Transition from Ming to Qing

6686: 6521: 6336:

abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing the Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing. When the emperor heard of this sudden attack he is said to have slashed his throne with a sword in anger. But the siege of Nanjing was relieved and Zheng Chenggong repelled, forcing Zheng to take refuge in the southeastern coastal province of

4410: 5582: 7101: 2305: 3903:. As they advanced toward Xi'an they were flanked by recent Ming defectors under Meng Qiaofang, and overrun with Bannermen. He Zhen's rebels were mainly bandits, and they continued operating out of small stockades in the forested, mountainous regions with 10 to 15 rebel families in every stockade, usually centered around a temple. They generally enjoyed popular support, and would retreat to the higher mountain safehouses upon receiving locals' notice of any military movements in the area. Groups of stockades congregated around a "King", who would grant commissions of Colonel or Major to other stockade leaders. They were finally pacified by forces led by 5893: 7421: 5005: 2738:. The Manchus had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the very large number of Han Chinese soldiers absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection. The Qing showed that the Manchus valued military skills in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. From 1618 to 1631 Manchus received Han Chinese defectors and their descendants became Han Bannermen and those killed in battle were commemorated as martyrs in biographies. 3547: 340: 6340:. Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements—though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and "slipped back" (Wakeman's phrase) to the ships which had brought them. Koxinga's forces were pursued to 392: 5098:

regional military commanders rather than a centralized fashion. This brought him at loggerheads with the Longwu Emperor. Famine also struck after drought and crops failed all along the southeastern coastal region, while Qing attacks on the Yangzi river delta had cut access to raw silk. In response, the Longwu emperor wanted to reconquer Huguang and Jiangxi provinces which were major producers of rice to help boost the southern Ming, but Zheng Zhilong refused to expand out of Fujian for fear of losing control of the regime.

11252: 7806: 381: 3484:, and a strong factional rivalry between Northern and Southern scholars ensued. Ming dynasty officials in the finance, appointments and military departments largely joined the new dynasty and formed the core of the Qing civil service, but not the staff of rites, music and literature (the Qing may not have prioritised these either). These defectors were responsible for easing the transition of government without major setbacks. A large proportion of military officials and civilian officials in the 308: 229: 7089: 6055: 1683:. Other factors include repeated military expeditions to the north, inflationary pressures caused by spending too much from the imperial treasury, natural disasters and epidemics of disease. Contributing further to the chaos was a peasant rebellion throughout the country in 1644 and a series of weak emperors. Ming power would hold out in what is now southern China for years, though eventually would be overtaken by the Qing forces. Other authors have linked the fall of the Ming with 1136: 1047: 1036: 1025: 972: 961: 922: 886: 875: 864: 853: 837: 811: 717: 676: 653: 250: 211: 3344: 328: 292: 4437:, sometimes entire families. Those who did not collaborate or commit suicide would have to join with bandits to resist the new regime. With the news of the fall of the capital back in 1644 and skyrocketing food prices, poor peasants had revolted against the local elite and indentured servitude, calling that "master and servant should address each other as brothers". They ransacked the villas and forced the wealthy to flee to the cities. Although the 6888: 7136:) together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united under the Qing state. To show that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhongwai yijia" (中外一家, "central areas and outer areas as one realm") or "neiwai yijia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior of great-walls as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the 1812: 1762: 6510: 6207: 7282:, and plague-infected corpses were the only food available to survivors. A massive drought in 1636 hit Huangpi amidst a series of natural disasters. Plague, locusts and famine spread all over. The plains and villages were hit by bandits and rebels, because starving refugees, orphans who had lost parents to disease as well as fired postal couriers and soldiers whose salary had been cut off turned into rebels in 1642 all over China. 3507:'s inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han Chinese bannermen. Later, some exceptions were made, allowing Han Chinese civilians who held government or commercial jobs to also reside in the inner city. The civilian government was flooded by Han Chinese Bannermen. The Six Boards President and other major positions were filled with Han Chinese Bannermen chosen by the Qing. 3855:) which organised households into "mutual responsibility" groups of 10 and 100, and appointing leaders who were responsible for arresting fugitives. It was also used, initially at least, to stop the populace from moving in restive zones, and to stop arms and horse trading. From 1648 to 1649 civilian arms and horses were seized outright, but afterwards these were allowed for approved households in mutual responsibility units. 1823: 5020: 3340:, to defect to his side in exchange for a high noble rank and title. Wu Sangui dallied for days before he decided to accept the rank and defect to Li Zicheng. Wu Sangui was on his way to formally capitulate and defect to Li Zicheng, but by that time Li Zicheng thought Wu Sangui's silence meant he had rejected the offer and ordered Wu Sangui's father to be beheaded. This caused Wu Sangui to defect to the Qing. 2884:

by an army that had only a fraction of Manchus, being multi-ethnic, with Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners. The political barrier was between the commoners made out of non-bannermen Han Chinese and the "conquest elite", made out of Han Chinese bannermen, nobles, and Mongols and Manchu. Ethnicity was not the determining factor. Han Chinese (Nikan) bannermen used banners of black color and

369: 6038:". Virtually all posts were filled by professional military officers of the Han Chinese Banners rather than Manchus or Han Chinese civilians. Han Chinese bannermen were the main force that subdued southern China. This made the Qing extremely dependent on the private armies of the autonomous Han Chinese banner nobles. The reliance on Han Chinese was made obvious in 1660 when the emperor ruled in favour of 7435: 25: 78: 2680: 7243:). However, the Qing encouraged settlements over larger portions of the empire since these regions offered the best opportunities to improve one's livelihood by clearing and farming large tracts. Economic growth in the middle and upper Yangtze regions complemented growth in the lower Yangtze, as more people began to move out of already crowded regions and into new lands of opportunity. 3324:, to agree with the decision and shoulder the responsibility of the decision. Wei Zaode refused to answer, so the Chongzhen Emperor rejected Li Zicheng's terms. Li Zicheng marched into the capital as Ming officials surrendered and defected. Li Zicheng still did not intend to kill the Chongzhen Emperor and the Ming Crown Prince, intending to recognise them as nobles of the new 6042:, a Han Chinese provincial censor who delivered a report criticizing Manchu military corruption, destroying the Manchu claim that Han Chinese officials should not be involved in military matters. This change was a reflection of the actual military importance of Han Chinese in the dynasty, as well as the determination of the Qing rulers not to allow the Manchu and Han Chinese 239: 3443: 4373:, but now that he fled without a fight and listened to traitors his small army could not act as a guard for the emperor. Huang Degong then said "I am willing to devote my life to you" after the emperor said he could not rely on him as a minister resentfully. Then a group of Qing Han Chinese and Banner soldiers showed up to Huang Degong's camp in 3328:. Li Zicheng lamented the death of the Chongzhen Emperor after discovering he committed suicide, saying that he had come to share power and rule together with him. Li Zicheng distrusted the Ming officials who defected to his side when the Ming fell, viewing them as the reason for the Ming demise. After declaring his own Shun dynasty in 2292:. The defeat of Ligdan Khan in 1634, in addition to winning the allegiance of the Southern Mongol hordes, brought a vast supply of horses to the Qing, while denying the same supply to the Ming. The Qing also captured the Great Seal of the Mongol Khans, giving them the opportunity to portray themselves as heirs of the 6023:. Infighting broke out between the forces of Li Dingguo and Sun Kewang. The Ming emperor, fearful that Sun intended to make himself emperor, asked Li Dingguo to liberate him. After Sun's forces were routed, he and his surviving troops defected to Hong Chengchou's Qing armies, giving the Qing their opening to strike. 2036:, were all handed over to the Later Jin by traitors and defectors. Fushun's commander surrendered after a single attack when promised that his troops and their families would not be enslaved or forced to change any of their customs (including hairstyle), but rather given high office. Shenyang fell with the aid of 6411:

dutifully complied with the prescribed procedures for Ming officials by regularly presenting reports and paying tribute to the absent Ming Emperor. His originally stated intentions for conquering Taiwan from the Dutch also included the desire to protect Chinese settlers in Taiwan from maltreatment by

2883:

Bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which unified China for the Qing. The Qing takeover was done by the multi-ethnic Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners which made up the Qing military. In 1644, Ming China was invaded

3177:

later told his officials how "it was really very comical" reading captured Ming military reports, because most were fabricated stories of victory. Meanwhile, rebel "bandits" continued advancing. After the fall of Songshan, amid the urging of his brother and sons (formerly also Ming generals) to join

5097:

in Japan quietly supported the Zheng clan's pro-Ming forces by quietly granting them access to mercenaries, weapons and other strategic materials. Zheng Zhilong drafted a plan entitled "Grand Strategy for ordering the country", in which he argued for the Southern Ming to reconquer territory through

3843:

In order to pacify the population, the Qing authorities placed care to appoint good local officials. These were mainly ex-Ming non-Bannermen local magistrates who collaborated; virtually all county-level posts were filled by non-banner Han Chinese, who outnumbered Bannermen officials 12-to-1. There

1791:

are sometimes described as a nomadic people, when in fact they were not nomads, but a sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, practiced hunting and mounted archery. Their main military formation was infantry wielding bows and arrows, swords, and pikes, while cavalry

6359:

executed his family causing him to defect to the Qing. Admiral Shi later led the Qing navy to victory over Koxinga's descendants. Koxinga implemented extremely strict harsh discipline on his soldiers which caused many of them to defect to the Qing. Failure to listen to orders and failing in battle

2932:

did not behave as if they had lost, and were not abiding by the terms of the agreement. Joseon merchants and markets continued to trade with Ming and actively aided Ming subjects by providing them with grain and rations. Hong Taiji rebuked them, saying that the food of Joseon should only be fed to

7408:

sided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves and Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives. Young

7061:

areas, proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Han Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term

5873:. They resisted an intense Banner assault with their long rifles, but Tan Qi abandoned Sun in July 1652, leading to Sun's defeat and death. A bandit gang, the "Pole bandits", who were plundering the local population, were also defeated shortly afterward by the betrayal of one of their two chiefs. 3414:

After Wu formally surrendered to the Qing in the morning of 27 May, his elite troops charged the rebel army repeatedly, but were unable to break the enemy lines. Dorgon waited until both sides were weakened before ordering his cavalry to gallop around Wu's right wing to charge Li's left flank. Li

2919:

had brought economic hardship and starvation to Jin subjects. Joseon was also forced to transfer suzerainty of the Warka tribe to Jin. Furthermore, a tribute of 100 horses, 100 tiger and leopard skins, 400 bolts of cotton, and 15,000 pieces of cloth was to be extracted and gifted to the Jin Khan.

2710:

were also allowed to keep their personal armies. The warlord Shen Zhixiang, who had unlawfully taken over command of his deceased uncle Shen Shikui's troops as his private army, was unable to attain recognition from the Ming court. He then proceeded to lead his forces to switch allegiance to the

6121:

in 1659 amid a massacre of 100,000 people, and the next year was spent putting down the rest of the rebels. As the city fell Nayan bowed in the direction of the emperor and declared "Your minister has exerted himself to the utmost. I have nothing else to report to Your Highness." He then burned

3758:

groups of martial artist acolytes calling themselves the "Supreme Heaven's Clear and Pure Good Friends" and the "Society of Good Friends" respectively rose up in rebellion in 1645 against the new regime. These were suppressed by slaughtering anyone suspected of membership in such popular sects.

2367:

in 1631, the most capable army officers of the Ming became faithful followers of the new dynasty who would take over the preparation and planning of much of the war. From this episode onward, the transition ceased to be an inter-nation conflict between Chinese and Manchus but rather a civil war

6335:

The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering

3510:

It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing takeover. They made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Chinese Bannermen dominated governor-general posts in the time of the

2752:, gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were specifically used by the Han Chinese Banners. The Manchus established an artillery corps made out of Han Chinese soldiers in 1641. The use of artillery by Han Bannermen may have led to them being known as "heavy" soldiers (ujen cooha). The " 3958:. Milayin and Ding Guodong negotiated a truce in which they would become Qing commanders in April 1649, but less than four weeks later they rose up in revolt again. Milayan was swiftly killed when he attempted to break out of the Qing encirclement, while Ding Guodong holed up for a siege in 7578:

is cited to say that "a person's body and hair, being gifts from one's parents, are not to be damaged: this is the beginning of filial piety" (身體髮膚，受之父母，不敢毀傷，孝之始也). Prior to the Qing dynasty, adult Han Chinese men customarily did not cut their hair, but instead wore it in the form of a

4112:

to defend the city against the Qing. These Ming loyalist non-Han Chinese "barbarian" fierce tribal warriors were slaughtered by the Han Chinese citizens of Nanjing after the Han Chinese people of Nanjing had peacefully defected and turned the city to Qing rule when the Southern Ming

2614:

if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, and it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Prince

2096:(clan name). The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to the Qing trying to document and systemize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast. 3821:

Other texts translated into Manchu by Dahai included the Ming penal code. The Manchus placed great significance on Chinese texts relating to military affairs and governance, and further Chinese texts of history, law and military theory were translated into Manchu during the rule of

4485:

directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair "was tantamount to the loss of their manhood." Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair-cutting command "broke the momentum of the Qing ."

3051:

conquered by the Qing like the Nanais. The Amur peoples already wore the queue on the back of their heads but did not shave the front until the Qing subjected them and ordered them to shave. The Qing married off Manchu princesses to Amur chiefs who submitted to their rule. The

7588:"The hair-cutting order, more than any other act, engendered the Kiangnan resistance of 1645. The rulers' effort to make Manchus and Han one unified 'body' initially had the effect of unifying upper- and lower-class natives in central and south China against the interlopers." 3625:, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproves the claim that "fear of water" on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation to move inland and declare the sea ban. Most of the coastal population of 4446:, resisted compromise, but most gentry and urban elites proceeded to collaborate with the Qing in order to acquire their help to suppress the revolt or other threats such as bandits. However, with the introduction of the queue order, anti-Qing resistance exploded once more. 5612:

regime, cooperating with them against the bandits who now grew into sizeable rebel armies complete with guns and cannons, and whose leaders had declared themselves "kings". These were held off by the local gentry, who organised the local population into a defence force.

2362:

education, and Ming-style government ministries. When Zhang Chun, a Ming commander, was captured but refused to defect, Hong Taiji personally served him with food to show his sincerity (Zhang still refused but was kept in a temple until his death). With the surrender of

6865:. Địch was murdered by his assistant Hoàng Tiến in 1688, who then revolted against the Nguyễn lord but was put down. In 1679, Trần Thượng Xuyên submitted to the Nguyễn lord and became a Nguyễn general and the Chinese community was allowed to settle in Đông Phố (modern 3986: 4640:, who had been ordered to "fill the city with corpses before you sheathe your swords," massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed before all of China was brought into compliance. Although 7145: 3410:

for the Qing. Therefore, when Dorgon received Wu's letter, he was already about to lead an expedition to attack northern China and had no intention to restore the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept.

