1731:), the term refers to a set of substantive and administrative regulatory requirements imposed by governments on certain taxpayers. However, aggressive intragroup pricing – especially for debt and intangibles – has played a major role in corporate tax avoidance, and it was one of the issues identified when the OECD released its base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) action plan in 2013. The OECD’s 2015 final BEPS reports called for country-by-country reporting and stricter rules for transfers of risk and intangibles but recommended continued adherence to the arm’s-length principle. These recommendations have been criticized by many taxpayers and professional service firms for departing from established principles and by some academics and advocacy groups for failing to make adequate changes.
1905:
most direct method, provided that any differences between the controlled and uncontrolled transactions have no material effect on price or their effects can be estimated and corresponding price adjustments can be made. Adjustments may be appropriate where the controlled and uncontrolled transactions differ only in volume or terms; for example, an interest adjustment could be applied where the only difference is time for payment (e.g., 30 days vs. 60 days). For undifferentiated products such as commodities, price data for arm's-length transactions ("external comparables") between two or more other unrelated parties may be available. For other transactions, it may be possible to use comparable transactions ("internal comparables") between the controlled party and unrelated parties.
2019:
from the development of intangible assets. OECD Guidelines provide more generalized suggestions to tax authorities for enforcement related to cost contribution agreements (CCAs) with respect to acquisition of various types of assets. Both sets of rules generally provide that costs should be allocated among members based on respective anticipated benefits. Inter-member charges should then be made so that each member bears only its share of such allocated costs. Since the allocations must inherently be made based on expectations of future events, the mechanism for allocation must provide for prospective adjustments where prior projections of events have proved incorrect. However, both sets of rules generally prohibit applying hindsight in making allocations.
1763:, resale price or markup, and profitability based methods. Many systems differentiate methods of testing goods from those for services or use of property due to inherent differences in business aspects of such broad types of transactions. Some systems provide mechanisms for sharing or allocation of costs of acquiring assets (including intangible assets) among related parties in a manner designed to reduce tax controversy. Most governments have granted authorization to their tax authorities to adjust prices charged between related parties. Many such authorizations, including those of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Germany, allow domestic as well as international adjustments. Some authorizations apply only internationally.
46:
1792:
reliable result. The U.S. and OECD rules require that reliable adjustments must be made for all differences (if any) between related party items and purported comparables that could materially affect the condition being examined. Where such reliable adjustments cannot be made, the reliability of the comparison is in doubt. Comparability of tested prices with uncontrolled prices is generally considered enhanced by use of multiple data. Transactions not undertaken in the ordinary course of business generally are not considered to be comparable to those taken in the ordinary course of business. Among the factors that must be considered in determining comparability are:
1751:) are based on the arm's-length principle. The rules of nearly all countries permit related parties to set prices in any manner, but permit the tax authorities to adjust those prices (for purposes of computing tax liability) where the prices charged are outside an arm's length range. Most, if not all, governments permit adjustments by the tax authority even where there is no intent to avoid or evade tax. The rules generally require that market level, functions, risks, and terms of sale of unrelated party transactions or activities be reasonably comparable to such items with respect to the related party transactions or profitability being tested.
2539:
are attributable to the very fact that they are integrated, unitary businesses. Hellerstein
Treatise, P8.03 at 8-32.n9 As one commentator has explained: To believe that multinational corporations do not maintain an advantage over independent corporations operating within a similar business sphere is to ignore the economic and political strength of the multinational giants. By attempting to treat those businesses which are in fact unitary as independent entities, separate accounting "operates in a universe of pretense; as in Alice in Wonderland, it turns reality into fancy and then pretends it is the real world".
1998:
benefit the member charged. The inquiry may focus on whether services were indeed performed as well as who benefited from the services. For this purpose, some rules differentiate stewardship services from other services. Stewardship services are generally those that an investor would incur for its own benefit in managing its investments. Charges to the investee for such services are generally inappropriate. Where services were not performed or where the related party bearing the charge derived no direct benefit, tax authorities may disallow the charge altogether.
1878:
different economies or geographies. For example, a head of cauliflower at a retail market will command a vastly different price in unelectrified rural India than in Tokyo. Buyers or sellers may have different market shares that allow them to achieve volume discounts or exert sufficient pressure on the other party to lower prices. Where prices are to be compared, the putative comparables must be at the same market level, within the same or similar economic and geographic environments, and under the same or similar conditions.
2496:
2480:
2056:
return in order to avoid these penalties. Documentation by a taxpayer need not be relied upon by the tax authority in any jurisdiction permitting adjustment of prices. Some systems allow the tax authority to disregard information not timely provided by taxpayers, including such advance documentation. India requires that documentation not only be in place prior to filing a return, but also that the documentation be certified by the chartered accountant preparing a company return.
2546:, a corporation that has a goal of minimizing the overall taxes to be paid will set transfer prices to allocate more of the worldwide profit to lower tax countries. Many countries attempt to impose penalties on corporations if the countries consider that they are being deprived of taxes on otherwise taxable profit. However, since the participating countries are sovereign entities, obtaining data and initiating meaningful actions to limit tax avoidance is hard. A publication of the
2394:
1654:
2240:
2337:
engaged in intercompany transactions under RMB 20 million for the year were generally exempted from reporting, documentation, and penalties. Those with transactions exceeding RMB 200 million generally were required to complete transfer pricing studies in advance of filing tax returns. For taxpayers in the top tier, documentation must include a comparability analysis and justification for the transfer pricing method chosen.
1642:
2492:
accept the transfer price determined by market forces (their marginal revenue from transfer and demand for transfer products becomes the transfer price). If the market price is relatively high (as in Ptr1 in the next diagram), then the firm will experience an internal surplus (excess internal supply) equal to the amount Qt1 minus Qf1. The actual marginal cost curve is defined by points A,C,D.
2138:
it has available. Contemporaneous means the documentation existed with 30 days of filing the taxpayer's tax return. Documentation requirements are quite specific, and generally require a best method analysis and detailed support for the pricing and methodology used for testing such pricing. To qualify, the documentation must reasonably support the prices used in computing tax.
2002:
differences between provision of services and sale of goods. The OECD Guidelines provide that the provisions relating to goods should be applied with minor modifications and additional considerations. In the U.S., a different set of price testing methods is provided for services. In both cases, standards of comparability and other matters apply to both goods and services.
2103:(the services cost method). Such services may include back-room operations (e.g., accounting and data processing services for groups not engaged in providing such services to clients), product testing, or a variety of such non-integral services. This method is not permitted for manufacturing, reselling, and certain other services that typically are integral to a business.
2006:
that it may be inappropriate for a component of an enterprise performing such services for another component to earn a profit on such services. Testing of prices charged in such case may be referred to a cost of services or services cost method. Application of this method may be limited under the rules of certain countries, and is required in some countries e.g. Canada.
2219:. The Communication on "Tax and Development – Cooperating with Developing Countries in Promoting Good Governance in Tax Matters‟, COM (2010) 163 final, highlighted the need to support developing countries' capacity in mobilizing domestic resources for development in line with the principles of good governance in taxation. In this context, PwC prepared the report
2163:
not given priority among transactional methods in OECD guidelines. The
Guidelines state, "It may be difficult to find a transaction between independent enterprises that is similar enough to a controlled transaction such that no differences have a material effect on price." Thus, adjustments are often required to either tested prices or uncontrolled process.
2516:, under which corporate profits are allocated according to objective metrics of activity such as sales, employees, or fixed assets. Some countries (including Canada and the United States) allocate taxing rights among their political subdivisions in this way, and it has recommended by the European Commission for use within the European Union. According to the
2073:. The U.S. rules give no priority to any particular method of testing prices, requiring instead explicit analysis to determine the best method. U.S. comparability standards limit use of adjustments for business strategies in testing prices to clearly defined market share strategies, but permit limited consideration of location savings.
2380:(APAs). Under an APA, the taxpayer and one or more governments agree on the methodology used to test prices. APAs are generally based on transfer pricing documentation prepared by the taxpayer and presented to the government(s). Multilateral agreements require negotiations between the governments, conducted through their designated
1994:
respect to charges between related parties for services: whether services were actually performed which warrant payment, and the price charged for such services. Tax authorities in most major countries have, either formally or in practice, incorporated these queries into their examination of related party services transactions.
1963:
being tested. The residual profit split method requires a two step process: first profits are allocated to routine operations, then the residual profit is allocated based on nonroutine contributions of the parties. The residual allocation may be based on external market benchmarks or estimation based on capitalised costs.
2082:
enterprises for whom reliable data is available. Comparisons are made for the profit level indicator that most reliably represents profitability for the type of business. For example, a sales company's profitability may be most reliably measured as a return on sales (pre-tax profit as a percent of sales).
1755:
Bigco US charges Bigco
Germany for a machine, either the U.S. or German tax authorities may adjust the price upon examination of the respective tax return. Following an adjustment, the taxpayer generally is allowed (at least by the adjusting government) to make payments to reflect the adjusted prices.
