:
544:
542:
540:
531:
527:
523:
521:0-13-038496-8
517:
513:
506:
504:
502:
500:
491:
487:
483:
480:
478:
474:
470:
467:
465:
461:
457:
454:
453:
450:
444:
436:
430:
422:
418:
414:
408:
404:
397:
395:
393:
391:
389:
384:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
335:
332:
330:
327:
326:
320:
318:
317:metacognition
314:
313:brainstorming
309:
305:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
267:
264:
263:
259:
256:
255:
251:
248:
247:
243:
240:
239:
235:
232:
231:
227:
224:
223:
219:
216:
215:
211:
208:
207:
203:
200:
199:
195:
193:
190:
189:
185:
182:
181:
177:
174:
173:
170:
162:
155:
152:
149:
146:
145:
144:
141:
137:
134:
130:
127:People store
120:
118:
114:
109:
107:
106:B. F. Skinner
103:
98:
96:
92:
87:
84:
80:
75:
73:
69:
65:
61:
56:
53:
49:
45:
35:
32:
26:
22:
720:
659:
623:
617:
605:. Retrieved
600:
596:
554:
511:
448:
443:
402:
310:
306:
303:
285:
281:
278:
168:
159:
142:
138:
129:propositions
128:
126:
116:
112:
110:
101:
99:
91:blank slates
88:
76:
71:
67:
57:
47:
43:
41:
30:
29:
713:Salomon, G.
744:Categories
569:951392386X
558:(Thesis).
379:References
348:Affordance
34:transfer.
686:cite book
678:953598757
632:248523541
429:cite book
421:914472558
249:High road
760:Pedagogy
715:(1992).
530:52418092
482:Part III
329:Metaphor
323:See also
286:bridging
241:Low road
192:Negative
183:Positive
38:Overview
607:6 March
469:Part II
334:Analogy
282:hugging
233:Figural
225:Literal
95:Salomon
676:
666:
630:
566:
528:
518:
456:Part I
419:
409:
593:(PDF)
175:Type
692:link
674:OCLC
664:ISBN
628:OCLC
609:2020
564:ISBN
526:OCLC
516:ISBN
435:link
417:OCLC
407:ISBN
284:and
209:Near
201:Zero
62:and
46:(or
42:The
603:(1)
486:doi
473:doi
460:doi
451:8:
217:Far
81:'s
23:or
746::
719:.
688:}}
684:{{
672:.
640:^
599:.
595:.
578:^
562:.
538:^
524:.
498:^
431:}}
427:{{
415:.
387:^
336:,
319:.
292:;
104:,
694:)
680:.
634:.
611:.
601:7
572:.
532:.
488::
475::
462::
437:)
423:.
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.