3844:

were in fact so many collaborators that the Qing court had to cut down on their numbers. The court also placed great attention to clamping down on administrative corruption through intensified inspections, and implemented a system of bureaucratic review (

1803:

frontier often mixed with non-Han tribesmen and were largely acculturated to their ways. The Jurchen Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who went over to them, and Han Chinese soldiers from Liaodong often adopted and used Manchu names. Indeed

4465:. The punishment for non-compliance was death. In the queue order edict, Dorgon specifically emphasized the fact that Manchus and the Qing emperor himself all wore the queue and shaved their foreheads so that by following the queue order and shaving, 12680: 5968:. Now the Mu family were still in power in Yunnan and remained loyal to the Ming. However, due to discontent against their rule, local revolts broke out against them. Mu joined with the few remaining Ming officials and Sun Kewang to restore order. 3473:

pretenders would suffer from infighting due to their weak claims on the throne. A large émigré elite of northerners in the south would also have increased the probability of an aggressive policy of reconquest to regain their northern homelands.

2666:

gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han Chinese official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. Feng Quan willingly adopted the Manchu queue hairstyle before it was enforced on the Han Chinese population and he also learned the

1838:, Ming army units had become dominated by officers who would spend long periods of 10 or 12 years in command instead of the usual practice of constant rotation, and the Central Military Command had lost much of its control over regional armies. 3586:, composed of Han Chinese (Ming) military forces who defected to the Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was these troops who provided day-to-day military governance in China, and supplied the forces used in the front-line fighting. 7003:

The emperors, in order to legitimize their rule, encouraged Qing officials and literary figures to organize and appropriate the legacy of Chinese literature, producing anthologies and critical works. They also patronized the development of

4481:. This policy of symbolic submission to the new dynasty helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe. However, for Han Chinese officials and literati, the new hairstyle was "a humiliating act of degradation" (because it breached a common 4215:

had already fled. The city surrendered without a fight on 16 June 1645 after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the population. Within less than a month, the Qing had captured the fleeing Ming emperor (he died in

7041:(中國 Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"). After extinguishing the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing state (including present day 4987:

Anti-Qing forces including Great Shun and Zhang Xianzhong loyalists remained active in the mountainous regions between Chongqing and Hubei. Forces led by Li Laiheng, a nephew of Li Zicheng, established a base in the Maolu Mountain of

4964:, who moved to crush banditry, called for supplies to be shipped in and recultivated the land to relieve the famine-like conditions. After he was attacked and defeated by Li Zhanchun and Yu Dahai in 1647 in a land-riverine battle at 3315:

and confirm Li Zicheng's noble rank of Prince. Li Zicheng did not intend to overthrow the Ming Emperor or kill him. The Ming Emperor, however, fearful that accepting such political expediency would ruin his reputation tried to get

3310:

of the Ming dynasty that Li Zicheng would fight the Qing dynasty and eradicate all other rebels on behalf of the Ming, if the Ming dynasty would recognize Li Zicheng's control over his Shaanxi-Shanxi fief, pay him 1 million

1604:. Nurhaci's demand that the Ming pay tribute to him to redress the Seven Grievances was effectively a declaration of war, as the Ming were not willing to pay money to a former vassal. Shortly afterwards, Nurhaci rebelled against 7234:

in China during the entire period. Some scholars estimate that the Chinese economy did not regain the level reached in the late Ming until the mid-Qing dynasty. According to economic historian Robert Allen, family income in the

6158:, who went on the offensive against the Ming loyalists. Under the guise of a 'spirit water' ritual during the king's enthronement, most of the men in the Ming imperial retinue were ambushed and killed. The Burmese contacted the 4441:

regime managed to restore order, the discontent persisted and coalesced as the Black Dragon Society, which immediately resumed their revolt once the Qing crushed the Southern Ming forces. Some of the gentry, associated with the

1942:

During much of his early life Nurhaci considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power. Upon the advice of an Erdeni, most likely a Chinese transfrontiersman, he proclaimed the

6234:

quickly moved to suppress him, and launched a surprise attack which defeated him. Qian was hunted down and captured by March 1648. Only one year later did Koxinga launch an offensive, too late to join up with existing forces.

4544:. The region's bandits were infamous for kidnapping rich people and threatening to blind or bury them alive unless ransom was paid, while distributing food and money to the poor. Now their river craft were converted into an 2444:) urged him to declare himself as Emperor of China. On 14 May 1636, he accepted this advice, changing the name of his regime from Jin to Qing, and enthroning himself as Emperor of China in an elaborate Confucian ceremony. 13321:

Xiao, Lingbo; Fang, Xiuqi; Zheng, Jingyun; Zhao, Wanyi (20 April 2015). "Famine, migration and war: Comparison of climate change impacts and social responses in North China between the late Ming and late Qing dynasties".

1592:, was originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial Ming power, but he broke his relationship with the Ming with the establishment of the Later Jin dynasty in 1616 after he 3294:

The Qing made a proposal to Li Zicheng's Shun forces on 6 March 1644 that they should ally and divide northern China between the Shun and Qing, sending a delegation to propose a joint attack on the Ming to take over the

3382:

when he heard that the city had fallen, whereupon he returned to the Shanhai Pass. Li Zicheng sent two armies to attack the pass but Wu's battle-hardened troops defeated them easily on 5 May and 10 May. Then on 18 May,

2591:. Meanwhile, the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives, and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince 1842:, or Supreme Commanders, were appointed throughout the empire to oversee the fiscal and military affairs in the area of their jurisdiction. In the frontier areas these became increasingly autonomous, and especially in 7352:

who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese-origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han Chinese surnames and are marked as of Han Chinese origin on

2763:

Ming officers who defected to the Qing were allowed to retain their previous military rank. The Qing received the defection of Shen Zhixiang in 1638. Among the other Han Chinese officers who defected to the Qing were

7559:"From the Manchus' perspective, the command to cut one's hair or lose one's head not only brought rulers and subjects together into a single physical resemblance; it also provided them with a perfect loyalty test." 4473:

notion that the people were like the sons of the emperor who was like the father, so the father and sons could not look different and to decrease differences in physical appearance between Manchus and Han Chinese.

3469:'s refusal to move southward when his capital had been under rebel threat. This allowed the Qing dynasty to capture an entire corps of qualified civil servants to administer the country, and also ensured that the 4730:, mainly local fishermen and smugglers, which posed a problem for Qing forces who lacked competent sailors. These linked up gentry resistance all over the region, dealing severe losses on Qing forces of governor 4141:

city and its people were unharmed by the Qing and only the Ming palace suffered destruction. The damage inflicted to the Ming palace was largely done by the Han Chinese locals of Nanjing, and not the Qing army.

2064:

princess in marriage and a noble title. The princess was one of Nurhaci's granddaughters. In April 1625, Nurhaci designated Shenyang the new capital city, which would hold that status until the Qing conquest of

16313: 5636:. The Qing was forced to send in "heavy troops" (artillery), as well as extra reinforcements. The Qing succeeded in subduing the rebellion in 1649, but with heavy losses. Further south, in the forests between 5046:, but lived in Zhejiang where he came into contact with Chinese Catholic scholars who, claiming that Europe was an ideal society and that all nations shared one morality, argued that Chinese culture was too 2004:

of the Ula, chieftains would attempt to reassert their independence and war would break out, but the Jianzhou Jurchens would defeat and assimilate all the tribes eventually (Hada 1601, Hoifa 1607, Ula 1613,

7315:

river delta's urban regions, the coastal southeast and the northwest were all hit by massive famine as the grain producing regions lost productivity. Massive deflation blew up as silver bullion remained in

6141:

between 1660 and 1661. They opened fire with cannon on the Burmese army of 150,000 men with war elephants. The Burmese broke after a rear attack from Bai. The loyalists built boats and bridges to cross the

5560:

gunners, and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people. In Guangzhou, massacres of Ming loyalists and civilians in 1650 were carried out by Qing forces under the command of northern

4652:

Bannermen. Ming defector Li Chengdong's Han Chinese soldiers, who were mostly former revolted refugees, peasants and bandits from the north called the Han Chinese anti-queue resisters and Ming loyalists in

1670:

The fall of the Ming dynasty was largely caused by a combination of factors. Scholars have argued that the fall of the Ming dynasty may have been partially caused by the droughts and famines caused by the

7324:

from 1640 to 1642, killing 50% of the population, forcing the impoverished to eat cocoons and silkworms, and forcing the rich to eat rice gruel. In multiple counties only three out of ten survived when

4548:

naval raiding force and joined forces with their former gentry enemies. The gentry united these elements into the "White Headed Army" since they wore white turbans. East of the lake, loyalist gentry in

5360:

led other loyalists to believe that he had abandoned them and they proceeded to enthrone the Shaowu emperor. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Shaowu court mainly consisted of local

3432:

The conquest of the Empire, after the Manchus had securely seated themselves in Peking, had to be undertaken largely with Chinese troops, "stiffened" a little with a Manchu regiment here and there

7116:

territorial lands were absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) realm in a Manchu language memorial. They expounded the ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the

7182:, in which some 800,000 people, (although this number is now considered an exaggeration) including women and children, were massacred. The Qing carried out massacres in cities which resisted like 6198:

for an alliance, before finally dying of disease in August 1662. His final words were to tell his son to never surrender to the Qing (his son still did surrender, with the remainder of the army).

4525:

had been mostly unsuccessful until the queue order was passed, when they experienced a surge in popular support and succeeded in killing the local collaborationist magistrate. However the army of

4100:'s northern frontiers. The betrayal of these commanders handed over the entire northwestern zone of the Southern Ming, helping the Qing forces to link up. Ming loyalist Ma Shiying had brought to 4267:

after Nanjing peacefully surrendered, corralling the women into the city and whipping them hard with their hair containing a tag showing the price of the ransom, which was cheap at only 3 to 4

4117:

left the city. The people also yelled "These are the son and daughter-in-law of the traitorous minister Ma Shiying!" when they paraded the daughter-in-law and son of Ma Shiying after storming

5995:

province) from the Qing. Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side. Despite occasionally successful military campaigns in

4832:, splitting his troops into four divisions that were ordered to act independently if something were to happen to him. Before leaving, he ordered a massacre of the population of his capital 2619:. In the beginning of the Qing dynasty the Qing government supported Han Chinese defectors weddings to Manchu girls. Han Chinese Bannermen wedded Manchus and there was no law against this. 3287:

requested the urgent help of any military commandant in the empire. On 24 April, Li Zicheng breached the walls of Beijing, and the emperor hanged himself the next day on a hill behind the

17282: 16377: 7364:

to fuel massacres against Manchus. Manchu bannermen and their families were massacred in several banner garrisons across China during the revolution, one of the massacres taking place in

7262:, disease, famine, starvation and bandits ravaged the population of China. A disease killed half of the population in cities across China from 1640 to 1642 and three out of ten people in 4866:

at Mount Fenghuang, after being betrayed by one of his officers. Refusing to believe the scout's report, he rode out to see for himself and was killed by an arrow. This was witnessed by

1869:

in 1621 against the Ming, requiring suppression, which was completed in 1629. In the early 1640s, mass rebellions led by many rebel leaders broke out in northwestern China's province of

3895:

fought against Li's forces after 1644 they quickly joined the Qing side. Meanwhile, Ming loyalist forces numbering 70,000 well-equipped troops were coalescing in the mountains south of

5794:

and crushed them with ease in December 1649. Ding Guodong was killed. The population was appeased by strengthening judicial protections and, at the suggestion of supervisory secretary

4164:, the Qing implemented peaceful takeovers for districts and cities who surrendered without any violent resistance, leaving the local Ming officials who defected in charge and the Qing 1229: 753: 6190:

to start the Qing expansion. Bai Wenxuan surrendered and was inducted into the Han Chinese banners. Li Dingguo, wrongly informed that the emperor had escaped, attempted to march for

3617:, forcing people to evacuate the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources: this led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In fact, in 6622:

The rebellion was defeated mainly due to the refusal of most Han Chinese commanders to turn against the Qing dynasty. Particularly repulsive to many was the blatant opportunism of

3719:

won consecutive engagements against Shun forces in Shanxi and Shaanxi, forcing Li Zicheng to leave his Xi'an headquarters in February 1645. Pursued by Ajige, Li retreated down the

3419:, the Shun troops looted Beijing for several days until Li Zicheng left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth he could carry, one day after he had defiantly proclaimed himself 3114:

emperor insisted on concentrating all efforts at fighting the rebel armies instead, likening the Qing to be a mere "skin rash" while the rebels were a "visceral disease". In 1641,

11301:

Social Life of the Chinese: With Some Account of Their Religious, Governmental, Educational, and Business Customs and Opinions. With Special But Not Exclusive Reference to Fuhchau

7291:

China's population growth led to devastating death tolls due to famine from cold weather, drought and floods. Soil and anything that was consumable was eaten by people in 1637 in

6372:, inviting and allowing them back into Qing ranks without punishment even after they initially betrayed the Qing and defected, and this policy was able to secure mass defections. 16933: 4153:, over his battle strategy in 1645, telling him that the Southern Ming would have defeated the Qing if only the Southern Ming assaulted the Qing military before they forded the 7226:

caused the deaths of more than 200,000 people in Beijing in the year 1643 alone. Coastal China was also devastated by the Qing coastal evacuation order while fighting with the

2502:, to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk), the name they used to refer to Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information from the 1799:-style agriculture well before the Qing conquest of the Ming, and there was an established tradition of Han Chinese-Manchu mixing before 1644. The Han Chinese soldiers on the 11647: 6030:

were not able to conquer southern China by their own accord; they only did so by delegating to Han Chinese. During the fighting to extinguish Ming loyalism in the south, the

4984:. These groups started fighting among each other, which helped the Qing secure the northern and western parts of the province by 1652, and the rest of the province by 1658. 2748:

leniently. Hong Taiji understood that the Ming would not be easily defeated unless Han Chinese troops wielding musket and cannon were included in the army. Indeed, among the

5699:

might be attempting to restrict his authority and rebelled, switching allegiance back to the Ming. Dorgon travelled to personally intervene against the rebels. The generals

4566: 6675:, made out of defected Ming soldiers. In the Three Feudatories rebellion, Han Chinese bannermen who stayed on the Qing side and died in battle were categorized as martyrs. 6046:

class to dominate the government. Through this compromise, the bureaucracy versus military conflict that had helped to cause the downfall of the Ming dynasty was resolved.

4828:

who had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan in October 1646. Hearing that a Qing army led by a major general was approaching, Zhang Xianzhong fled toward

4294:, almost the entire army of Zuo Liangyu defected to the Qing. This provided the Qing with a critical new pool of military leaders and troops. These were also officers from 3699:

back in February 1644. In October of that year Dorgon sent several armies to root out Li Zicheng from his Shaanxi stronghold, after repressing revolts against Qing rule in

16211: 4886:, but found it in a state of desolation he had not expected. Unable to find food in the countryside, his soldiers looted the area, killing resisters, and even resorted to 4636:

also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by northern Chinese Ming defector

4390: 16972: 5325:

province, taking the reign title Shaowu (紹武) on 11 December 1646. Short of official costumes, the court had to purchase robes from local theater troops. On 24 December,

6039: 15454: 15001:

Zhang Hongsheng (2002). "Gong Dingzi and the Courtesan Gu Mei: Their Romance and the Revival of the Song Lyric in the Ming-Qing Transition". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).

11068: 6455:, who strongly objected to cession of Taiwan to the Dutch, offered to launch his own expedition instead. The Dutch looted relics and killed monks after attacking a 3762:

Other sectarian millenarian movements in Shanxi province broke out in rebellion in 1646–1648. Court fears of insurrection led them to crackdown on the sects led by

12616: 7109: 5050:

and called for appreciation and imitation of foreign nations, and cooperation with them, whether Europeans or Manchus. This group therefore supported Manchu rule.