2503:
If the firm is able to sell its transfer goods in an imperfect market, then it need not be a price taker. There are two markets each with its own price (Pf and Pt in the next diagram). The aggregate market is constructed from the first two. That is, point C is a horizontal summation of points A and B
2162:
OECD guidelines give priority to transactional methods, described as the "most direct way" to establish comparability. The
Transactional Net Margin Method and Profit Split methods are used either as methods of last resort or where traditional transactional methods cannot be reliably applied. CUP is
2106:
U.S. rules also specifically permit shared services agreements. Under such agreements, various group members may perform services which benefit more than one member. Prices charged are considered arm's length where the costs are allocated in a consistent manner among the members based on reasonably
2022:
A key requirement to limit adjustments related to costs of developing intangible assets is that there must be a written agreement in place among the members. Tax rules may impose additional contractual, documentation, accounting, and reporting requirements on participants of a CSA or CCA, which vary
1971:
Where testing of prices occurs on other than a purely transactional basis, such as CPM or TNMM, it may be necessary to determine which of the two related parties should be tested. Testing is to be done of that party testing of which will produce the most reliable results. Generally, this means that
1895:
Some systems give preference to a specific method of testing prices. OECD and U.S. systems, however, provide that the method used to test the appropriateness of related party prices should be that method that produces the most reliable measure of arm's length results. This is often known as a "best
1877:
Goods, services, or property may be provided to different levels of buyers or users: producer to wholesaler, wholesaler to wholesaler, wholesaler to retailer, or for ultimate consumption. Market conditions, and thus prices, vary greatly at these levels. In addition, prices may vary greatly between
1827:
Buyers and sellers may perform different functions related to the exchange and undertake different risks. For example, a seller of a machine may or may not provide a warranty. The price a buyer would pay will be affected by this difference. Among the functions and risks that may impact prices are:
1782:
in 1988 and proposals in 1990–1992, which ultimately became regulations in 1994. In 1995, the OECD issued its transfer pricing guidelines which it expanded in 1996 and 2010. The two sets of guidelines are broadly similar and contain certain principles followed by many countries. The OECD guidelines
1754:
Adjustment of prices is generally made by adjusting taxable income of all involved related parties within the jurisdiction, as well as adjusting any withholding or other taxes imposed on parties outside the jurisdiction. Such adjustments are generally made after filing of tax returns. For example, if
2538:
Separate accounting, with its emphasis on carving out of the overall business only income from sources within a single state, ignores the value attributable to the integrated nature of the business. Yet, to a large degree, the wealth, power, and profits of the world's large multinational enterprises
2349:
Chinese transfer pricing rules apply to transactions between a
Chinese business and domestic and foreign related parties. A related party includes enterprises meeting one of eight different tests, including 25% equity ownership in common, overlapping boards or management, significant debt holdings,
2180:
The transactional net margin method (TNMM) compares the net profitability of a transaction, or group or aggregation of transactions, to that of another transaction, group or aggregation. Under TNMM, use of actual, verifiable transactions is given strong preference. However, in practice TNMM allows
2042:
Both sets of rules recognize that participants may enter or leave a CSA or CCA. Upon such events, the rules require that members make buy-in or buy-out payments. Such payments may be required to represent the market value of the existing state of development, or may be computed under cost recovery
2030:
Participants in CSAs and CCAs may contribute pre-existing assets or rights for use in the development of assets. Such contribution may be referred to as a platform contribution. Such contribution is generally considered a deemed payment by the contributing member, and is itself subject to transfer
1962:
Two methods are often provided for splitting profits: comparable profit split and residual profit split. The former requires that profit split be derived from the combined operating profit of uncontrolled taxpayers whose transactions and activities are comparable to the transactions and activities
1719:
Where adopted, transfer pricing rules allow tax authorities to adjust prices for most cross-border intragroup transactions, including transfers of tangible or intangible property, services, and loans. For example, a tax authority may increase a company’s taxable income by reducing the price of goods
1709:
and World Bank recommend intragroup pricing rules based on the arm’s-length principle, and 19 of the 20 members of the G20 have adopted similar measures through bilateral treaties and domestic legislation, regulations, or administrative practice. Countries with transfer pricing legislation generally
2530:
the formulary apportionment method, which is also known as the unitary apportionment method, has at least three major advantages over the separate accounting system when applied to multi-jurisdictional businesses. First, the unitary method captures the added wealth and value resulting from economic
2491:
If the production division is able to sell the transfer good in a competitive market (as well as internally), then again both must operate where their marginal costs equal their marginal revenue, for profit maximization. Because the external market is competitive, the firm is a price taker and must
2471:
When a firm is selling some of its product to itself, and only to itself (i.e. there is no external market for that particular transfer good), then the picture gets more complicated, but the outcome remains the same. The demand curve remains the same. The optimum price and quantity remain the same.
2353:
The
Circular instructs field examiners to review taxpayer's comparability and method analyses. The method of analyzing comparability and what factors are to be considered varies slightly by type of transfer pricing analysis method. The guidelines for CUP include specific functions and risks to be
2340:
The 2015 draft introduced an overhauled three-tiered standardized approach to transfer pricing documentation. The tiers vary in documentation content and include the master file, the local file, and the country-by-country report. The draft also requires companies involved with related-party service
2137:
This penalty may be avoided only if the taxpayer maintains contemporaneous documentation meeting requirements in the regulations, and provides such documentation to the IRS within 30 days of IRS request. If documentation is not provided at all, the IRS may make adjustments based on any information
2124:
U.S. rules require that the IRS may not adjust prices found to be within the arm's length range. Where prices charged are outside that range, prices may be adjusted by the IRS unilaterally to the midpoint of the range. The burden of proof that a transfer pricing adjustment by the IRS is incorrect
1984:
Valuable intangible property tends to be unique. Often there are no comparable items. The value added by use of intangibles may be represented in prices of goods or services, or by payment of fees (royalties) for use of the intangible property. Licensing of intangibles thus presents difficulties
1700:
refers to the rules and methods for pricing transactions within and between enterprises under common ownership or control. Because of the potential for cross-border controlled transactions to distort taxable income, tax authorities in many countries can adjust intragroup transfer prices that differ
2362:
The China rules provide a general framework for cost sharing agreements. This includes a basic structure for agreements, provision for buy-in and exit payments based on reasonable amounts, minimum operating period of 20 years, and mandatory notification of the SAT within 30 days of concluding the
2098:
U.S. rules apply resale price method and cost-plus with respect to goods strictly on a transactional basis. Thus, comparable transactions must be found for all tested transactions in order to apply these methods. Industry averages or statistical measures are not permitted. Where a manufacturing
2026:
Generally, under a CSA or CCA, each participating member must be entitled to use of some portion rights developed pursuant to the agreement without further payments. Thus, a CCA participant should be entitled to use a process developed under the CCA without payment of royalties. Ownership of the
2018:
Multi-component enterprises may find significant business advantage to sharing the costs of developing or acquiring certain assets, particularly intangible assets. Detailed U.S. rules provide that members of a group may enter into a cost sharing agreement (CSA) with respect to costs and benefits
1993:
Enterprises may engage related or unrelated parties to provide services they need. Where the required services are available within a multinational group, there may be significant advantages to the enterprise as a whole for components of the group to perform those services. Two issues exist with
1940:
Some methods of testing prices do not rely on actual transactions. Use of these methods may be necessary due to the lack of reliable data for transactional methods. In some cases, non-transactional methods may be more reliable than transactional methods because market and economic adjustments to
1904:
The comparable uncontrolled price (CUP) method is a transactional method that determines the arm's-length price using the prices charged in comparable transactions between unrelated parties. In principle, the OECD and most countries that follow the OECD guidelines consider the CUP method to be the
1868:
Manner and terms of sale may have a material impact on price. For example, buyers will pay more if they can defer payment and buy in smaller quantities. Terms that may impact price include payment timing, warranty, volume discounts, duration of rights to use of the product, form of consideration,
2102:
The rules on services expand cost-plus, providing an additional option to mitigate these data problems. Charges to related parties for services not in the primary business of either the tested party or the related party group are rebuttably presumed to be arm's length if priced at cost plus zero
2055:
The rules of many countries require taxpayers to document that prices charged are within the prices permitted under the transfer pricing rules. Where such documentation is not timely prepared, penalties may be imposed, as above. Documentation may be required to be in place prior to filing a tax
2005:
It is common for enterprises to perform services for themselves (or for their components) that support their primary business. Examples include accounting, legal, and computer services for those enterprises not engaged in the business of providing such services. Transfer pricing rules recognize
1975:
Testing requires determination of what indication of profitability should be used. This may be net profit on the transaction, return on assets employed, or some other measure. Reliability is generally improved for TNMM and CPM by using a range of results and multiple year data. this is based on
1818:
Comparability is best achieved where identical items are compared. However, in some cases it is possible to make reliable adjustments for differences in the particular items, such as differences in features or quality. For example, gold prices might be adjusted based on the weight of the actual
2336:
Under the 2009 Circular, taxpayers must disclose related party transactions when filing tax returns. In addition, the circular provides for a three-tier set of documentation and reporting standards, based on the aggregate amount of intercompany transactions. Taxpayers affected by the rules who
2146:
U.S. tax law requires that the foreign transferee/user of intangible property (patents, processes, trademarks, know-how, etc.) will be deemed to pay to a controlling transferor/developer a royalty commensurate with the income derived from using the intangible property. This applies whether such
1791:
Most rules provide standards for when unrelated party prices, transactions, profitability or other items are considered sufficiently comparable in testing related party items. Such standards typically require that data used in comparisons be reliable and that the means used to compare produce a
1886:
Tax authorities generally examine prices actually charged between related parties to determine whether adjustments are appropriate. Such examination is by comparison (testing) of such prices to comparable prices charged among unrelated parties. Such testing may occur only on examination of tax
1774:
Most rules require that the tax authorities consider actual transactions between parties, and permit adjustment only to actual transactions. Multiple transactions may be aggregated or tested separately, and testing may use multiple year data. In addition, transactions whose economic substance
2081:
The
Comparable Profits method (CPM) was introduced in the 1992 proposed regulations and has been a prominent feature of IRS transfer pricing practice since. Under CPM, the tested party's overall results, rather than its transactions, are compared with the overall results of similarly situated
2038:
In determining reasonably anticipated benefits, participants are forced to make projections of future events. Such projections are inherently uncertain. Further, there may exist uncertainty as to how such benefits should be measured. One manner of determining such anticipated benefits is to
2009:
Where services performed are of a nature performed by the enterprise (or the performing or receiving component) as a key aspect of its business, OECD and U.S. rules provide that some level of profit is appropriate to the service performing component. Canada's rules do not permit such profit.