4327: 5422:, who was also discontented at being appointed a regional commander after conquering Jiangxi province, helped the Yongli regime to retake most of southern China. 2358:. Hong Taiji responded by arresting and imprisoning Amin, who later died in prison. He then implemented, on the urging of his Han Chinese advisors, Chinese-style 15011: 6962:

are attracting modern academic interest. Some of the most important first generation of Qing thinkers were Ming loyalists, at least in their hearts, including

6066: 6034:

came to rely increasingly on Han Chinese bannermen, some second or even third generation, to fill governor and governor-general posts as a kind of "provincial

4847:. Fearing Zhang's murderous tendencies, and with his Sichuanese troops unwilling to carry out Zhang's massacres on their fellow provincials, Zhang's commander 4319: 4315: 1222: 15437: 5648:

provinces, 20 Ming loyalist brigades of 1,000 men each were amassing. This force was known as the "Elm Garden Army", equipped with Western cannons. Commander

46: 6451:. However, the Qing grew suspicious of Dutch ambitions to maintain a colony in Taiwan and to push for trading privileges, so the alliance collapsed. Admiral 6300:

ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the

2801: 2013:

united with the forces of the Ming dynasty to combat the rise of Nurhaci but Gintaisi was defeated and died in 1619. The fur-trapping Warka peoples near the

12958: 12942: 6838: 16306: 12693: 5171:, the Longwu court left their Fujian base in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them. Longwu and his empress were summarily executed in 4502: 2218:

By this time news of the invasion had reached the Ming court, which immediately dispatched a relief contingent to Joseon, slowing the Jurchen advance into

6308:, throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of the 3739:

until he was killed in September 1645, either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry.

2888:

was guarded by Han Chinese soldiers. Other banners became a minority compared to the Han Chinese (Nikan) Black Banner detachments during Nurhaci's reign.

16977: 16813: 9038: 6604:. Slaves revolted in Beijing as it was widely believed that the Qing would fall. The Kangxi Emperor called it the most harrowing experience in his life. 6106: 5866: 5525: 4961: 4863: 3930:. These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion, and were not aiming to create an 2342:

were forbidden to trespass. Hong Taiji curtailed the power of the Manchu princes by relying on Han Chinese officials. He personally welcomed surrendered

12968: 12952: 6830: 5093:", as his son is known to Westerners; it is a distortion of the title "Lord of the Imperial Surname" (Guoxingye 國姓爺). Upon Zheng Zhilong's request, the 15474: 12894: 7057:

and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant

5677: 15201: 13523: 6288:

was preparing to hold a special examination to celebrate the glories of his reign and the success of the southwestern campaigns, Zheng sailed up the

5207: 4457:

issued "the most untimely promulgation of his career": he ordered all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a

2744:

recognized that Ming defectors were needed in order to defeat the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector general

1702:

However, the victory was far from complete as it required almost 40 more years before all of China was securely united under Qing rule. In 1661, the

1215: 12846: 7163:, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國 Zhongguo) were like the Torghuts, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the 6226:

regime, and he therefore managed to become legitimized as a Ming loyalist fighter. He organised a marine resistance unit and established links with

4617:

fell after being deceived into opening the gates by Qing forces covering up their shaved heads. A group of loyalists fled to join the resistance in

16652: 14802:(1975b). "Localism and Loyalism During the Ch'ing Conquest of Kiangnan: The Tragedy of Chiang-yin". In Frederic Wakeman Jr.; Carolyn Grant (eds.). 7210:

had spurred Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng to revolt and brutality by the rebels was widespread across northern China. This period saw innumerable

6262: 5830: 5708: 5454: 5222:, but Zhoushan fell to the Qing in 1651 after being betrayed by Huang Binqing's former officers. Zhang Mingzhen, with all his family, fled to join 5203: 2797: 12302:

Wills, John E. Jr. (2006). "The Seventeenth-century Transformation: Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime". In Rubinstein, Murray A. (ed.).

6403:

to name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule of

3786:. The first works translated were all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic. They were the 16392: 12660: 5625: 5211: 4331: 4298:, or had previously served there, who in the 1630s had been withdrawn to fight rebels in the interior provinces. The most important of these was 3935: 3892: 2845: 2841: 2821: 927: 722: 658: 12862: 6906:

suggests that Shitao used a poem inscribed on this "Self-Portrait Supervising the Planting of Pines" (1674) to allude to the restoration of the

6015:

province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take

5932:

province. The Ming emperor, in urgent need of reinforcements, requested the aid of the Xi dynasty's followers. Zhang Xianzhong's former deputy,

5775:

in 1649, but was driven off. He continued marauding the province until he was killed in February 1655 when his headquarters was discovered by a

4393:. Huang Degong rejected their demand to turn over the Hongguang Emperor but Zhang Tianlu then shot an arrow into Huang's throat and killed him. 4020:, which had been the auxiliary capital of the Ming dynasty. Agreeing that the Ming needed an imperial figure to rally support in the south, the 3406:, urged the Manchu prince to seize the opportunity of the fall of Beijing to present themselves as avengers of the fallen Ming and to claim the 13997:

Fong, Grace S. (2001). "Writing from a Side Room of Her Own: The Literary Vocation of Concubines in Ming-Qing China". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).

9349:

Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization

6597: 6557: 6417: 6231: 5787: 5756: 5407: 5380: 5192: 5161: 5157: 4879: 4848: 4723: 4676:, although former-Ming subjects were initially compensated with silver for complying to the Queue Order, the defected southern Chinese general 4637: 4598: 4514: 4378: 4362: 4307: 4077: 4073: 3923: 3763: 2837: 2829: 2765: 779: 7270:, entire parts of the countryside in the middle of China were abandoned. Theft and begging by hungry peasants became widespread in cities and 16797: 16768: 16387: 15843: 15681: 15083: 14049: 7320:

and stopped grain and payments for famine relief from reaching famine victims. The rebellions broke out because of these famines. Famine hit

6633: 6130: 5854: 5764: 5700: 5684: 5210:, between Zhejiang and Fujian. By July 1649 their base of operations shifted northward to Jiantiaosuo. After killing a rival naval commander 4977: 4929: 4661:) threatening them, telling them "southern barbarian, hand over your valuables", raping, torturing and massacring. When the Qing imposed the 4610: 4522: 4518: 3716: 1111: 1030: 990: 985: 7178:, and the subsequent expansion by the Qing was one of the most devastating wars in Chinese history. Examples of the devastation include the 7140:

concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called Qing subjects "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)". In the Manchu official

1939:

and Hada. When the other tribes attacked him to check his power in 1591, he succeeded in defeating them and seized many of their warhorses.

16469: 6971: 5933: 5649: 5617: 5035: 4905: 4893: 4394: 3926:(丁國棟). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the fallen Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital 3543:

as provincial governors and governors-general, with not a single Manchu governor until 1658, and not a single governor-general until 1668.

3170: 2964:

Banners against Joseon. Chinese support was particularly evident in the army's artillery and naval contingents. The defected Ming mutineer

2813: 1093: 1088: 1041: 1006: 670: 6685: 2191:. The Jurchens met sharp resistance at the border towns but Joseon border garrisons were quickly defeated. The Jurchen army advanced into 16008: 15333: 6296:. Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in 5838: 5740: 5497: 4937: 4901: 4731: 4594: 4490: 3317: 2849: 2785: 1098: 1019: 14953:

Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717–1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao

7266:

died of plague and starvation. As the rural areas were hit by famine, peasants abandoned their homes by the millions, bandits took over

5975:'s leadership had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652, 4750:, but this was a trap; he was captured and executed. Resistance still carried on as the gentry continued near-open protest. In 1645, in 2999:. The princess' name in Korean was Uisun and she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's (Kumrimgoon) daughter. Dorgon married two Korean princesses at 14206: 9621: 8988: 8816: 8718: 6360:

could bring death sentences with no leniency from Koxinga. The Qing implemented a lenient policy towards defectors who defected to the

6219: 5846: 4933: 4727: 4590: 4398: 3904: 2861: 2793: 2777: 2769: 932: 16350: 7303:) from 1641 to 1642 hitting the region twice, leaving corpses from the disease all over Zhili and killing 9 out of 10 across northern 6753:

The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. The

3480:

started being organised almost immediately upon the Qing capture of Beijing. The early Qing government was dominated by scholars from

2508:

that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The

33: 16457: 16442: 15486: 14557:

Translation of the Ts'ing Wan K'e Mung, A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature

14547:

Translation of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu literature

5720: 5669: 4820:

regime: the first expedition did not reach Sichuan because it was caught up against remnants; the second one, under the direction of

3915: 3680: 2857: 2853: 2789: 766: 4199:

of Yangzhou's entire population to terrorize other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing. On 1 June Qing armies crossed the

17277: 17272: 16144: 6146:

but these were burned by Burmese commandos. A long siege of Ava ensued but the Burmese increased their defenses after tricking the

5862: 5191:

with his fleet. When news arrived of the Longwu emperor's demise, the fortress of Ganzhou in southern Jiangxi under the command of

4195:'s artillery: on 20 May Qing cannon wielded by the Han Chinese Bannermen (Ujen Coohai) breached the city wall and Dodo ordered the 3837: 3303: 2346:

commanders, eating side-by-side with them so as to build a rapport that was impossible with the Ming emperors. The Manchus, led by

10406: 2579:

was wedded to Sun Cheng'en, son of the Han Chinese Sun Sike. Other Aisin-Gioro women married the sons of the Han Chinese generals

2207:. When it became clear that defeat was inevitable, the Anju garrisons committed suicide by blowing up their gunpowder storehouse. 1753:

military establishment and other defectors, with the Manchu military playing a very minor role (see below for specific examples).

14201: 9616: 8983: 8811: 8713: 5795: 3836:. As well as the translations by Dahai, other Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu by 3783: 3135: 9471: 6727:. Having lost this battle, Zheng Keshuang surrendered and was rewarded by the Kangxi Emperor with the title "Duke of Haicheng" ( 5652:

had declared a distant relative of the Ming imperial family as the "Tianzheng Emperor", and besieged and captured the cities of

3236:

in the 1640s. Historians estimated that up to one million people were killed in this self-proclaimed emperor's reign of terror.

1850:-like personal bonds of loyalty grew between officers, their subordinates and troops. This military caste gravitated toward the 17180: 16519: 15632: 15539: 4684:

by 1645. The Han Chinese Banners were repeatedly assigned to enforce the Queue Order, often resulting in massacres such as the

2338:, and adopted Chinese legal forms. He formed autonomous Han Chinese military colonies governed by Han Chinese officials, where 6978:, which emphasized careful textual study and critical thinking. Another important group in this transitional period were the " 3173:

refused to engage in battle, while fabricating reports of victory and extorting bribes to cover up for defeats. Prince-Regent

2265:

Mongols. Seven Khorchin nobles died at the hands of Khalkhas and Chahars in 1625. This started the Khorchin alliance with the

1722:

in southern China, starting in 1673, and then countered by launching a series of campaigns that expanded his empire. In 1662,

17287: 17211: 16452: 15527: 15375: 15136: 14940: 14921: 14902: 14879: 14858: 14836: 14702: 14534: 14490: 14448: 14424: 14393: 14335: 14277: 14179: 14134: 14038: 13987: 13962: 13898: 13811: 13747: 13726: 13705: 13684: 13664: 13164: 12926: 12910: 11880: 11853: 11667: 11447: 10524: 10440: 10154: 9357: 8133: 8056: 7941: 7913: 7754: 7223: 5465:

as the populace did not side with the loyalists, and Qing forces advanced again. Xu Yong was later present at the capture of

5425:

The Yongli emperor was encouraged by these developments and saw hope in a Ming reconquest, likening it to the revival of the

1460: 12790: 12772:]. Volume XII. Chinas religionen (in German). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). p. 11272: 6954:, which explored the moral decay of the Ming in order to explain its fall. Poets whose lives bridged the transition between 4980:

to organise the Ming forces in Sichuan who instead became yet another warlord, establishing himself as a "Prince of Chu" at

4920:

was supposed to be enthroned as the next ruler but he died on the journey. The remnants of the Ming force moved eastward to

16681: 16432: 16345: 16069: 15577: 15432: 6849:, where Địch served as chief of a small Chinese community. The Nguyễn court allowed these resistance forces to resettle in 4665:

in China, many Han Chinese defectors were appointed in the massacre of dissidents. Li Chengdong oversaw three massacres in

4401:, the brigade commanders under Huang Degong then defected to the Qing and gave general Liu Liangzuo the Hongguang Emperor. 3966:

by inviting Prince Sa'id Baba to rule in Suzhou. The Qing counterattack was interrupted by the Jiang Xiang mutiny (below).

3942:, a former Ming official who had surrendered to the Qing in 1631. The rebel leaders persuaded Zhu Shichuan, Ming Prince of 2626:, a Han Chinese bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons 2611: 15012:"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century" 13009: 5089:(also known as "Nicholas Iquan"). The childless emperor adopted Zheng's eldest son and granted him the imperial surname. " 3186:, also defected on 8 April 1642, handing them the city. With the fall of Songshan and Jinzhou, the Ming defense system in 16254: 16084: 15247: 15141: 14564: 12806: 12579: 10825: 7198:. Nanjing surrendered to the Qing without a violence as all officials surrendered and defected. Whole provinces, such as 6475:. Zheng Jing's navy executed 34 Dutch sailors and drowned 8 Dutch sailors after looting, ambushing and sinking the Dutch 5590: 4669:

that occurred within the same month; together which resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and left cities depopulated.

4179:

on 13 May 1645. The majority of the Qing army which marched on the city were Ming defectors and they far outnumbered the

2226:

then dispatched an envoy to negotiate a peace treaty, but by the time the messenger returned, Injo had already fled from

955: 14756:

On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition

14287:

Parsons, James B. (May 1957). "The Culmination of a Chinese Peasant Rebellion: Chang Hsien-chung in Szechwan, 1644–46".

12904: 12856: 12627: 7711:

On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition

2164:

he also hoped to extract much-needed resources for his army and subjects, who had suffered in the war against the Ming.