1997:
There may be tax advantages obtained for the group if one member charges another member for services, even where the member bearing the charge derives no benefit. To combat this, the rules of most systems allow the tax authorities to challenge whether the services allegedly performed actually
2198:
OECD rules generally do not permit tax authorities to make adjustments if prices charged between related parties are within the arm's length range. Where prices are outside such range, the prices may be adjusted to the most appropriate point. The burden of proof of the appropriateness of an
2001:
Where the services were performed and provided benefit for the related party bearing a charge for such services, tax rules also permit adjustment to the price charged. Rules for testing prices of services may differ somewhat from rules for testing prices charged for goods due to the inherent
2292:
Prior to 2009, China generally followed OECD Guidelines. New guidelines were announced by the State
Administration of Taxation (SAT) in March 2008 and issued in January 2009. These guidelines differed materially in approach from those in other countries in two principal ways: 1) they were
2051:
Some jurisdictions impose significant penalties relating to transfer pricing adjustments by tax authorities. These penalties may have thresholds for the basic imposition of penalty, and the penalty may be increased at other thresholds. For example, U.S. rules impose a 20% penalty where the
1734:
Transfer pricing should not be conflated with fraudulent trade mis-invoicing, which is a technique for concealing illicit transfers by reporting falsified prices on invoices submitted to customs officials. “Because they often both involve mispricing, many aggressive tax avoidance schemes by
2487:
It can be shown algebraically that the intersection of the firm's marginal cost curve and marginal revenue curve (point A) must occur at the same quantity as the intersection of the production division's marginal cost curve with the net marginal revenue from production (point C).
2327:
On
September 17, 2015, the SAT released a revised draft version of the "Implementation Measures for Special Tax Adjustment (Circular 2)," which replaced the previous 2009 guidelines. Three new sections were introduced under the revised draft: monitoring and management, intangible
1972:
the tested party is that party with the most easily compared functions and risks. Comparing the tested party's results to those of comparable parties may require adjustments to results of the tested party or the comparables for such items as levels of inventory or receivables.
2468:. That is to say, a firm should expand its output as long as the marginal revenue from additional sales is greater than their marginal costs. In the diagram that follows, this intersection is represented by point A, which will yield a price of P*, given the demand at point B.
2384:
groups. The agreements are generally for some period of years, and may have retroactive effect. Most such agreements are not subject to public disclosure rules. Rules controlling how and when a taxpayer or tax authority may commence APA proceedings vary by jurisdiction.
1985:
in identifying comparable items for testing. However, where the same property is licensed to independent parties, such license may provide comparable transactional prices. The profit split method specifically attempts to take value of intangibles into account.
2115:
Under U.S. rules, actual conduct of the parties is more important than contractual terms. Where the conduct of the parties differs from terms of the contract, the IRS has authority to deem the actual terms to be those needed to permit the actual conduct.
2099:
entity provides contract manufacturing for both related and unrelated parties, it may readily have reliable data on comparable transactions. However, absent such in-house comparables, it is often difficult to obtain reliable data for applying cost-plus.
4001:
Note that few countries besides the U.S. have formally adopted cost sharing rules, as of 2009. The OECD Guidelines do not specifically require such rules, so adoption of the
Guidelines may not constitute approval of cost sharing under the laws of some
2064:
U.S. transfer pricing rules are lengthy. They incorporate all of the principles above, using CPM (see below) instead of TNMM. U.S. rules specifically provide that a taxpayer's intent to avoid or evade tax is not a prerequisite to adjustment by the
2472:
But marginal cost of production can be separated from the firm's total marginal costs. Likewise, the marginal revenue associated with the production division can be separated from the marginal revenue for the total firm. This is referred to as the
1766:
In addition, most systems recognize that an arm's length price may not be a particular price point but rather a range of prices. Some systems provide measures for evaluating whether a price within such range is considered arm's length, such as the
1720:
purchased from an affiliated foreign manufacturer or raising the royalty the company must charge its foreign subsidiaries for rights to use a proprietary technology or brand name. These adjustments are generally calculated using one or more of the
1887:
returns by the tax authority, or taxpayers may be required to conduct such testing themselves in advance of filing tax returns. Such testing requires a determination of how the testing must be conducted, referred to as a transfer pricing method.
1805:
the economic circumstances of the parties and of the market in which the parties operate, e.g. the geographic location, the extent of competition, and consumer purchasing power may result in different pricing even for the same goods and services;
2550:(OECD) states, "Transfer prices are significant for both taxpayers and tax administrations because they determine in large part the income and expenses, and therefore taxable profits, of associated enterprises in different tax jurisdictions."
2535:. A unitary business also benefits from more intangible values shared among its constituent parts, such as reputation, good will, customers and other business relationships. See, e.g., Mobil, 445 U.S. at 438–40; Container, 463 U.S. at 164–65.
2085:
CPM inherently requires lower levels of comparability in the nature of the goods or services. Further, data used for CPM generally can be readily obtained in the U.S. and many countries through public filings of comparable enterprises.
1958:
CPM and TNMM have a practical advantage in ease of implementation. Both methods rely on microeconomic analysis of data rather than specific transactions. These methods are discussed further with respect to the U.S. and OECD systems.
2371:
Tax authorities of most major countries have entered into unilateral or multilateral agreements between taxpayers and other governments regarding the setting or testing of related party prices. These agreements are referred to as
2089:
Results of the tested party or comparable enterprises may require adjustment to achieve comparability. Such adjustments may include effective interest adjustments for customer financing or debt levels, inventory adjustments, etc.
1758:
Most systems allow use of transfer pricing multiple methods, where such methods are appropriate and are supported by reliable data, to test related party prices. Among the commonly used methods are comparable uncontrolled prices,
4618:
2189:
Contractual terms and transactions between parties are to be respected under OECD rules unless both the substance of the transactions differs materially from those terms and following such terms would impede tax administration.
4208:
German law incorporates OECD guidelines by reference. Note that while Canada and the United States are OECD members, each has adopted its own comprehensive regulations that differ in some material respects from the OECD
1896:
method" rule. Factors to be considered include comparability of tested and independent items, reliability of available data and assumptions under the method, and validation of the results of the method by other methods.
1908:
The criteria for reliably applying the CUP method are often impossible to satisfy for licenses and other transactions involving unique intangible property, requiring use of valuation methods based on profit projections.
2125:
is on the taxpayer unless the IRS adjustment is shown to be arbitrary and capricious. However, the courts have generally required both taxpayers and the IRS to demonstrate their facts where agreement is not reached.
2034:
A key consideration in a CSA or CCA is what costs development or acquisition costs should be subject to the agreement. This may be specified under the agreement, but is also subject to adjustment by tax authorities.
2171:
OECD rules permit consideration of business strategies in determining if results or transactions are comparable. Such strategies include market penetration, expansion of market share, cost or location savings, etc.
2354:
analyzed for each type of transaction (goods, rentals, licensing, financing, and services). The guidelines for resale price, cost-plus, transactional net margin method, and profit split are short and very general.
990:
4553:
3374:
2133:
If the IRS adjusts prices by more than $ 5 million or 10 percent of the taxpayer’s gross receipts, penalties apply. The penalty is 20% of the amount of the tax adjustment, increased to 40% at a higher threshold.
2010:
Testing of prices in such cases generally follows one of the methods described above for goods. The cost-plus method, in particular, may be favored by tax authorities and taxpayers due to ease of administration.
1927:
Resale price method (RPM): goods are regularly offered by a seller or purchased by a retailer to/from unrelated parties at a standard "list" price less a fixed discount. Testing is by comparison of the discount
2803:
2693:
2754:
3535:
3515:
1771:
used in U.S. regulations. Significant deviation among points in the range may indicate lack of reliability of data. Reliability is generally considered to be improved by use of multiple year data.
2293:
guidelines issued instructing field offices how to conduct transfer pricing examinations and adjustments, and 2) factors to be examined differed by transfer pricing method. The guidelines covered:
2159:
OECD guidelines are voluntary for member nations. Some nations have adopted the guidelines almost unchanged. Terminology may vary between adopting nations, and may vary from that used above.
1778:
Transfer pricing adjustments have been a feature of many tax systems since the 1930s. The United States led the development of detailed, comprehensive transfer pricing guidelines with a
3088:
3217:
1799:
the functions performed by each of the parties to the transaction taking into account assets used and risks assumed (so-called Functions, Assets, and Risks Analysis or FAR Analysis);
1809:
the business strategies pursued by the parties, e.g. start-ups and mature businesses may have different pricing strategy, whether to focus on customer acquisition or profitability.
4569:
3398:
1735:
multinational corporations can easily be confused with trade misinvoicing. However, they should be regarded as separate policy problems with separate solutions,” according to
1711:
2226:
Many EU countries are currently implementing the OECD Guidelines for Transfer Pricing. The latest adopter is Cyprus which issued a ruling in 2017 for financial arrangements.
1924:(C+) method: goods or services provided to unrelated parties are consistently priced at actual cost plus a fixed markup. Testing is by comparison of the markup percentages.
2107:
anticipated benefits. For instance, shared services costs may be allocated among members based on a formula involving expected or actual sales or a combination of factors.
1945:
Comparable profits method (CPM): profit levels of similarly situated companies in similar industries may be compared to an appropriate tested party. See U.S. rules below.
2922:
2976:
4583:
3761:
4554:"Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations" at paragraph 12, hereinafter "OECD xx," where "xx" is the cited paragraph number"
4110:
4098:
4094:
2547:
4180:
4077:
1917:
Among other methods relying on actual transactions (generally between one tested party and third parties) and not indices, aggregates, or market surveys are:
4196:
3980:
3819:
3705:
3656:
3652:
3532:
3512:
4333:
of the People's Republic of China, in Chinese. English translations are available from most of the major accounting firms, and vary slightly. See, e.g.,
4294:
2027:
rights need not be transferred to the participants. The division of rights is generally to be based on some observable measure, such as by geography.
4337:'s version of the complete circular. Hereafter referred to as the Circular or China Circular 2 Art. xx, where xx is the article number of Circular 2.
4473:
4351:
4334:
3350:
3231:
1336:
2207:
OECD Guidelines do not provide specific rules on the nature of taxpayer documentation. Such matters are left to individual member nations.
3495:
3298:
2680:
2531:
interdependencies of multistate and multinational corporations through their functional integration, centralization of management, and
2504:(and likewise for all other points on the net marginal revenue curve (NMRa)). The total optimum quantity (Q) is the sum of Qf plus Qt.
3288:
Falk, Daniel, “Transfer Pricing: Alternative Practical Strategies,” 19 Tax Mgmt. (BNA) Transfer Pricing Report, at 829 (Nov. 18, 2010)
2425:
or any other frictions which exist in the real world. In practice a great many factors influence the transfer prices that are used by
1951:(TNMM): while called a transactional method, the testing is based on profitability of similar businesses. See OECD guidelines below.
1802:
the characteristics of property transferred or services provided, as difference in quality or the extent of service may affect price;
1193:
3447:
3324:
1058:
1053:
4543:
Ronen Palan (2010): The Offshore World: Sovereign markets, Virtual Places, and Nomad Millionaires; Cornell University Press, 2006.
4011:
U.S. rules permit, in some cases, actions of members consistent with the principles of a CSA to be considered to constitute a CSA.
494:
2522:
brief, filed by the attorneys general of Alaska, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon in support of the state of California in the
2181:
making computations for company-level aggregates of transactions. Thus, TNMM may in some circumstances function like U.S. CPM.
2473:
1407:
1000:
221:
4164:
2350:
and other tests. Transactions subject to the guidelines include most sorts of dealings businesses may have with one another.
489:
3334:
3308:
3027:
2997:
2954:
2944:
2698:. OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations. OECD Publishing, Paris. July 2010.
2597:
Wittendorff, Jens: Transfer Pricing and the Arm's Length Principle in International Tax Law, 2010, Kluwer Law International,
1775:
differs materially from their form may be recharacterized under the laws of many systems to follow the economic substance.
1607:
788:
1779:
1482:
1727:
Although transfer pricing is sometimes inaccurately presented by commentators as a tax avoidance practice or technique (
1684:
1547:
670:
182:
4521:"European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - Press release - Questions and Answers on the package of corporate tax reforms"
2476:
in production (NMR) and is calculated as the marginal revenue from the firm minus the marginal costs of distribution.
2052:
adjustment exceeds US$ 5 million, increased to 40% of the additional tax where the adjustment exceeds US$ 20 million.
1747:
Over sixty governments have adopted transfer pricing rules, which in almost all cases (with the notable exception of
2821:
2772:
2711:
2602:
2279:
2257:
1008:
756:
3399:"Public comments received on the conforming amendments to Chapter IX of the OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines - OECD"
2666:
4645:
4603:
2559:
473:
24:
3448:"UN Conference on Trade and Development: Trade Misinvoicing in Primary Commodities in Developing Countries (2016)"
4650:
2649:: Major international accounting and law firms have published summaries of the guidelines. See their web sites.
2216:
1948:
655:
251:
4598:
3375:"Aligning Transfer Pricing Outcomes with Value Creation, Actions 8-10 - 2015 Final Reports | OECD READ edition"
2741:
2312:
2261:
1612:
1331:
3064:
2616:
3748:
2039:
project respective sales or gross margins of participants, measured in a common currency, or sales in units.
1954:
Profit split method: total enterprise profits are split in a formulary manner based on econometric analyses.
1617:
576:
45:
4608:
1724:
specified in the OECD guidelines and are subject to judicial review or other dispute resolution mechanisms.
4591:
3608:
3257:
3192:
1315:
606:
3159:
1557:
1527:
4574:
3744:
1736:
1702:
938:
410:
3740:
2461:
2895:
2426:
2070:
985:
563:
520:
371:
226:
75:
4329:
Implementation Measures of Special Tax Adjustment (Trial), Guo Shui Fa (2009) No. 2 issued by the
2928:
2844:
2795:
2734:
2569:
2341:
transactions, cost sharing agreements or thin capitalization to submit a so-called "Special File."
2066:
1577:
995:
479:
3902:
1721:
2513:
2430:
2409:
defined as transfer pricing that maximizes overall firm profits in a non-realistic world with no
2250:
1592:
1532:
1043:
1038:
660:
541:
192:
2949:
Parker, Kenneth and Levey, Marc: Tax Director's Guide to International Transfer Pricing, 2008,
2628:
Information Circular 94-4R - International Transfer Pricing: Advance Pricing Arrangements (APAs)
4655:
3948:
Such services may be referred to those not integral to the functioning of the primary business.
3019:
Transfer Pricing and Developing Economies : A Handbook for Policy Makers and Practitioners
2805:
Transfer Pricing Documentation and Country-by-Country Reporting, Action 13 - 2015 Final Reports
2579:
2574:
1677:
1502:
1387:
1382:
978:
557:
376:
3492:
4467:
2978:
OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations 2010,
1582:
1507:
1472:
1457:
1377:
1367:
611:
531:
526:
447:
3559:
2873:
2512:
A frequently-proposed alternative to arm's-length principle-based transfer pricing rules is
1783:
have been formally adopted by many European Union countries with little or no modification.
4570:
OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations 2017
4520:
3736:
3491:
Several websites provide overviews of transfer pricing regulations by country, such as the
2808:. OECD/G20 Base Erosion and Profit Shifting Project. OECD Publishing, Paris. October 2015.
2759:. OECD/G20 Base Erosion and Profit Shifting Project. OECD Publishing, Paris. October 2015.
2418:
1602:
1567:
1542:
1422:
1402:
569:
246:
107:
2882:
2627:
2621:
1739:, a non-profit research and advocacy group focused on countering illicit financial flows.
8:
3762:
Aligning Transfer Pricing Outcomes with Value Creation, Actions 8-10 - 2015 Final Reports
3454:
3017:
2959:
Services by Thompson RIA and Wolters Kluwer: search "transfer pricing" on their websites
2756:
Aligning Transfer Pricing Outcomes with Value Creation, Actions 8-10 - 2015 Final Reports
2564:
2318:
1819:
gold (one ounce of 10 carat gold would be half the price of one ounce of 20 carat gold).
1728:
1622:
1522:
1517:
1462:
1447:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1372:
1362:
1357:
1341:
1211:
1157:
960:
468:
20:
4456:"Between Formulary Apportionment and the OECD Guidelines: A Proposal for Reconciliation"
4068:. A second threshold based on the relative magnitude of the adjustment may also applyl.
2328:
transactions/intra-group services and a new approach to transfer pricing documentation.
1701:
from what would have been charged by unrelated enterprises dealing at arm’s length (the
3478:
3351:"Guidance on the Implementation of Country-by-Country Reporting: BEPS Action 13 - OECD"
2831:
2782:
2721:
2660:
2532:
2523:
1796:
the contractual terms of the transaction, either formalized in written contract or not;
1597:
1587:
1572:
1562:
1537:
1487:
1452:
1442:
1412:
1397:
1392:
1247:
1162:
950:
914:
835:
714:
432:
70:
4505:
4488:
2639:
2633:
2366:
1713:
OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations
4065:
3422:
3330:
3304:
3265:
3167:
3023:
2993:
2950:
2940:
2879:
2817:
2768:
2707:
2598:
2434:
1670:
1512:
1497:
1492:
1467:
1417:
1217:
928:
880:
820:
736:
677:
389:
356:
162:
16:
Rules and methods for pricing transactions between enterprises under common ownership
4640:
4579:
4500:
4161:
2985:
2809:
2760:
2699:
2465:
2414:
1552:
1477:
1083:
1028:
840:
808:
682:
536:
287:
4613:
4192:
3555:
2916:
1931:
Gross margin method: similar to resale price method, recognised in a few systems.
4455:
4330:
4168:
3539:
3519:
3499:
2695:
Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations
2446:
2148:
1646:
1262:
1120:
1115:
850:
813:
724:
689:
591:
515:
351:
311:
277:
187:
177:
172:
167:
85:
4428:
4090:
2934:
2495:
2442:
1205:
1177:
1152:
1013:
855:
650:
586:
484:
422:
326:
321:
304:
282:
4489:"Comparison of European, Canadian and U.S. Formula Apportionment on Real Data"
4634:
3269:
3171:
2813:
2764:
2543:
2518:
2479:
2450:
2438:
1716:
in most respects, although their rules can differ on some important details.
1277:
945:
870:
761:
694:
628:
596:
463:
405:
366:
346:
316:
231:
152:
147:
122:
112:
54:
3562:, Canada. Note that OECD Guidelines leave this issue to member governments.
2393:
1658:
1172:
955:
924:
895:
875:
766:
751:
731:
645:
640:
442:
236:
205:
2422:
1167:
905:
865:
783:
719:
665:
601:
427:
417:
361:
241:
142:
137:
95:
80:
2989:
2703:
2264: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1748:
1272:
1242:
1125:
1110:
1033:
965:
933:
885:
860:
845:
746:
741:
709:
635:
341:
336:
157:
117:
63:
4625:
1921:
1760:
1105:
1023:
1018:
704:
699:
510:
437:
127:
4306:
2897:
Practical Manual on Transfer Pricing for Developing Countries (2013)
2239:
3016:
Cooper, Joel; Fox, Randall; Loeprick, Jan; Mohindra, Komal (2016).