1969:

defectors as well as Ming produced firearms. In 1618, Nurhaci openly renounced the Ming overlordship and proclaimed his

16897: 16266: 16139: 15963: 15544: 14982: 14961: 14811: 14789: 14763: 14744: 14723: 14662: 14638: 14617: 14596: 14469: 14155: 14073: 14017: 13943: 13919: 13790: 13626: 13607: 13586: 13121: 12781: 12562: 12500: 12206: 11059: 10563: 9919: 9769: 9537: 8881: 8598: 8542: 8499: 8456: 8370: 8343: 7971: 5113:, but the two loyalist regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were. 4109: 4048:

who had been next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons, whose fates were still unknown. The Prince was

3398:

had left all the territory outside the Great Wall under Qing control. Two of Dorgon's most prominent Chinese advisors,

2000:

tribes, started recognizing the authority of Nurhaci by the beginning of the 17th century. In some cases, such as with

10251: 8995: 6651:

from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and Han Chinese elite against the

3027:

and beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into the

17186: 17027: 16902: 16259: 15836: 15076: 15050: 14511: 14362: 14225: 13769: 13501: 13424: 13203: 12703: 12311: 11084: 9142: 8924: 8784: 7718: 7651: 4710:. The Qing authorities were only able to maintain control through working with corrupt former Ming officials such as 3801: 13390: 12936: 12920: 12816: 12800: 8142: 6097:; many of the Ming retinue were killed or enslaved, and the remainder were housed in huts opposite the capital city 16997: 15712: 13015: 12872: 12484: 12468: 10948: 10616: 9928: 9885: 9837: 6640:, remained loyal to the Qing despite imprisonment and eventually death, and as one of leading military families of 6439:. The Dutch intended to take a colonial outpost in Taiwan. In October 1663, the joint fleet succeeded in capturing 4433:

scholars committed suicide by drowning, hanging, self-immolation, or hunger strike on the news of the death of the

3485: 3211: 1982: 13641:(2001). "Gender and Canonicity: Ming-Qing Women Poets in the Eyes of the Male Literati". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.). 13266: 10294: 9439: 9323: 8016: 7879: 7336:

bannermen were transferred en masse into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to

5414:

province, mutinied against the Qing and rejoined the Ming. The reversion of another dissatisfied Ming defector in

4072:

in April 1645. He set out from Xi'an on that very day. Greatly aided by the surrender of Southern Ming commanders

2832:. Aristocratic and military ranks, silver, horses and official positions were given to Han Chinese defectors like 17114: 16357: 16044: 15930: 15267: 13137: 12416: 12400: 10120: 9869: 7360:

Accounts of atrocities during the transition from the Ming to Qing were used by revolutionaries in the anti-Qing

7286: 6818: 6514: 6504: 4648:

Massacre which targeted the Ming loyalists, the majority of those who had participated in Jiangyin Massacre were

1715: 1455: 15176: 13374: 12675: 12655: 12239: 11224: 10809: 9853: 9187: 9171: 7533:

Dorgon's brother Dodo, who led the Qing army, received "the imperial command to conduct a southern expedition" (

6794: 4632:

was massacred by former Ming northern Chinese general Li Chengdong, respectively on 24 August and 22 September.

3488:

were given promotions after defecting. The top positions were mainly in the hands of Han Chinese Bannermen from

17242: 16698: 16564: 16332: 16079: 16018: 15988: 15978: 15227: 12878: 12516: 12336: 12255: 11324: 11308: 11208: 10920: 10857: 10790: 10235: 10219: 9570: 9134: 9079: 9014: 8933: 8916:

The historian's castrated slave: the textual eunuch and the creation of historical identity in the Ming history

8379: 7311:

from northwestern China. Due to the loss in people, crops were not farmed further exacerbating the famine. The

6934:), but the question arose as to whether Confucians should be loyal to the fallen Ming or to the new power, the 6834: 6769:

as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the

3598:

Bannermen were only deployed to respond to emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.

14974:

Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c.1620–1720

13467: 13451: 13047: 12974: 10841: 10490: 9235: 9219: 9203: 9095: 8607: 7665: 6663:

officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000

2276:

in 1628 and 1635. An expedition against the Chahar Mongols in 1632 was ordered to establish a trading post at

17252: 17132: 16907: 16763: 16447: 16437: 16422: 16417: 16249: 16199: 16179: 16119: 15953: 15759: 15481: 13358: 13298: 13282: 13250: 13234: 13031: 9487: 9307: 8465: 8407: 8158: 7458: 6747: 5905: 4790:

for an assault on Nanjing in September 1646, but the Qing collaborators discovered the plan and defeated it.

4763: 3832: 3720: 3374:

and started marching toward the capital. On 26 April, his armies had moved through the fortifications of the

2101: 277: 14191: 10774: 10179: 10163: 9503: 9291: 9069: 8890: 8222: 8206: 8190: 8174: 7409:

pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.

3535:. They governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing. The Qing deliberately avoided placing 3437:

E.H. Parker, The Financial Capacity of China; Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

16891: 16669: 16536: 16402: 16296: 15896: 15829: 15739: 15517: 15385: 15069: 13218: 9455: 9275: 8949: 7081:

later found themselves in positions of power and influence in Manchu administration and even had their own

4414: 2948:

to secure the coastal approaches to Korea, so that Ming could not send reinforcements. On 9 December 1636,

2127: 1782: 1616: 1491: 1440: 1288: 880: 283: 265: 13564: 8508: 6395:. Great care was taken to symbolise support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of the term 6101:, under a Burmese guard. In Yunnan, the banner troops had engaged in pillage and rape when moving through 4698:

estuary continued to harbour pirates and resistance forces, threatening to link up with the resistance in

2391:. Undersupplied and underpaid soldiers mutinied against the Ming dynasty. They subsequently sailed across 271: 16808: 16791: 16301: 16276: 16239: 16149: 16109: 15861: 15749: 15734: 15469: 15101: 14653: 7463: 7100: 2304: 1948: 1738:, a Ming loyalist state with the goal of reunifying China. However, Tungning was defeated in 1683 at the 14461:

Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928

17191: 16637: 15560: 15282: 15181: 14694: 14416: 14385: 7490: 7231: 7025: 6979: 6492: 3883:'s rebels in 1642. They were unable to resist Li Zicheng and many tusi chiefs were massacred. When the 3766:, which in turn caused a major rebellion. The rebels were pacified through generous grants of amnesty. 1773:. The Manchus and Qing dynasty started from northeastern China and spread throughout the rest of China. 858: 847: 396: 15318: 8448:

The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia

7867: 7239:, China's richest province, was actually below Ming levels in 1820 (but equal to that of contemporary 6842: 4157:

instead of tarrying. The Prince of Fu could find no words to respond when he tried to defend himself.

3387:

personally led 60,000 of his troops out of Beijing to attack Wu. At the same time, Wu Sangui wrote to

1514:). It ended with the consolidation of Qing rule, and the fall of the Ming and several other factions. 17201: 16920: 16849: 16642: 16174: 16099: 15968: 15886: 15729: 15565: 15491: 15262: 15252: 12374: 7480: 7448: 7021: 4421:'s July 1645 edict ordering all men to shave their forehead and tie their hair into a queue like the 4409: 4056:

on 19 June 1644 under the protection of Ma Shiying and his large war fleet. He would reign under the

2908: 2510: 2327: 2133: 1944: 1778: 1605: 1577: 1430: 1281: 966: 869: 13543: 9911:

Cultural Centrality and Political Change in Chinese History: Northeast Henan in the Fall of the Ming

4429:

Resistance in the region was originally muted. As the heartland of the scholarly class, hundreds of

2991:

was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince

2541:. Manchu Aisin-Gioro princesses were also married to Han Chinese officials' sons. The Manchu leader 2471:(Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidding them from public view, because they showed that the 17122: 16942: 16676: 16647: 16397: 15792: 15671: 15570: 15257: 15171: 7514: 7504: 7453: 6869:). Xuyên participated in various Nguyễn campaigns against Cambodia in 1689, 1699-1700 and in 1717. 6428: 4130: 2650:) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong. A daughter of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro Prince Yolo was wedded to 2088:

clans were artificially created from groups of unrelated people who would found a new Manchu clan (

1680: 1639:, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt and then proclaimed the 1357: 242: 15754: 11299: 9529:

Events that formed the modern world : from the European Renaissance through the War on Terror

9527: 6757:

and his five concubines committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as

6540:

loyalist forces in 1650 and organized a massacre of the city's population. His son was one of the

5822:

Muslims. By 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties.

2522:

that the Qing founders were Ming China's subjects was meant to avoid the accusation of rebellion.

16718: 16184: 16169: 16003: 15901: 15702: 15611: 15277: 15131: 13782:

The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo

13619:

Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan

13599:

Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan

7570: 6388: 6003:

in the next two years, Li Dingguo failed to retake important cities. In 1653, the Qing court put

5743:, a man who claimed to be related to the Ming Imperial family, declared himself Prince of Qin in 4759: 4126: 2902: 2602:

This policy, which began before the invasion of 1644, was continued after it. A 1648 decree from

2355: 1890: 1445: 891: 38: 14086:

Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-century China

8977: 6858: 5763:'s forces. In the chaos, many bandit groups expanded their raids. A local outlaw by the name of 5282:

subdued Hunan in 1646. After the fall of the Longwu regime, He Tengjiao swore allegiance to the

4871: 4477:

The queue order was proposed by a number of Han Chinese officials in order to curry favour with

4060:"Hongguang" (弘光). The Hongguang regime was ridden with factional bickering that facilitated the 3778:

in 1629, a number of Chinese works considered to be of critical importance were translated into

2406:

Hong Taiji was reluctant to become Emperor of China. However, Han Chinese officials Ning Wanwo (

17267: 17247: 17099: 16987: 16868: 16693: 15911: 15639: 15587: 15395: 15287: 13538: 13008:

Wang Shochu, Records of the Ten Day massacre in Yangzhou. Available in Chinese at Wikisource:

12597: 10264: 10130: 9994: 9197: 9181: 7485: 6762: 5728: 4878:

in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647. In one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers,

3676: 3416: 3296: 1660: 1413: 546: 82: 14828:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China

14501: 14459: 14404: 13973: 13933: 13477: 13461: 13440: 13414: 13400: 13384: 13308: 13292: 13260: 13244: 13111: 13041: 13025: 12984: 12888: 12552: 12526: 12510: 12494: 12478: 12426: 12410: 12249: 12196: 11843: 11334: 11318: 11234: 11218: 11094: 11047: 10958: 10870: 10835: 10819: 10626: 10500: 10304: 10245: 10229: 9938: 9909: 9895: 9879: 9847: 9759: 9686: 9580: 9513: 9449: 9374: 9333: 9245: 9229: 9108: 9089: 9024: 9008: 8943: 8900: 8617: 8532: 8489: 8446: 8389: 8123: 8029: 7961: 7892: 7770:

Fan, Ka-wai (2010). "Climatic change and dynastic cycles in Chinese history: A review essay".

7697: 7678: 5715:, Shaanxi, contacted Jiang Xiang, rebelled and switched back to the Ming. They were joined by 4944:

commander of Sichuan, moved south towards Guizhou and unsuccessfully attempted to contact the

4589:. The loyalists splintered over strategy disagreements. The loyalist navy, trying to sail for 3302:

When Li Zicheng and his army reached Beijing, he had made an offer via the former Ming eunuch

17262: 17257: 17173: 17032: 16992: 16659: 16621: 16509: 16489: 16407: 16206: 16189: 16054: 16023: 15958: 15744: 15722: 15707: 15348: 15328: 15206: 15166: 15156: 14373: 13524:"Agricultural productivity and rural incomes in England and the Yangtze Delta, c.1620–c.1820" 13368: 13276: 13228: 13057: 12773: 12617:""Righteous Yang": Pirate, Rebel, and Hero on the Sino-Vietnamese Water Frontier, 1644– 1684" 12265: 11437: 11078: 10930: 10851: 10803: 10784: 10553: 10514: 10481: 10430: 10416: 9863: 9653: 9497: 9481: 9465: 9347: 9317: 9301: 9213: 9122: 8959: 8871: 8588: 8518: 8475: 8420: 8360: 8333: 8235: 8216: 8200: 8184: 8168: 8152: 8078: 8046: 7931: 7844: 7509: 7475: 7190:

but did not carry out violence in cities which surrendered and capitulated to Qing rule like

6951: 6927: 6305: 6292:

with a well-armed fleet, took several cities from Qing hands, and went so far as to threaten

3519:

emperors, as well as governor posts, largely excluding ordinary Han Chinese civilians. Three

3477: 3415:

Zicheng's troops were quickly routed and fled back toward Beijing. After their defeat at the

2575:) title. Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao. The 4th daughter of 344: 10189: 10173: 9285: 8805: 8335:

A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule

8097: 7643: 6777:

for her supposed assistance during the Qing expansion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" (

5936:, exterminated all his opponents in the Southern Ming court and kept the Ming emperor under 5604:

broke out in March 1647. Shandong had been plagued by brigandage before the collapse of the

3523:

Han Chinese Bannermen officers who played a major role in southern China from the Ming were

2070: 1615:

At the same time, the Ming dynasty was fighting for its survival against fiscal turmoil and

17104: 17071: 17037: 16982: 16862: 16844: 16554: 16484: 16291: 16074: 15775: 15343: 15242: 15121: 14806:. Berkeley: Center of Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 43–85. 14196: 13331: 12393: 9610: 9605: 8972: 8800: 8707: 8702: 7779: 7354: 6974:. Partly in reaction and to protest the laxity and excess of the late Ming, they turned to 3787: 3255:, the peasant rebellions ravaging northern China were approaching dangerously close to the 2924:'s brother was sent to deliver this tribute. However, in later letters to the Joseon king, 2475: 2331: 1535: 1305: 14956:. Tunguso Sibirica (in German). Vol. 2 (reprint ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 14236: 11048:"6 politics of the queue: agitation and resistance in the beginning and end of qing china" 5942:

imprisonment, all the while continuing to refer to Zhang Xianzhong as a deceased emperor.

5004: 8: 17157: 17007: 16947: 16879: 16559: 16412: 16367: 16114: 15993: 15973: 15881: 15625: 15464: 15407: 15360: 15292: 15146: 14408: 14377: 10555:

Bannermen Tales (Zidishu): Manchu Storytelling and Cultural Hybridity in the Qing Dynasty

7308: 7227: 6708: 6672: 6616: 6392: 6309: 5858: 4956:. Qing forces mainly left the province due to starvation and the remainder garrisoned at 4851:

defected to the Qing and guided them to Zhang. Liu was later granted the title of Baron.

3583: 3333: 3138:. The Koreans, however, were incapacitated by outbreaks of disease. The fortress city of 3107: 2347: 2204: 2168: 1958: 1907: 1731: 1593: 1435: 1362: 1352: 1269: 1160: 536: 385: 332: 176: 15196: 13335: 13093:"The Epidemics in Ming Beijing and the Responses from the Empire's Public Health System" 8005: 7783: 6162:

to negotiate handing the emperor over. Subsequently, 100,000 Qing soldiers crossed into

3899:, under former Ming commanders Sun Shoufa, He Zhen and Wu Dading, capturing the city of 17042: 16753: 16748: 16574: 16514: 16504: 16499: 16494: 16318: 16164: 15983: 15237: 15191: 15151: 15042: 15034: 14312: 14304: 14190: 13929: 13875: 13846: 13838: 13556: 13347: 9061: 7795: 7737:

Li, Gertraude Roth (2002). "State Building before 1644". In Willard J. Peterson (ed.).