2748:
2679:
Transfer Pricing Regulations 2012 - Federal Inland Revenue Service
2640:
TPM 09 - Reasonable efforts under section 247 of the Income Tax Act
2410:
2367:
Agreements between taxpayers and governments and dispute resolution
1267:
1235:
919:
909:
830:
825:
798:
771:
581:
331:
272:
267:
100:
4352:"China Releases New Draft of Transfer Pricing Documentation Rules"
2860:
2401:
The discussion in this section explains an economic theory behind
1872:
3089:"The Year in Review: The Year of the Many Arm's-Length Standards"
2464:, the optimum level of output is that where marginal cost equals
2454:
2147:
royalty is actually paid or not. This requirement may result in
1078:
900:
803:
793:
132:
90:
3791:
OECD Guidelines 2.14-2.31, 26 CFR 1.482-3(c), 26 CFR 1.482-9(d).
2929:
https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-apa/apa_training_oecd_guidelines.pdf
1641:
1287:
1098:
1093:
1088:
890:
778:
3782:
OECD Guidelines 2.32-48, 26 CFR 1.482-3(d), 26 CFR 1.482-9(e).
2507:
2151:
on deemed payments for use of intangible property in the U.S.
1941:
transactions may not be reliable. These methods may include:
3668:
OECD Guidelines 1.20-1.27, 26 CFR 1.482-1(d)(3)(i) and (iii).
2744:, a useful cross reference to guidance in each member country
1899:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1282:
1257:
1252:
1199:
1071:
3300:
Measuring and Monitoring BEPS, Action 11 - 2015 Final Report
2303:
General transfer pricing principles, including comparability
2634:
TPM 07 - Referrals to the Transfer Pricing Review Committee
2622:
Information Circular 87-2R - International Transfer Pricing
1706:
1966:
3220:. Washington, DC: Americans for Tax Fairness. p. 12.
3015:
2309:
Advance pricing and cost sharing agreement administration
37:
4295:
Transfer pricing and developing countries, 15. July 2011
3589:
OECD Guidelines 1.36-1.41. and 26 CFR 1.482-1(f)(2)(ii).
2939:
Feinschreiber, Robert: Transfer Pricing Methods, 2004,
3745:
Australian Taxation Office (ATO) Taxation Ruling 97/20
3737:
Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) Information Circular 87-2R
2548:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
2453:, and (in many cases) simple lack of attention to the
3677:
OECD Guidelines 1.28, 1.29, 26 CFR 1.482-1(d)(3)(ii).
3580:
OECD Guidelines 1.49-1.51; 26 CFR 1.482-1(f)(2)(iii).
2585:
1002:
European Union Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base
2141:
2093:
2483:
Transfer pricing with a competitive external market
3642:OECD Guidelines 2022 1.33-1.36; 26 CFR 1.482-1(d).
3303:. Paris: OECD Publishing. 2015. pp. 151–156.
3193:"Corporations to Get Tax Holiday? You're Kidding?"
2499:Transfer pricing with an imperfect external market
2175:
3876:OECD Guidelines 3.43, 3.44, 26 CFR 1.482-1(e)(2).
1813:
4632:
3479:"Trade Misinvoicing, Global Financial Integrity"
3329:. Paris: OECD Publishing. 2013. pp. 20–21.
4029:OECD Guidelines 8.16, 8.17, 26 CFR 1.482-7T(c).
3686:OECD Guidelines 1.30, 26 CFR 1.482-1(d)(3)(iv).
3607:For a history of the earlier OECD efforts, see
3326:Action Plan on Base Erosion and Profit Shifting
1873:Market level, economic conditions and geography
4056:OECD Guidelines 8.31-8.39, 26 CFR 1.482-7T(g).
3704:OECD Guidelines 1.68-1.70, 26 CFR 1.482-1(c),
3022:. Washington, DC: World Bank. pp. 18–21.
2199:adjustment is generally on the tax authority.
2128:
2046:
1912:
4604:China's new transfer pricing regulations 2009
4047:OECD Guidelines 8.8, 8.9, 26 CFR 1.482-7T(e).
3893:
3891:
1979:
1678:
4472:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4101:) regulations together exceed 120,000 words.
3571:OECD Guidelines 1.45, 41; 26 CFR 1.482-1(e).
3423:"October | 2015 | The BEPS Monitoring Group"
3215:
2076:
4614:Customs vs Tax agencies in transfer pricing
4020:OECD Guidelines 8.9, 26 CFR 1.482-7T(b)(4).
3867:OECD Guidelines 3.41, 26 CFR 1.482-5(b)(4).
3858:OECD Guidelines 3.43, 26 CFR 1.482-5(b)(2).
3633:OECD Guidelines 1.15, 26 CFR 1.482-1(d)(2).
3218:"Gilead Sciences: Price Gouger, Tax Dodger"
2508:Alternative approaches to profit allocation
2300:Required taxpayer filings and documentation
2229:
3888:
3255:
3065:"Transfer Pricing Country Profiles - OECD"
2617:Section 247 of the Income Tax Act (Canada)
2166:
2154:
2059:
1900:Comparable uncontrolled price (CUP) method
1685:
1671:
4504:
2747:Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS),
2528:Barclays Bank PLC v. Franchise Tax Board,
2306:Guidelines on how to conduct examinations
2280:Learn how and when to remove this message
2221:Transfer pricing and developing countries
1976:circumstances of the relevant countries.
1194:Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy
4486:
3957:OECD Guidelines 7.33, 26 CFR 1.482-9(b).
3511:See, e.g., OECD Guidelines 1.1 et seq.,
2494:
2478:
2397:Transfer pricing with no external market
2392:
2215:In 2002, the European Union created the
2110:
4038:OECD Guidelines 8.13-8.18, 1.482-7T(c).
3216:Rice, William; Clemente, Frank (2016).
2659:Income Tax Department's compilation of
1967:Tested party and profit level indicator
1935:
4633:
4599:OECD Transfer Pricing Country Profiles
4392:China Circular 2 Art. 14 (iv) and (v).
4345:
4343:
4148:
4146:
3190:
1822:
3764:("OECD actions 8-10") at para. 6.146.
3609:paper presented to the United Nations
3157:
2344:
4454:S., Avi-Yonah, Reuven (2010-01-01).
3917:OECD Guidelines 7.5, 26 CFR 1.482-9.
3059:
3057:
3011:
3009:
2262:adding citations to reliable sources
2233:
2031:pricing rules or special CSA rules.
1881:
4593:2009 Global Transfer Pricing survey
4585:2010 Global Transfer Pricing survey
4349:
4340:
4143:
3695:OECD Guidelines 2.5, 26 CFR 1.482-.
3256:Confessore, Nicholas (2016-11-30).
2542:Because countries impose different
2462:marginal price determination theory
1890:
1859:Company- or industry-specific items
13:
4609:IRS transfer pricing documentation
4453:
3093:85 Tax Notes Int'l 25 (2017-01-02)
2586:Reading and overall reference list
2388:
2331:
14:
4667:
4563:
3773:OECD actions 8-10 at para. 6.153.
3427:bepsmonitoringgroup.wordpress.com
3160:"Shifting profits across borders"
3054:
3036:
3006:
2969:
2742:Transfer Pricing Country Profiles
2357:
2142:Commensurate with income standard
2094:Cost plus and resale price issues
2043:or market capitalization models.
1009:Global minimum corporate tax rate
4546:
4537:
4513:
4480:
4447:
4438:
4417:
4404:
4395:
4386:
4377:
4368:
4331:State Administration of Taxation
4122:26 CFR 1.482-3(c)(2) and (d)(2).
3885:OECD Chapter VI, 26 CFR 1.482-4.
2984:. Paris: OECD Publishing. 2010.
2560:Base erosion and profit shifting
2238:
2202:
2193:
1863:
1850:Market and entrepreneurial risks
1786:
1652:
1640:
474:Base erosion and profit shifting
44:
25:Base erosion and profit shifting
4575:OECD transfer pricing resources
4323:
4299:
4288:
4279:
4270:
4261:
4248:
4239:
4230:
4221:
4212:
4202:
4186:
4174:
4155:
4134:
4125:
4116:
4104:
4083:
4071:
4059:
4050:
4041:
4032:
4023:
4014:
4005:
3995:
3986:
3973:
3960:
3951:
3942:
3929:
3920:
3911:
3879:
3870:
3861:
3852:
3843:
3834:
3825:
3812:
3803:
3794:
3785:
3776:
3767:
3754:
3729:
3720:
3711:
3698:
3689:
3680:
3671:
3662:
3645:
3636:
3627:
3614:
3601:
3592:
3583:
3574:
3565:
3544:
3525:
3505:
3485:
3471:
3440:
3415:
3391:
3367:
3343:
3317:
3291:
3282:
3249:
3224:
3209:
3184:
3151:
3148:OECD Guidelines 0.18, 4.1-4.168
3142:
3133:
2859:Tax Code of Russian Federation
2249:needs additional citations for
2217:EU Joint Transfer Pricing Forum
2176:Transactional net margin method
2013:
1949:Transactional net margin method
252:Optimal capital income taxation
4493:Procedia Economics and Finance
3906:, 410 F.2d 1233 (Ct.Cl., 1969)
3124:
3115:
3106:
3081:
3045:
2313:Controlled foreign corporation
2119:
1841:Transportation and warehousing
1814:Nature of property or services
1332:List of countries by tax rates
1:
4506:10.1016/S2212-5671(14)00350-5
4267:OECD Guidelines 1.28-29, 1.37
2963:
1742:
757:Natural resources consumption
4620:Transfer Pricing Litigations
4383:China Circular 2 Art. 13-20.
3502:on the TP analytics website.
2378:advance pricing arrangements
1856:Financial and currency risks
607:United States as a tax haven
7:
4487:Krchniva, Katerina (2014).
4431:; China Circular 2 Art. 46
4401:China Circular 2 Art. 9-10.
3657:26 CFR 1.482-9(c)(2)(ii)(A)
3653:26 CFR 1.482-3(b)(2)(ii)(A)
3651:OECD Guidelines 1.19, 2.7,
3258:"How to Hide $ 400 Million"
2883:Transfer Pricing INTM430000
2872:Transfer pricing statute:
2553:
2129:Documentation and penalties
2047:Penalties and documentation
1988:
1913:Other transactional methods
10:
4672:
4423:See OECD Guidelines 4.124
4410:China Circular 2 Art. 64,
4245:OECD Guidelines 1.31-1.35.
4181:26 CFR 1.6662-6(d)(2)(iii)
3818:OECD Guidelines 3.5-3.25,
3809:OECD Guidelines 3.26-3.33.
3726:OECD Guidelines 2.3, 2.14.
3158:Sikka, Prem (2009-02-12).
2665:Domestic Transfer Pricing
2427:multinational corporations
2374:advance pricing agreements
1980:Intangible property issues
1835:Manufacturing and assembly
1737:Global Financial Integrity
521:Offshore financial centres
411:Repatriation tax avoidance
18:
4444:OECD Guidelines 1.16-1.32
4374:China Circular 2 Art. 11.
4350:Yao, Rainy (2015-10-23).
4276:OECD Guidelines 1.45-1.48
4227:OECD Guidelines 3.50-3.51
4091:26 CFR 1.482-0 through -8
4089:basic rules through 2001
3121:OECD Guidelines 1.47-1.48
2927:IRS view on OECD rules:
2077:Comparable profits method
2071:nonrecognition provisions
1847:Product obsolescence risk
1838:Marketing and advertising
986:Financial transaction tax
76:Property tax equalization
4307:"Home - TransferPricing"
3970:., 26 CFR 1.482-9(b)(2).
3926:OECD Guidelines 7.5-7.18
3598:TD 8552, 1994-2 C.B. 93.
3533:26 CFR 1.482-1(f)(1)(i).
3130:OECD Guidelines 6.1-6.39
2923:26 CFR 1.482-0 through 9
2814:10.1787/9789264241480-en
2765:10.1787/9789264241244-en
2570:Double Irish arrangement
2403:optimal transfer pricing
2230:China specific tax rules
2184:
2067:Internal Revenue Service
1722:transfer pricing methods
1337:Tax revenue to GDP ratio
996:Currency transaction tax
577:Liechtenstein tax affair
4646:Competition (economics)
4093:plus the cost sharing (
2514:formulary apportionment
2431:performance measurement
2167:Comparability standards
2155:OECD specific tax rules
2060:U.S. specific tax rules
1044:Permanent establishment
1039:Exchange of Information
542:Financial Secrecy Index
193:Medical savings account
4651:International taxation
4626:World Tax Organization
3620:OECD Guidelines 1.15,
3554:., law of the U.S. at
2661:Transfer Pricing Rules
2580:Ireland as a tax haven
2575:Funds transfer pricing
2500:
2484:
2398:
2323:General anti-avoidance
2297:Administrative matters
1703:arm’s-length principle
939:Vehicle miles traveled
558:Ireland as a tax haven
372:Private tax collection
4254:OECD Guidelines 3.26
3966:OECD Guidelines 7.29
3935:OECD Guidelines 7.19
3849:26 CFR 1.482-6(c)(3).
3840:26 CFR 1.482-6(c)(2).
3717:OECD Guidelines 2.13.
3624:., 26 CFR 1.482-1(d).
3191:Taibbi, Matt (2011).
2498:
2482:
2396:
2210:
2111:Terms between parties
612:Panama as a tax haven
564:Ireland v. Commission
532:Conduit and sink OFCs
527:Offshore magic circle
448:Unreported employment
4285:OECD Guidelines 4.4.
4218:OECD Guidelines 2.5.
3992:OECD Guidelines 8.3.
3831:OECD Guidelines 3.5.
3112:OECD Guidelines 0.11
3051:OECD Guidelines 0.15
3042:World Bank pp. 35-51
2880:International Manual
2474:net marginal revenue
2258:improve this article
1936:Profit-based methods
1608:United Arab Emirates
1350:Individual Countries
1059:Foreign revenue rule
851:Inheritance (estate)
570:Leprechaun economics
4590:Ernst & Young *
4236:OECD Guidelines 2.8
3979:OECD Chapter VIII,
3897:For the U.S., see,
3139:OECD Guidelines 2.9
2990:10.1787/tpg-2010-en
2704:10.1787/tpg-2010-en
2565:Corporate tax haven
2544:corporate tax rates
2382:competent authority
2319:Thin capitalization
1832:Product development
1823:Functions and risks
1769:interquartile range
1729:transfer mispricing
1647:Business portal
1342:Tax rates in Europe
1212:Tax Justice Network
1158:Dhammika Dharmapala
661:Airport improvement
469:Transfer mispricing
260:Distribution of Tax
32:Part of a series on
21:Transfer mispricing
4429:Rev. Proc. 2008-31
4197:26 CFR 1.367(d)-1T
4167:2010-04-26 at the
4140:26 CFR 1.482-9(c).
3939:., 26 CFR 1.482-9.
3735:See, for example,
3538:2012-10-06 at the
3518:2012-10-06 at the
3498:2011-10-20 at the
3493:Country References
3262:The New York Times
2935:Rev. Proc. 2008-31
2853:Russian Federation
2839:Unknown parameter
2790:Unknown parameter
2729:Unknown parameter
2533:economies of scale
2524:U.S. Supreme Court
2501:
2485:
2435:accounting systems
2433:, capabilities of
2399:
2345:General principles
1248:Eight per thousand
1163:James R. Hines Jr.
1054:European Union FTT
71:Government revenue
4580:Ernst & Young
4131:26 CFR 1.482-9(c)
3904:Young and Rubicam
3513:26 CFR 1.482-1(b)
3336:978-92-64-20271-9
3310:978-92-64-24134-3
3029:978-1-4648-0970-5
2999:978-92-64-09018-7
2955:978-1-60231-001-8
2945:978-0-471-57360-9
2749:OECD landing page
2290:
2289:
2282:
1882:Testing of prices
1695:
1694:
1630:
1629:
1226:
1225:
1218:Tax Policy Center
961:Negative (income)
737:Environmental tax
619:
618:
537:Financial centres
357:Tax investigation
295:
294:
163:Tax harmonization
4663:
4558:
4557:
4550:
4544:
4541:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4531:
4517:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4484:
4478:
4477:
4471:
4463:
4451:
4445:
4442:
4436:
4421:
4415:
4408:
4402:
4399:
4393:
4390:
4384:
4381:
4375:
4372:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4362:
4347:
4338:
4327:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4317:
4303:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4283:
4277:
4274:
4268:
4265:
4259:
4252:
4246:
4243:
4237:
4234:
4228:
4225:
4219:
4216:
4210:
4206:
4200:
4190:
4184:
4178:
4172:
4159:
4153:
4150:
4141:
4138:
4132:
4129:
4123:
4120:
4114:
4108:
4102:
4097:) and services (
4087:
4081:
4075:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4054:
4048:
4045:
4039:
4036:
4030:
4027:
4021:
4018:
4012:
4009:
4003:
3999:
3993:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3971:
3964:
3958:
3955:
3949:
3946:
3940:
3933:
3927:
3924:
3918:
3915:
3909:
3895:
3886:
3883:
3877:
3874:
3868:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3850:
3847:
3841:
3838:
3832:
3829:
3823:
3816:
3810:
3807:
3801:
3798:
3792:
3789:
3783:
3780:
3774:
3771:
3765:
3758:
3752:
3741:paragraphs 52-53
3733:
3727:
3724:
3718:
3715:
3709:
3702:
3696:
3693:
3687:
3684:
3678:
3675:
3669:
3666:
3660:
3649:
3643:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3625:
3618:
3612:
3605:
3599:
3596:
3590:
3587:
3581:
3578:
3572:
3569:
3563:
3548:
3542:
3529:
3523:
3509:
3503:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3475:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3465:
3459:
3453:. Archived from
3452:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3434:
3429:. 5 October 2015
3419:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3276:
3253:
3247:
3246:
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3243:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3188:
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3181:
3179:
3178:
3155:
3149:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3131:
3128:
3122:
3119:
3113:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3101:
3100:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3061:
3052:
3049:
3043:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3013:
3004:
3003:
2973:
2933:APA Procedure:
2904:
2902:
2848:
2842:
2837:
2835:
2827:
2799:
2793:
2788:
2786:
2778:
2738:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2717:
2466:marginal revenue
2451:taxes on profits
2285:
2278:
2274:
2271:
2265:
2242:
2234:
1891:Best method rule
1698:Transfer pricing
1687:
1680:
1673:
1659:Money portal
1657:
1656:
1655:
1645:
1644:
1321:
1320:
1142:
1141:
1049:Transfer pricing
1029:Tax equalization
1003:
946:Corporate profit
582:Luxembourg Leaks
516:Corporate havens
395:
394:
211:
210:
48:
29:
28:
4671:
4670:
4666:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4631:
4630:
4566:
4561:
4552:
4551:
4547:
4542:
4538:
4529:
4527:
4519:
4518:
4514:
4485:
4481:
4465:
4464:
4452:
4448:
4443:
4439:
4422:
4418:
4409:
4405:
4400:
4396:
4391:
4387:
4382:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4360:
4358:
4348:
4341:
4328:
4324:
4315:
4313:
4311:TransferPricing
4305:
4304:
4300:
4293:
4289:
4284:
4280:
4275:
4271:
4266:
4262:
4253:
4249:
4244:
4240:
4235:
4231:
4226:
4222:
4217:
4213:
4207:
4203:
4191:
4187:
4179:
4175:
4169:Wayback Machine
4160:
4156:
4151:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4130:
4126:
4121:
4117:
4109:
4105:
4088:
4084:
4078:26 CFR 1.6662-6
4076:
4072:
4064:
4060:
4055:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4015:
4010:
4006:
4000:
3996:
3991:
3987:
3981:26 CFR 1.482-7T
3978:
3974:
3965:
3961:
3956:
3952:
3947:
3943:
3934:
3930:
3925:
3921:
3916:
3912:
3896:
3889:
3884:
3880:
3875:
3871:
3866:
3862:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3817:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3800:26 CFR 1.482-5.