7349: 6770: 6641: 5736: 5727:. The revolt was defeated by the end of the year by a Banner force commanded by Prince 5094: 5043: 4629: 4614: 4550: 4295: 3951: 3520: 3489: 3395: 3143: 3139: 3085: 2757: 2565:

to the Manchus in 1618. The offspring of Li Yongfang received the "Third Class Baron" (

2421: 2409: 2137: 2115: 2074: 2021: 1843: 1815: 1800: 1750: 1692: 1684: 1403: 1383: 1373: 1368: 1347: 373: 15370: 13092: 10000:(paper). EAI Fellows Program Working Paper Series. The East Asia Institute. p. 12 7062:"Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all 6412:

the Dutch. The Ming dynasty princes who accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan were the Prince

3609:. The Manchus sent Han Chinese Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in 1749:

The Qing victory was overwhelmingly the result of the defection of the Ming dynasty's

1393: 1327: 17052: 17047: 17022: 16967: 16962: 16885: 16833: 16738: 16569: 16474: 16372: 16271: 16234: 16159: 16089: 16059: 16013: 15449: 15186: 15126: 15046: 14978: 14957: 14936: 14917: 14898: 14875: 14854: 14832: 14807: 14785: 14778: 14759: 14740: 14719: 14698: 14680: 14658: 14634: 14613: 14592: 14530: 14507: 14486: 14465: 14444: 14420: 14389: 14358: 14331: 14316: 14273: 14263: 14221: 14175: 14151: 14130: 14069: 14034: 14013: 13983: 13958: 13939: 13915: 13894: 13888: 13850: 13807: 13786: 13765: 13743: 13722: 13701: 13680: 13660: 13622: 13603: 13582: 13560: 13552: 13497: 13420: 13351: 13199: 13160: 13117: 13070: 12777: 12699: 12558: 12332: 12307: 12202: 11876: 11849: 11663: 11492: 11443: 11280: 11055: 10569: 10559: 10520: 10436: 10150: 9915: 9765: 9533: 9353: 9138: 9065: 8920: 8877: 8780: 8594: 8538: 8495: 8452: 8366: 8339: 8129: 8052: 7967: 7937: 7799: 7750: 7714: 7373: 7361: 7271: 7179: 7005: 6919: 6652: 6564:, and they were forced to grant these generals vast autonomy and subsidies. In 1673, 6541: 6369: 6270: 4887: 4685: 4505:

and the local gentry mobilised militia and revolted, but they failed in an attack on

4458: 4434: 4346: 4212: 4196: 4045: 4005: 3736: 3668: 3563: 3466: 3457:. However, his hopes to restore the former were dashed after he rebelled against the 3407: 3307: 3284: 3275:

and proclaimed himself king. In March, his armies had captured the important city of

3000: 2864:. Han Chinese defectors were primarily responsible for military strategy after 1631. 2456: 2351: 1913: 1696: 1644: 1589: 1342: 1337: 1332: 693: 627: 508: 476: 454: 14992:

Yu, Pauline (2002). "Chinese Poetry and Its Institutions". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).

10432:

A Chronology of Translation in China and the West: From the Legendary Period to 2004

7012:. Yet the phrase "defeat the Qing and restore the Ming" remained a byword for many. 6699:(Koxinga) had died in 1662. His descendants resisted Qing rule until 1683, when the 6615:

surrendered in 1681 after a massive Qing counteroffensive, in which the Han Chinese

3679:. Wu managed to engage Li's rearguard many times, but Li still managed to cross the 3142:

fell next after a major battle, due to the defection and betrayal of Ming commander

1679:

argues that one key factor was deteriorating relations between Ming royalty and the

1522:

The transition from the Ming to Qing was a decades-long period of conflict between:

17206: 17089: 17012: 16952: 16758: 16479: 16340: 16286: 16129: 16094: 15998: 15923: 15891: 15618: 15427: 15390: 15380: 15365: 15338: 15323: 15161: 15026: 14822: 14799: 14773: 14350: 14296: 13867: 13830: 13638: 13548: 13339: 11655: 9057: 9053: 7787: 7742: 7345: 7279: 7211: 7082: 6724: 6671:, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the 5904:

dynasty—from 1647 to 1661. The provincial and national boundaries are those of the

5744: 5361: 5077:, managed to escape by land to the southeastern province of Fujian. Crowned as the 4874:, who reported it. Zhang Xianzhong was killed in a battle against Qing forces near 4867: 4691: 4625: 4562: 4443: 4382: 4172:

army would not attack them nor kill or do any violence against peaceful defectors.

4053: 3955: 3947: 3919: 3732: 3420: 3057: 3024: 2491: 2400: 2308: 2156:

was busy fortifying the border garrisons and training new musketeers. The new khan

1993: 1978: 1970: 1951:

that had ruled over northern China several centuries earlier, and declared himself

1858: 1766: 1739: 1628: 1597: 1596:. Many of the grievances he presented dealt with conflicts against the Ming-backed 1585: 1450: 1418: 1408: 1322: 1317: 1130: 1102: 1074: 1053: 1010: 994: 936: 796: 783: 770: 757: 739: 726: 702: 602: 516: 417: 215: 164: 14609:

Giulio Aleni, Kouduo richao, and Christian–Confucian Dialogism in Late Ming Fujian

14527:

From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China

7746: 7340:. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 抚顺尼堪 ( 7206:. Zhang Xianzhong killed 600,000 to 6 million civilians. A massive famine in 6898:, was one of many artists and writers who refused to give their allegiance to the 5581: 3391:

to request the Qing's help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming dynasty.

2111:, learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them. 1166:

By 1648, Han Bannermen made up 75% of the Eight Banners while Manchus at only 16%.

17221: 17167: 17017: 17002: 16826: 16281: 16244: 16194: 16154: 16104: 16049: 15918: 15809: 15661: 15604: 15522: 15297: 15272: 14972: 14951: 14892: 14869: 14848: 14826: 14734: 14713: 14688: 14684: 14670: 14648: 14628: 14607: 14586: 14545: 14522: 14480: 14438: 14325: 14267: 14215: 14145: 14124: 14113: 14063: 14028: 14007: 13977: 13909: 13801: 13780: 13759: 13737: 13716: 13695: 13674: 13654: 13597: 13576: 13491: 13193: 12763: 12367: 11870: 11659: 10558:. Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. Vol. 105. Brill. p. 24. 10144: 9636: 9424: 9402: 9162: 9149: 8914: 8842: 8774: 8745: 7203: 7175: 7117: 7034: 7009: 6285: 6266: 6238: 6143: 6090: 6070: 6031: 5913: 5724: 5665: 5337: 4996:

and managed to hold out until suppressed by a large-scale Qing campaign in 1664.

4989: 4921: 4917: 4855: 4813: 4799: 4767: 4526: 4386: 4365:'s military camp. Huang Degong told him that if he died fighting to the death in 4192: 4146: 4029: 3959: 3943: 3779: 3614: 3512: 3465:

The easy transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties has been ascribed to the

3321: 3229: 3167: 3147: 2668: 2631: 2603: 2504: 1882: 1723: 1707: 1667:. On 6 June, the mainly Han Chinese forces of Dorgon and Wu entered the capital. 1561: 1539: 1495: 1465: 1070: 499: 350: 13416:

Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century)

7929: 5771:

and began handing out Ming ranks and documents, assembling an army. He attacked

3601:

It was such a Qing army composed mostly of Han Chinese Bannermen which attacked

3220:

faced a number of famines and floods as well as economic chaos, and rebellions.

1873:

and spread throughout China in the 1640s. Major battles included the sacking of

17084: 16957: 16723: 16686: 16134: 16124: 16064: 15785: 15780: 15656: 14167: 7546:

For examples of the factional struggles that weakened the Hongguang court, see

7440: 7240: 7215: 7137: 7129: 7121: 6720: 6716: 6700: 6577: 6242: 6004: 5984: 5897: 5704: 5680:

led elite multi-ethnic Banner forces to crush the insurrection by 18 November.

5661: 5657: 5621: 5541: 5533: 5392: 5302: 5283: 5153: 5121: 5078: 4969: 4925: 4875: 4859: 4821: 4747: 4677: 4577:. The loyalists aimed to serve as a linkage between the upstream resistance in 4498: 4241: 3876: 3864: 3814: 3755: 3551: 3528: 3516: 3458: 3399: 3288: 2996: 2977: 2969: 2921: 2805: 2781: 2745: 2707: 2643: 2627: 2623: 2576: 2448: 2396: 2388: 2350:, expressed their displeasure at the situation by massacring the population of 2254: 2231: 2223: 2160:

was eager for a quick victory to consolidate his position as khan. By invading

2153: 2149: 2041: 2040:

Ming soldiers in the city; Liaoyang fell after traitors let down ropes for the

1997: 1962: 1916: 1851: 1770: 1703: 1688: 1672: 1652: 1601: 711: 635: 592: 576: 541: 127: 14555: 14354: 14220:. Translated by David Kwan (1st ed.). Beijing: Chinese Literature Press. 13834: 10573: 10516:

Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th–20th Centuries)

8976: 7791: 5608:, and most Ming officials and their gentry-organised militia welcomed the new 2654:, who was another son of Geng Jingmao. Aisin-Gioro women were also offered to 17236: 17196: 17162: 17127: 16743: 16733: 16549: 15940: 15666: 15459: 15402: 15030: 14690:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

14413:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

14382:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

13800:

Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philip; Millward, James A (2004).

13343: 11284: 7933:

Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China

7397: 7337: 7236: 7164: 7067: 6943: 6866: 6734: 6668: 6660: 6656: 6537: 6529: 6448: 6361: 6329: 6317: 6289: 6250: 6183: 6147: 6054: 6043: 6027: 5925: 5901: 5882: 5849:. Other rebels, given the ready access to the Ming loyalists in neighbouring 5834: 5815: 5791: 5776: 5586: 5481: 5419: 5376: 5326: 5196: 5180: 5149: 5137: 5086: 5074: 5054: 5024: 5012: 4945: 4735: 4641: 4462: 4438: 4422: 4339: 4299: 4245: 4237: 4184: 4180: 4169: 4134: 4097: 3980: 3963: 3931: 3797: 3712: 3595: 3536: 3470: 3352: 3248: 3123: 3073: 3040: 3028: 2953: 2872: 2868: 2749: 2735: 2719: 2659: 2607: 2592: 2534: 2472: 2452: 2380: 2339: 2289: 2212: 2184: 2180: 2085: 2081: 2014: 1795:

Manchus were living in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopting

1788: 1676: 1531: 1398: 1388: 1378: 1264: 1153: 1135: 1046: 1035: 1024: 971: 960: 921: 885: 874: 863: 852: 836: 810: 792: 716: 698: 675: 652: 647: 472: 355: 307: 259: 228: 158: 14633:. Yale Historical Publications Series. Vol. 85. Yale University Press. 13911:

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

7088: 5620:, and a woman by the surname of Zhang claimed to be the Crown Prince of the 5136:, the last Ming bastion in Jiangxi. In July, a new southern campaign led by 4369:

then all the ministers would have followed his lead in fighting against the

1901: 526: 17216: 16913: 16855: 16544: 16526: 16382: 15852: 15442: 15092: 15005:. Vol. 2. Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University. 14673: 14084: 13821:

Durrant, Stephen (Fall 1977). "Manchu Translations of Chou Dynasty Texts".

13803:

New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde

13650: 12822: 12390:

China's Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century: Victory at Full Moon

8590:

Our Great Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism, And the State in Late Imperial China

7739:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1

7498: 7426: 7259: 7255: 7247: 7093: 6967: 6939: 6935: 6923: 6915: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6862: 6854: 6822: 6637: 6627: 6608: 6569: 6545: 6384: 6301: 6159: 6134: 6102: 6094: 5892: 5772: 5624:

and his consort, respectively. With the aid of another bandit chief called

5609: 5605: 5557: 5430: 5372: 5368: 5314: 5275: 5271: 5243: 5117: 5102: 5070: 5062: 5047: 5008: 4953: 4941: 4743: 4715: 4570: 4537: 4482: 4370: 4287: 4253: 4233: 4200: 4154: 4118: 4061: 4037: 4013: 3994: 3884: 3872: 3696: 3672: 3571: 3567: 3555: 3454: 3450: 3403: 3375: 3356: 3348: 3325: 3268: 3256: 3252: 3244: 3217: 3195: 3111: 3091: 3069: 3012: 2916: 2833: 2817: 2712: 2695: 2683: 2651: 2550: 2479: 2463:. The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of 2415: 2359: 2343: 2312: 2293: 2285: 2266: 2145: 2107: 1965:

the strength to assert themselves backed by an army consisting of majority

1953: 1928: 1924: 1835: 1727: 1640: 1565: 1550: 1546: 1527: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1293: 1276: 1259: 831: 664: 521: 434: 402: 254: 204: 186: 182: 172: 154: 138: 123: 15501: 14009:

A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990

13785:. Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia. Vol. 3. Routledge. 10146:

Banner Legacy: The Rise of the Fengtian Local Elite at the End of the Qing

8804: 7344:

Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing

2538: 1631:, which he did in 1636, declaring the new Qing dynasty. On 24 April 1644, 17152: 16873: 16594: 16589: 15697: 15232: 13858:

Durrant, Stephen (1979). "Sino-Manchu translations at the Mukden Court".

9609: 8706: 7393: 7333: 7296: 7078: 7063: 7058: 6996: 6991: 6983: 6959: 6955: 6882: 6878: 6774: 6766: 6664: 6589: 6581: 6553: 6460: 6167: 6151: 6113:

chiefs, rose in rebellion on the side of the Yongli Emperor. His city of

6086: 6078: 5965: 5956:

who held the position of Duke of Qianguo. In the early Ming, it was Duke

5807: 5562: 5477: 5466: 5426: 5329: 5259: 5172: 4711: 4662: 4649: 4554: 4466: 4275: 4165: 4150: 4114: 4105: 4041: 3946:, to legitimise them as a Ming loyalist force, and they quickly captured 3687:, and Wu returned to Beijing. Li Zicheng reestablished his power base in 3587: 3500: 3481: 3343: 3119: 3061: 3053: 3047:

in 1631. Mandatory shaving of the front of all male heads was imposed on

3020: 2961: 2876: 2731: 2691: 2635: 2554: 2530: 2499: 2460: 2335: 2281: 2277: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2061: 2045: 1966: 1935:, believing that his tribe was too weak to gain hegemony over the larger 1796: 1711: 1620: 951: 911: 842: 826: 681: 586: 571: 566: 428: 15038: 13842: 12053: 9995:"Managing Hegemony in East Asia: China's Rise in Historical Perspective" 6942:, a descendant of the Ming ruling family, became recluses. Others, like 4338:

campaigns. Many of these became the most capable commanders against the

3158:

then led another raid into the interior of China, reaching the northern

16820: 16664: 16614: 16584: 16427: 15676: 15532: 14482:

International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Volume 5

14308: 13676:

Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World

12765:

Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte

7405: 7369: 7251: 7171: 7152: 7133: 6846: 6802: 6754: 6612: 6573: 6525: 6472: 6413: 6408: 6126: 5976: 5917: 5811: 5570: 5566: 5529: 5489: 5279: 5125: 5066: 4825: 4817: 4779: 4279: 4122: 4085: 4049: 4033: 3880: 3823: 3664: 3646: 3532: 3524: 3384: 3371: 3264: 3221: 2981: 2965: 2949: 2925: 2875:

became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with

2825: 2809: 2741: 2703: 2699: 2647: 2584: 2580: 2495: 2392: 2384: 2319: 2157: 1878: 1636: 1624: 1588:, which enumerated grievances against the Ming. Nurhaci, leader of the 1569: 1557: 1511: 1298: 1207: 1170: 1083: 980: 896: 821: 748: 611: 598: 462: 409: 168: 15821: 15061: 14012:(illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. 13879: 10149:. Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan. p. 24. 9376:

The Manchus: Or The Reigning Dynasty of China; Their Rise and Progress

8491:

Global Crisis: War, Climate and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century

6887: 5552:. Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured 4882:, who pointed him out to be shot by an archer. Hooge then easily took 4529:

turned on the region and with the exception of a few holdouts such as

16609: 16599: 15717: 14831:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. 10108: 7930:

Pamela Kyle Crossley; Helen F. Siu; Donald S. Sutton (January 2006).