3799:
3795:
3790:
3786:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3759:
3755:
3734:
3730:
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3646:
3641:
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3619:
3615:
3606:
3602:
3597:
3593:
3588:
3584:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3549:
3545:
3540:Wayback Machine
3530:
3526:
3520:Wayback Machine
3510:
3506:
3500:Wayback Machine
3490:
3486:
3477:
3476:
3472:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3446:
3445:
3441:
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3405:
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3201:
3199:
3189:
3185:
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3156:
3152:
3147:
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3138:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3098:
3096:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3073:
3071:
3063:
3062:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3030:
3014:
3007:
3000:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2900:
2894:
2874:ICTA88/Sch 28AA
2840:
2838:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2802:
2791:
2789:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2753:
2730:
2728:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2692:
2588:
2556:
2510:
2391:
2389:Economic theory
2369:
2360:
2347:
2334:
2286:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2255:
2243:
2232:
2213:
2205:
2196:
2187:
2178:
2169:
2157:
2149:withholding tax
2144:
2131:
2122:
2113:
2096:
2079:
2062:
2049:
2016:
1991:
1982:
1969:
1938:
1915:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1853:Collection risk
1825:
1816:
1789:
1745:
1691:
1653:
1651:
1639:
1632:
1631:
1318:
1308:
1307:
1263:Fiscus Judaicus
1238:
1228:
1227:
1186:Advocacy groups
1139:
1131:
1130:
1121:Trade agreement
1116:Free-trade zone
1074:
1064:
1063:
1001:
981:
971:
970:
631:
621:
620:
592:Paradise Papers
433:Debtors' prison
392:
382:
381:
352:Tax preparation
312:Revenue service
307:
297:
296:
208:
198:
197:
178:Double taxation
173:Tax withholding
168:Tax competition
86:Non-tax revenue
66:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4669:
4659:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4629:
4628:
4623:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4588:
4577:
4572:
4565:
4564:External links
4562:
4560:
4559:
4545:
4536:
4512:
4479:
4446:
4437:
4416:
4403:
4394:
4385:
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4367:
4356:China Briefing
4339:
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4298:
4287:
4278:
4269:
4260:
4247:
4238:
4229:
4220:
4211:
4201:
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4173:
4154:
4152:26 CFR 1.482-.
4142:
4133:
4124:
4115:
4111:26 CFR 1.482-5
4103:
4099:26 CFR 1.482-9
4095:26 CFR 1.482-7
4082:
4070:
4058:
4049:
4040:
4031:
4022:
4013:
4004:
3994:
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3972:
3959:
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3928:
3919:
3910:
3908:, PLR 8806002.
3887:
3878:
3869:
3860:
3851:
3842:
3833:
3824:
3820:26 CFR 1.482-6
3811:
3802:
3793:
3784:
3775:
3766:
3753:
3749:paragraph 3.15
3728:
3719:
3710:
3706:26 CFR 1.482-8
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3281:
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3208:
3183:
3150:
3141:
3132:
3123:
3114:
3105:
3095:. Tax Analysts
3080:
3053:
3044:
3035:
3028:
3005:
2998:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2957:
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2931:
2925:
2921:Regulations:
2919:
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2889:United Nations
2886:
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2876:
2866:United Kingdom
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2443:customs duties
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2015:
2012:
1990:
1987:
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1800:
1797:
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1662:
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1649:
1634:
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1628:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1613:United Kingdom
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
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1565:
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1239:
1234:
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1224:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1215:
1209:
1206:Tax Foundation
1203:
1197:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1178:Gabriel Zucman
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1153:Mihir A. Desai
1147:
1146:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
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1075:
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1062:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1014:Robin Hood tax
1011:
1006:
998:
993:
988:
982:
977:
976:
973:
972:
969:
968:
963:
958:
953:
951:Excess profits
948:
943:
942:
941:
936:
931:
922:
917:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
843:
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836:Gross receipts
833:
828:
823:
818:
817:
816:
811:
806:
801:
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791:
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615:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
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587:Offshore Leaks
584:
579:
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572:
567:
552:
551:
550:Major examples
547:
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539:
534:
529:
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518:
513:
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504:
500:
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485:Dutch Sandwich
482:
477:
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466:
458:
457:
453:
452:
451:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
425:
423:Tax resistance
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400:
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393:
388:
387:
384:
383:
380:
379:
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369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
327:Taxable income
324:
322:Tax assessment
319:
314:
308:
303:
302:
299:
298:
293:
292:
291:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
262:
261:
257:
256:
255:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
216:
215:
214:General Theory
209:
204:
203:
200:
199:
196:
195:
190:
185:
183:Representation
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
104:
103:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
67:
62:
61:
58:
57:
50:
49:
41:
40:
34:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4668:
4657:
4656:Tax avoidance
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4638:
4636:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4594:
4589:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4555:
4549:
4540:
4526:
4522:
4516:
4507:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4483:
4475:
4469:
4461:
4457:
4450:
4441:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4420:
4413:
4407:
4398:
4389:
4380:
4371:
4357:
4353:
4346:
4344:
4336:
4332:
4326:
4312:
4308:
4302:
4296:
4291:
4282:
4273:
4264:
4257:
4251:
4242:
4233:
4224:
4215:
4205:
4198:
4194:
4193:26 USC 367(d)
4189:
4182:
4177:
4170:
4166:
4163:
4158:
4149:
4147:
4137:
4128:
4119:
4112:
4107:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4086:
4079:
4074:
4067:
4062:
4053:
4044:
4035:
4026:
4017:
4008:
3998:
3989:
3982:
3976:
3969:
3963:
3954:
3945:
3938:
3932:
3923:
3914:
3907:
3905:
3900:
3894:
3892:
3882:
3873:
3864:
3855:
3846:
3837:
3828:
3821:
3815:
3806:
3797:
3788:
3779:
3770:
3763:
3760:OECD (2015).
3757:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3732:
3723:
3714:
3707:
3701:
3692:
3683:
3674:
3665:
3658:
3654:
3648:
3639:
3630:
3623:
3617:
3610:
3604:
3595:
3586:
3577:
3568:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3528:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3508:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3488:
3480:
3474:
3460:on 2016-10-27
3456:
3449:
3443:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3404:
3400:
3394:
3380:
3379:OECD iLibrary
3376:
3370:
3356:
3352:
3346:
3338:
3332:
3328:
3327:
3320:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3301:
3294:
3285:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3252:
3237:
3236:The Economist
3233:
3232:"Uncontained"
3227:
3219:
3212:
3198:
3197:Rolling Stone
3194:
3187:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3145:
3136:
3127:
3118:
3109:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3070:
3066:
3060:
3058:
3048:
3039:
3031:
3025:
3021:
3020:
3012:
3010:
3001:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2982:
2979:
2972:
2968:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:United States
2899:
2898:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2890:
2884:
2881:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2846:
2841:|agency=
2833:
2825:
2823:9789264241466
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2806:
2801:
2797:
2792:|agency=
2784:
2776:
2774:9789264241237
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2731:|agency=
2723:
2715:
2713:9789264090330
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2668:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2648:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2629:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2604:
2603:90-411-3270-8
2600:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:International
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2534:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2519:amicus curiae
2515:
2505:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2481:
2477:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2439:import quotas
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2423:externalities
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2395:
2386:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2364:
2355:
2351:
2342:
2338:
2332:Documentation
2329:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2284:
2281:
2273:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2247:This section
2245:
2241:
2236:
2235:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2208:
2203:Documentation
2200:
2191:
2182:
2173:
2164:
2160:
2152:
2150:
2139:
2135:
2126:
2117:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2057:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1986:
1977:
1973:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1910:
1906:
1897:
1888:
1879:
1870:
1864:Terms of sale
1858:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1820:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1787:Comparability
1784:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1770:
1764:
1762:
1756:
1752:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1732:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1688:
1683:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1650:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1618:United States
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1324:All Countries
1323:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1311:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1278:Tolerance tax
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1237:
1232:
1231:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1143:
1135:
1134:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1068:
1067:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1004:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
983:
980:
979:International
975:
974:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
912:
911:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
881:Resource rent
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
781:
780:
777:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
739:
738:
735:
733:
730:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
692:
691:
688:
684:
681:
680:
679:
678:Capital gains
676:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
658:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
633:
630:
625:
624:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
597:Panama Papers
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
571:
568:
566:
565:
561:
560:
559:
556:
555:
554:
553:
549:
548:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
508:
507:
506:
502:
501:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
464:Tax inversion
462:
461:
460:
459:
455:
454:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
412:
409:
408:
407:
406:Tax avoidance
404:
403:
402:
401:
397:
396:
391:
390:Noncompliance
386:
385:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
367:Tax collector
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
347:Tax residence
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
317:Revenue stamp
315:
313:
310:
309:
306:
301:
300:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
265:
264:
263:
259:
258:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
232:Tax incidence
230:
228:
227:Excess burden
225:
223:
220:
219:
218:
217:
213:
212:
207:
202:
201:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
153:Tax incentive
151:
149:
148:Tax advantage
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
108:Tax threshold
106:
102:
99:
98:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
68:
65:
60:
59:
56:
55:fiscal policy
53:An aspect of
52:
51:
47:
43:
42:
39:
36:
35:
31:
30:
26:
22:
4619:
4592:
4584:
4548:
4539:
4528:. Retrieved
4524:
4515:
4496:
4492:
4482:
4468:cite journal
4459:
4449:
4440:
4432:
4427:.; U.S. IRS
4424:
4419:
4411:
4406:
4397:
4388:
4379:
4370:
4359:. Retrieved
4355:
4325:
4314:. Retrieved
4310:
4301:
4290:
4281:
4272:
4263:
4255:
4250:
4241:
4232:
4223:
4214:
4204:
4188:
4176:
4157:
4136:
4127:
4118:
4106:
4085:
4073:
4061:
4052:
4043:
4034:
4025:
4016:
4007:
3997:
3988:
3975:
3967:
3962:
3953:
3944:
3936:
3931:
3922:
3913:
3903:
3898:
3881:
3872:
3863:
3854:
3845:
3836:
3827:
3814:
3805:
3796:
3787:
3778:
3769:
3756:
3731:
3722:
3713:
3700:
3691:
3682:
3673:
3664:
3647:
3638:
3629:
3621:
3616:
3603:
3594:
3585:
3576:
3567:
3551:
3546:
3527:
3507:
3487:
3473:
3462:. Retrieved
3455:the original
3442:
3431:. Retrieved
3426:
3417:
3406:. Retrieved
3403:www.oecd.org
3402:
3393:
3382:. Retrieved
3378:
3369:
3358:. Retrieved
3355:www.oecd.org
3354:
3345:
3325:
3319:
3299:
3293:
3284:
3273:. Retrieved
3261:
3251:
3240:. Retrieved
3238:. 2014-05-03
3235:
3226:
3211:
3200:. Retrieved
3196:
3186:
3175:. Retrieved
3164:The Guardian
3163:
3153:
3144:
3135:
3126:
3117:
3108:
3097:. Retrieved
3092:
3083:
3072:. Retrieved
3069:www.oecd.org
3068:
3047:
3038:
3018:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2908:
2907:
2896:
2888:
2887:
2865:
2864:
2852:
2851:
2804:
2755:
2694:
2685:
2684:
2672:
2671:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2645:
2609:
2608:
2590:
2589:
2541:
2537:
2527:
2517:
2511:
2502:
2490:
2486:
2470:
2459:
2429:, including
2415:capital risk
2406:
2402:
2400:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2361:
2358:Cost sharing
2352:
2348:
2339:
2335:
2326:
2315:examinations
2291:
2276:
2267:
2256:Please help
2251:verification
2248:
2225:
2220:
2214:
2206:
2197:
2188:
2179:
2170:
2161:
2158:
2145:
2136:
2132:
2123:
2114:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2063:
2054:
2050:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2023:by country.
2021:
2017:
2014:Cost sharing
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1983:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1957:
1939:
1928:percentages.
1916:
1907:
1903:
1894:
1885:
1876:
1867:
1826:
1817:
1790:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1733:
1726:
1718:
1712:
1697:
1696:
1578:South Africa
1173:Joel Slemrod
1048:
841:Hypothecated
809:Sugary drink
683:Expatriation
562:
480:Double Irish
443:Black market
288:Proportional
237:Laffer curve
222:Price effect
4499:: 309–318.
4209:guidelines.
4162:26 USC 6662
3560:ICTA88/s770
3531:See, e.g.,
2419:development
2363:agreement.
2194:Adjustments
2120:Adjustments
1844:Credit risk
1780:White Paper
1710:follow the
1593:Switzerland
1558:Philippines
1533:New Zealand
1528:Netherlands
1168:Ronen Palan
906:User charge
725:Value-added
690:Consumption
602:Swiss Leaks
490:Single Malt
428:Tax shelter
418:Tax evasion
377:Tax farming
362:Tax shelter
278:Progressive
242:Optimal tax
143:Tax amnesty
138:Tax holiday
96:Tax bracket
81:Tax revenue
4635:Categories
4530:2017-03-01
4361:2016-06-30
4316:2018-01-30
4002:countries.
3556:26 USC 482
3464:2016-11-23
3433:2017-02-27
3408:2017-02-27
3384:2017-02-27
3360:2017-02-27
3275:2017-02-27
3242:2017-02-27
3202:2017-02-27
3177:2017-02-27
3099:2017-02-27
3074:2017-02-27
2980:para. 0.18
2964:References
2917:26 USC 482
2069:, nor are
1749:Kazakhstan
1743:In general
1503:Kazakhstan
1388:Bangladesh
1383:Azerbaijan
1316:By country
1273:Temple tax
1243:Church tax
1126:ATA Carnet
1111:Free trade
1106:Tariff war
1034:Tax treaty
915:Congestion
856:Land value
747:Eco-tariff
715:Television
671:Solidarity
651:Ad valorem
511:Tax havens
342:Tax shield
337:Tax refund
305:Collection
283:Regressive
158:Tax reform
19:See also:
4525:europa.eu
3270:0362-4331
3172:0261-3077
2843:ignored (
2832:cite book
2794:ignored (
2783:cite book
2733:ignored (
2722:cite book
2421:risk, no
2270:July 2010
1922:Cost-plus
1761:cost-plus
1583:Sri Lanka
1548:Palestine
1508:Lithuania
1473:Indonesia
1458:Hong Kong
1378:Australia
1368:Argentina
1236:Religious
1024:Spahn tax
1019:Tobin tax
871:Pigouvian
789:Cigarette
762:Severance
695:Departure
503:Locations
456:Corporate
438:Smuggling
206:Economics
128:Tax shift
123:Deduction
113:Exemption
4460:Articles
4165:Archived
4066:USC 6662
3611:in 2001.
3558:, UK at
3536:Archived
3516:Archived
3496:Archived
2667:Overview
2554:See also
2526:case of
1989:Services
1603:Tanzania
1568:Portugal
1543:Pakistan
1423:Colombia
1403:Bulgaria
1268:Leibzoll
1145:Academic
1138:Research
956:Windfall
896:Turnover
876:Property
826:Georgist
772:Stumpage
767:Steering
752:Landfill
732:Dividend
656:Aviation
646:Per unit
641:Indirect
332:Tax lien
268:Tax rate
247:Theories
101:Flat tax
64:Policies
38:Taxation
4641:Pricing
2673:Nigeria
2455:pricing
2407:optimal
1705:). The
1623:Uruguay
1523:Namibia
1518:Morocco
1483:Ireland
1463:Iceland
1448:Germany
1438:Finland
1433:Denmark
1428:Croatia
1373:Armenia
1363:Algeria
1358:Albania
1005:(CCCTB)
866:Payroll
821:General
814:Tobacco
784:Alcohol
720:Tourist
666:Landing
398:General
133:Tax cut
91:Tax law
4433:et seq
4425:et seq
4412:et seq
4256:et seq
3968:et seq
3937:et seq
3743:, and
3622:et seq
3333:
3307:
3268:
3170:
3026:
2996:
2953:
2943:
2915:Law:
2820:
2771:
2710:
2642:(2006)
2636:(2005)
2630:(2001)
2624:(1999)
2610:Canada
2601:
1598:Taiwan
1588:Sweden
1573:Russia
1563:Poland
1538:Norway
1488:Israel
1453:Greece
1443:France
1413:Canada
1398:Brazil
1393:Bhutan
1288:Kharaj
1196:(ITEP)
1099:Export
1094:Import
1089:Tariff
1079:Custom
966:Wealth
891:Surtax
886:Single
861:Luxury
846:Income
779:Excise
742:Carbon
636:Direct
523:(OFCs)
476:(BEPS)
188:Unions
118:Credit
3550:See,
3458:(PDF)
3451:(PDF)
2901:(PDF)
2878:HMRC
2653:India
2647:China
2460:From
2417:, no
2413:, no
2411:taxes
2405:with
2185:Terms
1869:etc.
1513:Malta
1498:Japan
1493:Italy
1468:India
1418:China
1303:Zakat
1298:Nisab
1293:Khums
1283:Jizya
1258:Tithe
1253:Teind
1214:(TJN)
1200:Oxfam
1072:Trade
991:ATTAC
710:Stamp
705:Sales
700:Hotel
629:Types
4474:link
4335:KPMG
4195:and
3899:e.g.
3331:ISBN
3305:ISBN
3266:ISSN
3168:ISSN
3024:ISBN
2994:ISBN
2951:ISBN
2941:ISBN
2845:help
2818:ISBN
2796:help
2769:ISBN
2735:help
2708:ISBN
2686:OECD
2599:ISBN
1707:OECD
1553:Peru
1478:Iran
1220:(US)
1208:(US)
1202:(UK)
1084:Duty
934:Toll
929:GNSS
925:Road
920:Fuel
831:Gift
799:Meat
495:CAIA
273:Flat
23:and
4501:doi
3747:at
3739:at
3552:e.g
2986:doi
2810:doi
2761:doi
2700:doi
2447:VAT
2376:or
2260:by
1806:and
1408:BVI
910:fee
901:Use
804:Sin
794:Fat
4637::
4523:.
4497:12
4495:.
4491:.
4470:}}
4466:{{
4458:.
4354:.
4342:^
4309:.
4145:^
3901:,
3890:^
3655:,
3425:.
3401:.
3377:.
3353:.
3264:.
3260:.
3234:.
3195:.
3166:.
3162:.
3091:.
3067:.
3056:^
3008:^
2992:.
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2868::
2855::
2836::
2834:}}
2830:{{
2816:.
2787::
2785:}}
2781:{{
2767:.
2726::
2724:}}
2720:{{
2706:.
2688::
2675::
2655::
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2593::
2457:.
2449:,
2445:,
2441:,
2437:,
2223:.
2211:EU
4582:*
4556:.
4533:.
4509:.
4503::
4476:)
4462:.
4435:.
4414:.
4364:.
4319:.
4258:.
4199:.
4183:.
4171:.
4113:.
4080:.
3983:.
3822:.
3751:.
3708:.
3659:.
3522:.
3481:.
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3387:.
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3205:.
3180:.
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3077:.
3032:.
3002:.
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2847:)
2826:.
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2798:)
2777:.
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908:/
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