7575: 7278:. In 1641, northern China was hit by disease and plague spreading to 7187: 7042: 6947: 6648: 6623: 6565: 6533: 6421: 6321: 6222:

bandit named Qian Ying managed to acquire blank commissions from the

6171: 6118: 6114: 6035: 6000: 5953: 5760: 5732: 5712: 5676:. Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Qing. Defected Ming general 5553: 5537: 5493: 5438: 5434: 5411: 5388: 5384: 5353: 5322: 5318: 5306: 5106: 4973: 4965: 4957: 4952:. Here he began stockpiling resources to prepare for war against the 4897: 4771: 4558: 4470: 4204: 3900: 3851:

The Qing regime passed the Neighbourhood Security Investigation Law (

3830:. A Manchu translation was made of the military themed Chinese novel 3660: 3618: 3446: 3367: 3363: 3337: 3191: 3183: 3151: 3127: 3044: 2973: 2941: 2773: 2753: 2596: 2588: 2208: 2200: 2172: 2057: 1862: 1811: 1719: 1656: 1186: 623: 617: 504: 321: 14300: 13697:

A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology

9120: 8451:(illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 99–100. 6509: 6206: 5410:, disappointed at being made a mere regional commander after taking 5233: 4536:

Resistance from marsh bandits, fishermen, gentry-led militia and ex-

467: 17094: 16839: 16786: 16728: 16604: 16579: 13871: 13739:

The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing

12444: 12432: 10461: 7494: 7401: 7385: 7365: 7321: 7304: 7300: 7219: 7183: 7160: 7050: 7046: 6987: 6975: 6963: 6758: 6704: 6689: 6488: 6464: 6456: 6452: 6352: 6274: 6258: 6195: 6008: 5957: 5938: 5637: 5601: 5513: 5470: 5462: 5458: 5349: 5295: 5274:

remnants in Hunan, which became famous for holding out against the

5219: 5215: 5141: 5110: 5058: 5031: 4840: 4783: 4775: 4755: 4739: 4719: 4681: 4645: 4633: 4602: 4582: 4574: 4541: 4530: 4450: 4430: 4358: 4291: 4271:

for the best and 10 taels at most for those wearing good clothing.

4260: 4229: 4221: 4188: 4176: 4161: 4093: 4089: 4069: 4065: 4057: 4025: 3998: 3990: 3896: 3704: 3688: 3272: 3103: 3072:) and other ethnicities of this region were absorbed into the Qing 3043:, led by their own Nanai Hurka chief Sosoku before surrendering to 2562: 2369: 2364: 2243: 2053: 2033: 2029: 2010: 2001: 1986: 1974: 1874: 1761: 1743: 1659:

shifted his allegiance to the Qing. Li Zicheng was defeated at the

1609: 916: 805: 641: 380: 115: 14550:. Translated by Wylie, Alexander. Shanghae : London Mission Press. 12329:

Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800

12271: 11709: 11480: 6520: 5336:(永曆) regime in the same vicinity. The Prince of Gui had fled from 5144:

regime into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in

4948:

court for supplies, wandering in desperate search for supplies to

4912:, killed him and took the city, but continued moving southward to 4404: 2679: 1822: 17079: 14464:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Washington Press. 14440:

The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions

13721:. Peoples of Asia. Vol. 14 (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 13581:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. 12770:

Representations from the field of non-Christian religious history

12012: 11733: 11555: 8776:

The Manchu era (1644–1912): arts of China's last imperial dynasty

7985: 7983: 7389: 7377: 7312: 7292: 7267: 7207: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7156: 7149: 7141: 7071: 6826: 6814: 6810: 6809:. His position was Chief Commander of Longmen (a place in modern 6806: 6798: 6696: 6601: 6593: 6585: 6483:

in 1672 on northeastern Taiwan. Only 21 Dutch sailors escaped to

6468: 6376: 6365: 6356: 6313: 6297: 6293: 6278: 6227: 6211: 6191: 6163: 6155: 6016: 5996: 5992: 5980: 5961: 5929: 5921: 5850: 5842: 5826: 5799: 5783: 5752: 5748: 5716: 5673: 5633: 5629: 5597: 5576: 5549: 5545: 5517: 5501: 5485: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5415: 5400: 5396: 5357: 5291: 5247: 5239: 5223: 5184: 5168: 5133: 5129: 5090: 5085:

on 18 August, he depended on the protection of talented seafarer

4981: 4913: 4909: 4883: 4844: 4833: 4829: 4809: 4787: 4695: 4666: 4654: 4510: 4506: 4494: 4366: 4354: 4323: 4303: 4283: 4264: 4249: 4217: 4211:. The Qing arrived at the gates of Nanjing a week later, but the 4208: 4138: 4101: 4021: 4017: 4009: 3939: 3927: 3775: 3743: 3724: 3692: 3652: 3606: 3602: 3591: 3546: 3540: 3504: 3379: 3329: 3276: 3260: 3233: 3225: 3199: 3179: 3159: 3154:

to go on the offense, but he was quickly repelled. Manchu prince

3131: 3115: 3036: 2957: 2929: 2885: 2880: 2867:

So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the

2727: 2655: 2542: 2519: 2483: 2373: 2323: 2262: 2258: 2250: 2246: 2219: 2141: 2066: 2037: 1920: 1886: 1870: 1866: 1827: 1805: 1765:

Central Asia in 1636. The Ming dynasty previously ruled over the

1648: 1632: 1581: 1556:

and various other rebel powers in China, such as the short-lived

816: 735: 556: 450: 296: 219: 14529:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 167–99. 13496:(illustrated ed.). American Heritage Pub. Co. p. 365. 11937: 11652:

Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia

9914:(illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 301. 8593:(illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 14. 6655:, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the 6644:, his example inspired other Liaodong generals to remain loyal. 5124:

from the Lu regime and defeated a ragtag force representing the

5019: 2968:, ennobled as the Qing's Prince Gongshun, joined the attacks on 2606:

allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the

2092:) using a term of geographic origin such as a toponym for their 24: 13071:"The Little Ice Age and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty: A Review" 7876:, pp. 60–61, 196–197, 200, 210, 481, 1016–1030, 1036–1039. 7469: 7341: 7317: 7263: 7125: 7113: 6891: 6850: 6801:

to leave the Qing dynasty in March 1682. Yang was a general of

6712: 6561: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6380: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6254: 6246: 6223: 6187: 6179: 6074: 6020: 5988: 5972: 5945: 5870: 5768: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5521: 5333: 5310: 5263: 5227: 5188: 5176: 5156:

and left northern Fujian undefended against a Qing army led by

5145: 5082: 5039: 4949: 4805: 4751: 4699: 4673: 4658: 4618: 4606: 4586: 4545: 4533:, the loyalists fell quickly and the population was massacred. 4478: 4454: 4418: 4311: 4225: 4081: 3934:. To pacify the rebels, the Qing government quickly despatched 3911: 3827: 3751: 3747: 3684: 3656: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3610: 3559: 3496: 3388: 3332:, Li Zicheng sent an offer to the powerful Ming general at the 3280: 3251:

enterprise", and his advisors were pondering how to attack the

3243:, whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the 3240: 3187: 3174: 3155: 3065: 3032: 3016: 2992: 2988: 2937: 2912: 2663: 2639: 2616: 2558: 2546: 2487: 2299: 2273: 2161: 2049: 2025: 1847: 1735: 1664: 561: 551: 531: 484: 424: 311: 232: 119: 14996:. Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University. 14479:

Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon, eds. (1996).

14349:. The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. 14001:. Montreal: Centre for East Asian Research, McGill University. 13645:. Montreal: Centre for East Asian Research, McGill University. 13578:

The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China

12041: 11393: 10483:

Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

9000: 8998: 7980: 7849:

Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

6109:, under the promise of being given overall command of all the 5371:

regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small

4469:

would look like Manchus and the Qing Emperor, and invoked the

4302:

who was later single-handedly responsible for the conquest of

2622:

The "Dolo efu" rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses.

1854:

tribal chieftains rather than the bureaucrats of the capital.

77: 16803: 16362: 15582: 13447:. Vol. 112. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779. 12215: 12166: 12164: 12113: 12031: 12029: 12027: 11435: 9251: 7381: 7326: 7295:

in a massive famine. The massive disease epidemic devastated

7275: 7054: 7038: 6484: 6476: 6404: 6325: 6082: 6012: 5819: 5645: 5641: 5509: 5505: 5345: 5341: 5287: 5255: 5251: 5218:

in November. From there he attempted to raise a rebellion in

4707: 4703: 4688:, during which local residents were seen harassed by troops. 4578: 4350: 4335: 3888: 3728: 3708: 3700: 3575: 3378:(the eastern end of the Great Wall) and were marching toward 3099: 3095: 2945: 2723: 2227: 2176: 2144:

died from his wounds afterwards. Peace negotiations with the

2118:

but suffered a defeat in which Nurhaci was mortally wounded.

2017:

coast were subjugated as tributary tribes from 1599 to 1641.

489: 111: 107: 14931:

Watson, Rubie Sharon; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, eds. (1991).

13914:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. 10661: 10632: 10256: 10254: 8873:

The Northern Region of Korea: History, Identity, and Culture

6619:

played the major role with the Bannermen taking a backseat.

5952:

were still in power in many areas. The tusi were led by the

5364:

while the Yongli court consisted of men of other provinces.

4896:

informally took over leadership, and he moved southward. In

4417:

around 1900. The Chinese habit of wearing a queue came from

2915:

to open markets near the borders because its conflicts with

2694:

surrendered, he was given much higher status than under the

2539:

given women from the imperial Aisin-Gioro family in marriage

2148:

after the battle delayed an aggressive Ming response to the

17283:

Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia

16973:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet

16462: 15496: 14630:

Tsʻao Yin and the Kʻang-hsi Emperor: Bondservant and Master

13799: 12900: 12868: 12852: 11973: 11961: 11925: 11913: 11901: 11889: 11823: 11784: 11760: 11721: 11654:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 204–210, 11627: 11591: 11504: 11364: 11352: 11340: 11172: 11160: 11112: 10976: 10964: 10936: 10685: 10604: 10592: 10533: 10394: 10382: 10358: 10322: 10207: 10060: 10036: 9727: 9477: 7384:

supported the Qing. The local Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of

6230:'s forces. The Qing governor-general Han Chinese bannerman 6175: 6138: 6110: 6098: 6059: 5983:

under Zhang Xianzhong (d. 1647) and was now protecting the

5949: 5653: 4999: 4374: 4268: 3868: 3808: 3582:

In addition to Han Chinese Banners, the Qing relied on the

3442: 3312: 3163: 3048: 2257:

in 1626, submitting to his rule for protection against the

2006: 1936: 1932: 1846:, where military service and command became hereditary and 494: 316: 14715:

Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws

13621:(illustrated abridged ed.). Oxford University Press. 13490:

Fitzgerald, Charles Patrick (1969). Kotker, Norman (ed.).

12161: 12024: 11813: 11811: 11750: 11748: 11682: 11579: 11528: 11124: 11005: 11003: 10651: 10649: 10647: 9976: 9974: 9961: 9959: 8683: 8659: 8647: 8635: 8623: 8289: 8021: 8019: 7884: 7882: 7404:. The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general 7202:, were thoroughly devastated and depopulated by the rebel 6715:

in 1683 from the Zheng family. Zheng Chenggong's grandson

4766:(Lianyungang) an insurgency was led by the Ming Prince of 4191:'s small force refused to surrender, but could not resist 3985: 3283:. Seeing the progress of the rebels, on 5 April, the Ming 2599:

in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.

2199:

was stationed, and Mao quickly fled with his men into the

1706:

ascended the throne, and in 1662 his regents launched the

85:, one of the major battles during the Ming–Qing transition 14485:(illustrated, annotated ed.). Taylor & Francis. 13413:

Backhouse, Sir Edmund; Otway, John; Bland, Percy (1914).

13173: 12834: 12283: 12089: 12065: 12002: 12000: 11985: 11796: 11699: 11697: 11567: 11545: 11543: 11273:"The End of the Queue: Hair as Symbol in Chinese History" 10988: 10898: 10896: 10894: 10881: 10879: 10752: 10750: 10748: 10012: 9815: 9813: 7903: 7901: 7348:. It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese from 6950:, supported the new regime. Kong wrote a poignant drama, 3613:. The Qing carried out a massive depopulation policy and 3362:

Soon after the emperor had called for help, Ming general

2069:

in 1644. In 1625, the Jurchens captured the port city of

1902:

Conquest of Liaodong and other Jurchen tribes (1601–1626)

14327:

China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia

14147:

Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period: 1644–1912 (2 vols)

14126:

Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644–1912 (2 vols)

12731: 12456: 12227: 12149: 12137: 12077: 10195: 9526:

Thackeray, Frank W.; Findling, John E. Findling (2012).

8395: 8265: 8253: 8241: 7825:

Li, Lillian M.; Dray-Novey, Alison; Kong, Haili (2008).

6994:—who among other things contributed to a revival in the 6344:

where they were defeated in June 1660, and retreated to

5887: 3858: 3212:

Ming Great Wall § The Wall and the fall of the Ming

1177:

Shun dynasty army varies between 60,000 and 100,000 men

11949: 11808: 11772: 11745: 11456: 11405: 11196: 11184: 11148: 11136: 11100: 11000: 10908: 10862: 10860: 10762: 10733: 10709: 10673: 10644: 10370: 10346: 10334: 10310: 10096: 10072: 10048: 10024: 9971: 9956: 9944: 9798: 9739: 9715: 9703: 9691: 9664: 8671: 8412: 8410: 7224:

Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty

6626:, who had betrayed two dynasties in one lifetime: even 6065:

In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu Prince

5759:

with an army of 10,000 men. The rebels were crushed by

5476:

This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New

4968:, he started building a riverine force of his own. The 4680:

had enforced the policy thoroughly on the residents of

3848:). This helped to improve local government operations. 3695:

province), where he had declared the foundation of his

2080:

When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the

1893:

by the Ming governor in an attempt to stop Li Zicheng.

1490:

from 1618 to 1683 saw the transition between two major

14914:

Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History

14736:

The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44

14051:

Desertion and the Militarization of Qing Legal Culture

13955:

Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China

13742:. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. 12990: 12719: 12695:

The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam

12532: 12176: 12125: 12101: 11997: 11694: 11615: 11603: 11540: 11516: 11015: 10891: 10876: 10795: 10793: 10745: 10721: 10697: 10449: 9810: 9586: 9558: 9546: 9263: 9100: 9098: 8570: 8568: 8566: 8531:

Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013).

8227: 8225: 7898: 7670: 7668: 6007:

in charge of retaking the southwest. Headquartered in

5202:

The Prince-Regent of Lu, with the aid of the sea-lord

5175:(western Fujian) on 6 October 1646. After the fall of 4286:, accusing him of repression. With the arrival of the 2399:

en masse. During the mutiny, they purged thousands of

1923:, is retrospectively identified as the founder of the 1808:'s secretary Dahai may have been one such individual. 1655:. When Li Zicheng moved against him, the Ming general 1498:. It was a decades-long conflict between the emerging 238: 14525:. In Spence, Jonathan D.; Wills, John E. Jr. (eds.). 12624:

Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review

11417: 11383: 11381: 11379: 11240: 10580: 9383: 8851: 8823: 8747:

Early Manchu Recruitment of Chinese Scholar-officials

8426: 8313: 8277: 8103: 7380:

supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of

4758:

a scholar led a rebellion of local bandits, and from

4036:

agreed to form a loyalist Ming government around the

3707:

in the summer and autumn of 1644. Qing armies led by

2896: 2630:

and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under the

2490:

referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the

1756: 1714:. He then fought off several rebellions, such as the 14543: 12743: 12698:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 15. 12326: 10519:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 94. 10467: 10412: 10084: 9825: 9039:"The Selection of Women for the Qing Imperial Harem" 8125:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

7416: 6707:

with a fleet of 300 ships to take the Ming loyalist

6498: 5782:

With the mutineers defeated, the Qing turned on the

4609:

but were trapped in the city when Qing forces under

3922:(Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named 3640: 3291:. He was the last Ming emperor to reign in Beijing. 3247:

conquest" and "the principal architect of the great

3006: 2984:

also played prominent roles in the Korean invasion.

2698:, and even allowed to keep his troops as retainers. 2183:

to Joseon with 30,000 troops, under the guidance of

16978:

Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory

14344: 13419:(reprint ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 209. 13412: 11027: 8754: 8725: 8563: 8551: 6918:posed practical and moral problems, especially for 6841:. Dương Ngạn Địch and Hoàng Tiến were sponsored by 6249:in 1655, also continued to defend the cause of the 5829:, a rural, untamed area, was beset by Ming colonel 3637:was an empty city when the Qing forces entered it. 3562:to take advantage of the violent death of the Ming 1663:by the joint forces of Wu Sangui and Manchu prince 14777: 14544:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko (1855). Ch'eng, Ming-yüan (ed.). 14033:(revised ed.). University Press of Kentucky. 11648:"Conclusion: Dai Viet in the Ming-Qing transition" 11468: 11376: 11050:. In Hiltebeitel, Alf; Miller, Barbara D. (eds.). 10282: 10270: 9786: 9127:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 7925: 7923: 7396:revolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000 7372:community was divided in its support for the 1911 7287:Cannibalism in Asia § Ming and Qing dynasties 7104:Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905. 6781:) from her previous status as a heavenly consort ( 6277:province and finally cut the cable protecting the 6201: 5948:was still a frontier land where tribal chieftains 5876: 4104:troops from the western provinces made out of non- 2280:. The Qing defeated the armies of the Mongol khan 2211:fell without a fight and the Jin army crossed the 14478: 14027:Graff, David Andrew; Higham, Robin, eds. (2012). 13320: 11848:(3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 139. 11270: 11054:(Illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 125. 9525: 8534:Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization 8362:Empire and Environment in the Making of Manchuria 5266:court, established the Thirteen Defense Commands 5234:Hunan, Guangdong and Guangxi campaign (1645–1650) 2044:to climb the wall in the night. The Ming general 17234: 14588:The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture 14241:: Vade Mecum for an Iconoclastic Translation of 11297: 11081:, "2 From smuggler-pirates to loyal Confucians". 8301: 8122:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne (2013). 7824: 6576:, the "Three Feudatories", rebelled against the 6391:, expelling them from Taiwan and setting up the 5865:, led an alliance of mountain fortresses around 5814:was blocked to severe all relations between the 4175:Several contingents of Qing forces converged on 4149:, later berated the Southern Ming Prince of Fu, 3178:them in defecting to the Qing, the commander of 2237: 1931:appointed Nurhaci as paramount chieftain of the 14172:Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768 14115:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644–1912 14105:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period: 1644–1912 13928: 12331:. Stanford University Press. pp. 469–470. 11501:, pp. 39, 141, 190, 194–195, 200–201, 255. 10512: 10479: 9780:The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty 9345: 9121:Karl August Wittfogel; Chia-shêng Fêng (1946). 8750:. University of Wisconsin--Madison. p. 10. 8494:(illustrated ed.). Yale University Press. 8128:(3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 271. 7989: 7960:Naquin, Susan; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1987). 7920: 5473:, and his army absorbed He's remaining troops. 5206:, continued resistance at sea on the island of 4793: 4405:Queue order and Jiangnan resistance (1645–1646) 4263:back to their original husbands and fathers in 3205: 3198:as the last barrier on the Qing armies' way to 2936:Prior to the invasion, Hong Taiji sent princes 2715:, and they became critical assets to the Qing. 2326:, whom he succeeded as the second ruler of the 16378:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations 14894:Telling Chinese History: A Selection of Essays 14330:(reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. 14068:(Revised ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 13974:"Yangzhou: A Central Place in the Qing Empire" 13893:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. 12557:. St. Martin's Publishing Group. p. 108. 12351: 11868: 11841: 10142: 9160: 8876:. University of Washington Press. p. 19. 8779:. Art Gallery of Greater Victoria. p. 5. 8044: 7936:. University of California Press. p. 43. 7827:Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City 6733:). He and his soldiers were inducted into the 6273:in 1655. In 1658 he attacked the coastline of 6049: 5577:Ming loyalist revolts in the north (1647–1654) 3974: 3118:was besieged by a force of over 30 cannons of 3079: 1710:to defeat the resistance of Ming loyalists in 1202:25,000,000 deaths overall, including civilians 16798:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China 16769:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 15837: 15682:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 15077: 14679:Struve, Lynn (1988). "The Southern Ming". In 14107:. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 13935:China: A New History, Second Enlarged Edition 11052:Hair: Its Power and Meaning in Asian Cultures 8537:(illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson. 8121: 7741:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–72. 7708: 7689: 7687: 7329:was hit by the 1641 disease plague epidemic. 7008:and the translation of Chinese classics into 6857:. These settlers named their settlements as " 6738: 6728: 6680: 5500:managed to reconquer the central province of 5038:, who was appointed Governor of Zhejiang and 4718:. Loyalist marines continued fighting in the 3871:appointed by the Ming emperor, supported the 2642:'s granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong and 2439: 2433: 2427: 2419: 2407: 1973:against the Ming and departed his capital of 1223: 14503:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery 14188: 13514: 10667: 10435:. Chinese University Press. pp. 60–61. 10428: 9676: 9532:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 200. 9123:"History of Chinese Society: Liao, 907–1125" 8530: 8070: 8068: 8040: 8038: 7959: 7470:Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang (c. 1620–1760) 6788: 4274:During the factional struggles, the warlord 2891: 2674: 2518:because of this. Refusing to mention in the 2300:Hong Taiji and formation of the Qing dynasty 1896: 14994:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2 14930: 14804:Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China 14347:Volume 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 14272:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 14174:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 14089:(PhD). University of California, San Diego. 14026: 13999:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 1 13982:. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 117–50. 13643:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 1 13138:"5 of the 10 Deadliest Wars Began in China" 12670: 12668: 12506: 12490: 12474: 10136: 9761:China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary 9651: 9329: 9004: 8331: 8025: 8000: 7998: 7912:sfn error: no target: CITEREFFairbank1978 ( 7888: 7838: 7836: 6093:. The imperial retinue was disarmed by the 5739:was subject to a massacre. Simultaneously, 5164:. The Qing took control of Fujian in 1645. 5148:. Hoping to gain rewards from Prince Bolo, 5034:province was aided by the collaboration of 4259:Qing soldiers ransomed women captured from 2987:After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, 2403:, suspecting them to be loyal to the Ming. 2315:Emperor in ceremonial and ordinary uniform. 15844: 15830: 15084: 15070: 14933:Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society 14371: 14062:Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.). 14057:(PhD Dissertation). Georgetown University. 13489: 13157:The Seventeen Emperors of the Ming Dynasty 13148: 12691: 12650: 12648: 12356:. Taipei: Haidong shufang. pp. 22–49. 12295: 12170: 12035: 10994: 10018: 9907: 9435:(1–2). Society for Qing Studies: 97. 1989. 9413:(1–2). Society for Qing Studies: 70. 1989. 8089: 8087: 7955: 7953: 7684: 6853:, which had been newly conquered from the 5802:communities were disarmed and shifted 150 5556:with 74 of his own cannons and the aid of 3769: 3394:Meanwhile, Wu Sangui's departure from the 3106:and immediately retreated back across the 2272:The Chahar Mongols were fought against by 1230: 1216: 16458:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty 14970: 14605: 14499: 13979:Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China 13659:(2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, 13542: 13272: 13154: 12840: 12550: 12422: 12406: 12261: 11875:. Harvard University Press. p. 142. 11573: 11561: 11074: 10422: 10300: 9372: 9036: 8743: 8586: 8338:. Stanford University Press. p. 64. 8065: 8035: 7963:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century 6872: 6797:(Yang Yandi) (c) and his fleet sailed to 6241:("Koxinga"), who had been adopted by the 6133:attempted to rescue the emperor from the 5540:fell to Shang Kexi in November 1650. The 5461:) repelled the loyalist counterattack at 5441:. Loyalists hoped to move the emperor to 5167:On the pretext of relieving the siege of 4644:Bannermen were often associated with the 4513:, the resistance forces under magistrate 4108:indigenous fierce tribal warriors called 3671:to suicide, but had been defeated by the 1889:which led to the deliberately engineered 1506:, and several smaller factions (like the 628: 509: 477: 455: 16307:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi 14911: 14867: 14846: 14798: 14772: 14207:United States Government Printing Office 13860:Journal of the American Oriental Society 13778: 13714: 13693: 13672: 13396: 13380: 13198:, Harvard University Press, p. 92, 12665: 12245: 11645: 11436:Kim Hunter Gordon; Jesse Watson (2011). 11230: 11202: 11190: 11142: 11090: 10847: 10831: 10815: 10185: 9622:United States Government Printing Office 9493: 9313: 9281: 9085: 9020: 8989:United States Government Printing Office 8939: 8817:United States Government Printing Office 8719:United States Government Printing Office 8471: 8416: 8385: 8295: 8164: 8109: 8093: 8051:. Harvard University Press. p. 95. 7995: 7907: 7833: 7674: 7099: 7087: 6886: 6825:, he led 3,000 soldiers and 50 ships to 6773:the next year and, honoring the goddess 6684: 6607:However, their disunity destroyed them. 6519: 6508: 6431:against the remaining Ming loyalists in 6427:The Qing agreed to an alliance with the 6205: 6154:was overthrown in a coup by his brother 6053: 5891: 5580: 5018: 5003: 5000:Jiangxi and Fujian campaigns (1646–1650) 4493:, in command of rural militia, besieged 4453:region had been superficially pacified, 4408: 4306:. Other generals were Zuo Liangyu's son 3984: 3545: 3441: 3342: 3146:. The emperor responded by ordering the 3094:armies raided deep into the interior of 2678: 2303: 2121: 2009:1619). The powerful Yehe Jurchens under 1821: 1810: 1760: 1651:tree in the imperial garden outside the 1237: 49:of all important aspects of the article. 16914:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 15851: 15091: 14890: 14821: 14520: 14286: 14213: 14048:Gregory, Eugene John (31 August 2015). 14047: 14005: 13971: 13907: 13857: 13820: 13364: 13021: 12884: 12645: 12577: 12522: 12462: 12450: 12438: 12277: 12233: 12221: 12155: 12143: 12119: 12083: 12059: 12047: 12018: 11979: 11967: 11955: 11943: 11931: 11919: 11907: 11895: 11829: 11817: 11790: 11778: 11766: 11754: 11739: 11727: 11715: 11633: 11510: 11462: 11411: 11370: 11358: 11346: 11330: 11314: 11214: 11178: 11166: 11154: 11118: 11106: 11009: 10982: 10970: 10954: 10942: 10914: 10866: 10768: 10739: 10715: 10691: 10679: 10655: 10638: 10622: 10610: 10598: 10539: 10455: 10400: 10388: 10376: 10364: 10352: 10340: 10328: 10316: 10260: 10241: 10225: 10213: 10201: 10126: 10114: 10102: 10078: 10066: 10054: 10042: 10030: 9980: 9965: 9950: 9934: 9891: 9859: 9843: 9804: 9777: 9745: 9733: 9721: 9709: 9697: 9682: 9670: 9576: 9445: 9389: 9297: 9269: 9257: 9241: 9225: 9193: 9177: 9104: 8919:. University of Michigan. p. 219. 8912: 8689: 8665: 8653: 8641: 8629: 8613: 8401: 8283: 8271: 8259: 8247: 8231: 8212: 8196: 8180: 8148: 8084: 7950: 7873: 7693: 7547: 6150:forces into leaving. The king of Burma 5628:, they rebelled under the Ming flag in 5278:. Qing forces under the early defector 4904:still held out. Xi dynasty boats under 4569:coordinated to rise up and cut off the 3578:instead of raiding for loot and slaves. 2525: 2288:, bringing an end to his rule over the 2167:In 1627, Hong Taiji dispatched princes 1977:with 20,000 men. The army attacked and 17235: 15633:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty 14711: 14678: 14647: 14626: 14457: 14437:Rawski, Evelyn S. (15 November 1998). 14436: 14402: 14323: 14143: 14122: 14111: 13757: 13649: 13616: 13595: 13473: 13457: 12996: 12980: 12964: 12948: 12932: 12916: 12761: 12725: 12614: 12538: 12352:Huang Dianquan (1957). "Yongli 15.3". 12289: 12131: 12107: 12006: 11703: 11688: 11621: 11609: 11597: 11585: 11549: 11534: 11522: 11130: 11021: 10926: 10902: 10885: 10799: 10780: 10756: 10727: 10703: 10586: 10496: 10169: 9819: 9757: 9604: 9592: 9564: 9552: 9461: 9209: 8971: 8955: 8857: 8829: 8799: 8760: 8731: 8701: 8487: 8444: 8432: 8319: 8074: 7966:. Yale University Press. p. 141. 7842: 7732: 7730: 5920:, his generals retreated southward to 2334:to recruit scholar-officials from the 45:Please consider expanding the lead to 17212:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions 16453:Principles of the Constitution (1908) 15825: 15065: 15000: 14753: 14732: 14584: 14570:from the original on 3 September 2014 14189:Larsen, E. S.; Numata, Tomoo (1943). 14150:(reprint ed.). Global Oriental. 14061: 13952: 13886: 13637: 13574: 13521: 13304: 13288: 13256: 13240: 13224: 13179: 13109: 13053: 13037: 12831:, p. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14. 12796: 12749: 12554:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan 12301: 12095: 12071: 11991: 11802: 11498: 11486: 11399: 11258: 11246: 11045: 9875: 9654:"The annals of the Joseon princesses" 9634: 9509: 8896: 8847:. Augustan Society. 1975. p. 34. 8677: 8574: 8557: 8514: 8358: 7812: 7644:"The British-Zheng trading agreement" 7610: 7602: 6861:", to recall their allegiance to the 6560:and defend against the resistance in 6182:, the same Wu whose surrender to the 5924:province, where they encountered the 5888:Conquest of the southwest (1652–1661) 5294:provinces, and was finally killed at 5152:betrayed the loyalists by contacting 4203:and easily took the garrison city of 4080:, the Qing army took the key city of 3859:Conquest of the northwest (1644–1649) 1726:(Koxinga) drove out and defeated the 1584:commissioned a document entitled the 1576:Leading up to the Qing, in 1618, the 1211: 1181:Zhang Xianzhong's army – 100,000 men 16:Period of Chinese history (1618–1683) 16433:Ministry of Posts and Communications 15009: 14718:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 14262: 14234: 14202:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 14166: 13996: 13195:China's Last Empire - The Great Qing 13191: 12828: 12737: 12387: 11271:Michael R. Godley (September 2011). 11033: 10551: 10090: 9992: 9831: 9617:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 8984:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 8812:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 8772: 8714:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 7598: 7520: 6946:, who claimed to be a descendant of 6894:(1642–1707), who was related to the 5853:, were able to continue resistance. 5445:where he would lead a reconquest of 5183:surrendered to the Qing and his son 4908:attacked Zeng's command boat on the 3969: 3918:(米喇印) revolted against Qing rule in 3910:Late in 1646, forces assembled by a 3228:in the north, while a mutiny led by 2995:. In 1650 Dorgon married the Korean 2455:was meant to hide the fact that the 1623:officials urged Nurhaci's successor 18: 17181:History of Qing (People's Republic) 14739:(illustrated ed.). Routledge. 13735: 13441:"Secret Annals of the Manchu Court" 12194: 11474: 11423: 11387: 9792: 8869: 7769: 7727: 6748:against Russian Cossacks at Albazin 5591:Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence 5433:dynasties after the usurpations of 5069:, a ninth-generation descendant of 5065:on 6 July 1645, the Prince of Tang 4858:was surprised by a Qing army under 4754:the poor peasants revolted, around 4385:garrison commander, bannermen from 4232:. By then the frontier between the 4016:imperial house started arriving in 3914:leader known in Chinese sources as 3426: 2545:married one of his granddaughters ( 1549:, the incumbent dynasty led by the 13: 16898:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor 16267:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 16260:1909 Provincial Assembly elections 16140:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874) 15964:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 14991: 14949: 14935:. University of California Press. 14916:. University of California Press. 14897:. University of California Press. 14874:. University of California Press. 14523:"Muslim and Central Asian Revolts" 14443:. University of California Press. 14345:Willard J. Peterson, ed. (2002) . 14082: 14065:Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache 13890:Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook 13700:. University of California Press. 12812: 12681:Quyển 2, Tự chủ thời đại, Chương 6 12578:Bergman, Karl (28 December 2009). 12366: 12182: 10288: 10276: 8307: 7736: 7606: 7155:, it was mentioned that while the 7132:, who were then under the rule of 6312:leading to possible starvation in 4992:from 1653. They were known as the 4976:sent his alleged distant relative 4936:. The remaining Ming forces under 4742:by entering negotiations with the 4734:. Wu Yi attempted to link up with 4125:'s houses and they also did it to 4012:in April 1644, descendants of the 3993:, who refused to surrender to the 3667:, the rebel leader who had driven 2897:Second Joseon campaign (1636–1637) 1996:tribes, a powerful confederacy of 1757:Jurchens and the late Ming dynasty 1746:, a former admiral under Koxinga. 14: 17299: 17187:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty 17028:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) 16903:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 16055:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war) 15003:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry 13976:. In Cooke Johnson, Linda (ed.). 13090: 11442:. Kim Hunter Gordon. p. 61. 9379:. J. and R. Parlane. p. 198. 7845:"The Financial Capacity of China" 7652:National Museum of Taiwan History 6765:the emperor to convert it into a 6499:The Three Feudatories (1674–1681) 6467:in 1665 during their war against 6328:according to a 1671 account by a 6261:in 1650. With his help, sea lord 6178:and executed by strangulation in 5857:, who called himself the Earl of 5755:, backed by a local outlaw named 5735:. The Ming loyalist-held city of 5512:) in 1649, and the population of 3641:Consolidation in the north (1645) 3263:. In February 1644, rebel leader 3166:and 2,200,000 silver taels. Ming 3007:Campaigns against the Amur tribes 2482:dynasty. In the Ming period, the 2140:the previous year and their khan 2060:did so after Nurhaci gave him an 1681:Ming Empire's military leadership 16998:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 16314:Articles of Favourable Treatment 16070:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) 13758:Dawson, Raymond Stanley (1972). 13553:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2008.00443.x 13483: 13433: 13406: 13314: 13185: 13130: 13103: 13084: 13063: 13002: 12755: 12685: 12608: 12590: 12571: 12544: 12381: 12360: 12345: 12320: 12306:. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 84–106. 12188: 12062:, pp. 1016–1030, 1036–1039. 11862: 11835: 11646:Baldanza, Kathlene, ed. (2016), 11639: 11439:Chongqing & The Three Gorges 11429: 11291: 11264: 11039: 10545: 10506: 10473: 9986: 9901: 9751: 9645: 9628: 9598: 9519: 7713:. University of Nebraska Press. 7591: 7582: 7562: 7553: 7540: 7527: 7433: 7419: 7110:defeated Dzungar Mongols in 1759 6647:The Qing forces were crushed by 4613:regrouped and closed the gates. 4129:'s daughter-in-law and son. The 3299:. The Shun received the letter. 2879:Bannermen dominating at 75% and 2099:Nurhaci read the Chinese novels 1134: 1045: 1034: 1023: 970: 959: 920: 884: 873: 862: 851: 835: 809: 754:Zhu Shichuan, Prince of Yanchang 715: 674: 651: 390: 379: 367: 338: 326: 306: 290: 248: 237: 227: 209: 76: 23: 17278:Wars involving the Qing dynasty 17273:Wars involving the Ming dynasty 16045:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813 15931:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 15268:Japanese missions to Ming China 14144:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (2010). 14123:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1991). 14112:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1970). 14103:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1943). 13596:Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2011). 12615:Antony, Robert J. (June 2014). 10486:, Kelly & Walsh, p. 40 9652:Byun Eun Mi (3 February 2012). 9417: 9395: 9366: 9339: 9154: 9114: 9030: 8965: 8906: 8863: 8835: 8793: 8766: 8737: 8695: 8580: 8524: 8481: 8438: 8352: 8325: 8115: 7307:after it spread there from the 6819:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 6761:'s headquarters in 1683 but he 6630:loyalists ridiculed his cause. 6580:. They were joined by generals 6505:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 6383:in April 1661 and defeated the 6202:Seaborne resistance (1655–1663) 6085:, which was then ruled by King 5979:, who had served as general in 5877:Continued fighting in the south 5616:In March 1648, a bandit chief, 5120:armies seized land west of the 4501:, the local military commander 4220:the following year) and seized 3134:artillery under the command of 3023:federation led by Evenki chief 2760:Han Chinese) serving the Qing. 2730:, and, more importantly, added 2311:missionary illustration of the 2114:In February 1626, the Jurchens 1716:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 1456:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 37:may be too short to adequately 16699:Guest House of Imperial Envoys 15989:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas 15142:Campaign against the Uriankhai 14977:. Cambridge University Press. 14657:. W. W. Norton & Company. 13779:Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. (2007). 13715:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002). 13694:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2000). 13679:. Princeton University Press. 13673:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1990). 13617:——— (2012). 12198:The Poet-historian Qian Qianyi 10552:Chiu, Elena Suet-Ying (2020). 10480:Von Mollendorff, P.G. (1890), 9782:. University of Arizona Press. 9135:American Philosophical Society 9058:10.1080/1547402X.2004.11827204 8332:Schlesinger, Jonathan (2017). 7818: 7763: 7702: 7636: 6058:Remains of the outer walls of 5833:, accompanied by Ming princes 5457:(one of those who defected at 5453:. However, the Qing commander 5195:also caved in to Qing general 5109:, had named himself regent in 5057:had not been eliminated. When 4940:, now promoted to Marquis and 4890:as food shortages grew acute. 4839:The Qing forces advanced from 4581:and the coastal resistance in 3806:followed by the military text 2571: 2203:. Next, the Jurchens attacked 897:Zhu Shugui, Prince of Ningjing 47:provide an accessible overview 1: 17133:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank 16908:Islam during the Qing dynasty 16764:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty) 16448:Provincial military commander 16438:Nine Gates Infantry Commander 16423:Imperial Household Department 16250:Preparative Constitutionalism 15954:Sino-Russian border conflicts 15202:Campaigns against the Mongols 14712:Struve, Lynn A., ed. (1993). 14500:Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). 14458:Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). 13957:. Stanford University Press. 12656:Đại Nam liệt truyện tiền biên 12327:John Robert Shepherd (1993). 10513:Claudine Salmon, ed. (2013). 10117:, pp. 442, 445, 446–447. 9908:Des Forges, Roger V. (2003). 9164:Manchuria, Cradle of Conflict 9046:The Chinese Historical Review 7747:10.1017/CHOL9780521243346.003 7624: 7459:Sino-Russian border conflicts 5987:of the Southern Ming, retook 5585:A cannon cast in 1650 by the 5313:by sea, soon founded another 4240:had been pushed south to the 3833:Romance of the Three Kingdoms 2756:" were part of the Han army ( 2726:, but they absorbed defeated 2533:generals who defected to the 2478:family had been ruled by the 2447:Hong Taiji's renaming of the 2238:Mongolia campaign (1625–1635) 2102:Romance of the Three Kingdoms 2073:, thus controlling the whole 1643:. The last Ming emperor, the 17288:Transition from Ming to Qing 16892:Researches on Manchu Origins 16297:Mongolian Revolution of 1911 15907:Transition from Ming to Qing 15897:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 15740:Covered jar with carp design 15356:Transition from Ming to Qing 14912:Walthall, Anne, ed. (2008). 14627:Spence, Jonathan D. (1988). 14591:. Rowman & Littlefield. 14403:Spence, Jonathan D. (2002). 14289:The Journal of Asian Studies 13938:. Harvard University Press. 13493:The Horizon history of China 12551:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). 11660:10.1017/CBO9781316440551.013 11489:, pp. 52, 138, 140–141. 9993:Wang, Yuan-kang (May 2013). 7629: 7214:such as those caused by the 7015: 6737:. His rattan shield troops ( 6667:(non-Banner) instead of the 6073:'s son, took the capital of 5520:fell to another army led by 4794:Sichuan campaign (1646–1658) 4310:who later crushed rebels in 4207:, which protected access to 4096:as the main defender of the 3453:, who later defected to the 3206:Beijing and the north (1644) 2514:were not used to source the 2379:Meanwhile, in the Ming, the 2128:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 2048:who surrendered the city of 1985:about 10 kilometers east of 1783:Late Ming peasant rebellions 1635:fell to a rebel army led by 1480:transition from Ming to Qing 1173:soldiers, and Mongol cavalry 225:Southern and Eastern Mongols 7: 16792:Changzhou School of Thought 16302:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang 16277:Railway Protection Movement 16255:1909 Parliamentary election 16240:British expedition to Tibet 16150:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang 16110:Self-Strengthening Movement 16085:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856) 15735:Ming presentation porcelain 15334:Japanese invasions of Korea 14868:Wakeman, Frederic (1985b). 14847:Wakeman, Frederic (1985a). 14654:The Search for Modern China 14030:A Military History of China 13602:. Oxford University Press. 13531:The Economic History Review 12598:"Tainan Grand Matsu Temple" 12580:"Tainan Grand Matsu Temple" 12453:, pp. 1110–1111, 1124. 12441:, pp. 1099, 1107–1109. 12195:Yim, Lawrence C.H. (2009). 8359:Smith, Norman, ed. (2017). 7990:Fairbank & Goldman 2006 7464:Transition from Sui to Tang 7412: 7274:spread all over famine-hit 7232:25 million people died 7112:, they proclaimed that the 6050:Flight to Burma (1659–1662) 5960:who led the Ming armies in 5900:—the last sovereign of the 5825:The southeastern region of 5687:, the military governor in 5286:, continuing resistance in 5105:claimant, the Prince of Lu 5042:. Tong was originally from 4601:'s light craft forces. The 4449:On 21 July 1645, after the 4088:in early May 1645, leaving 3975:Conquest of Jiangnan (1645) 3366:had left his stronghold of 3080:Liaoxi campaign (1638–1642) 2662:. The Manchu Prince Regent 2610:with the permission of the 2465:Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu 2152:loss, and the Ming general 2020:By summer 1621, the Ming's 1949:the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty 1517: 97:7 May 1618 – 13 August 1683 10: 17304: 17192:Legacy of the Qing dynasty 16080:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) 16019:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806) 16009:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa 15979:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736) 15597:Compilations and Documents 15228:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 15010:Zhao Gang (January 2006). 14891:Wakeman, Frederic (2009). 14780:The Fall of Imperial China 14733:Swope, Kenneth M. (2014). 14695:Cambridge University Press 14585:Smith, Richard J. (2015). 14417:Cambridge University Press 14386:Cambridge University Press 14372:Dennerline, Jerry (2002). 12626:(11): 4–30. Archived from 12375:W. W. Norton & Company 12280:, pp. 86–87, 142–144. 12201:. Routledge. p. 109. 11872:A Concise History of China 11718:, pp. 587, 737, 1103. 9764:. Routledge. p. 379. 8744:Grossnick, Roy A. (1972). 8006:"Summing up Naquin/Rawski" 7491:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia 7355:Qing lists of Manchu clans 7284: 7026:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia 7019: 6980:Three Masters of Jiangdong 6876: 6805:, and swore allegiance to 6719:surrendered Taiwan to the 6681:Surrender of Taiwan (1683) 6556:Banner generals to defeat 6502: 6487:. The ship was going from 6375:Pressured by Qing fleets, 6316:caused such fear that the 6214:'s territory, shown in red 6186:in April 1644 had allowed 5906:People's Republic of China 5880: 5861:, with the aid of general 4797: 4624:The defiant population of 4540:soldiers coalesced around 4248:observed that the city of 4224:'s main cities, including 4068:, which was launched from 3978: 3644: 3216:In their later years, the 3209: 3083: 2900: 2718:There were too few ethnic 2383:broke out in 1631, led by 2125: 1905: 1826:Battle of Ningyuan, where 1776: 1647:, hanged himself from the 859:Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang 848:Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui 397:English East India Company 17202:Names of the Qing dynasty 17145: 17113: 17070: 17063: 16932: 16850:Manchu Han Imperial Feast 16777: 16709: 16630: 16535: 16331: 16222: 16180:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896) 16175:Gongche Shangshu movement 16120:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) 16032: 15969:Chinese Rites controversy 15939: 15869: 15860: 15801: 15768: 15730:Chinese lacquerware table 15690: 15649: 15596: 15553: 15510: 15492:Embroidered Uniform Guard 15420: 15306: 15253:Prince of Anhua rebellion 15215: 15109: 15100: 14355:10.1017/CHOL9780521243346 14324:Perdue, Peter C. (2009). 14094:Hummel, Arthur W. (ed.). 14083:Ho, Dahpon David (2011). 13972:Finnane, Antonia (1993). 13932:; Goldman, Merle (2006). 13908:Elliott, Mark C. (2001). 13835:10.1017/S0362502800006623 13515:General and cited sources 13116:. John Wiley & Sons. 12371:In Search of Modern China 11742:, pp. 539–540, 1103. 11298:Justus Doolittle (1876). 8913:Fryslie, Matthew (2001). 8587:Elverskog, Johan (2006). 8488:Parker, Geoffrey (2013). 8365:. UBC Press. p. 68. 7792:10.1007/s10584-009-9702-3 7481:Qing conquest of Mongolia 7449:Manchuria under Ming rule 7022:Names of the Qing dynasty 6938:. Some, like the painter 6793:The Ming loyalist pirate 6789:Ming loyalists in Vietnam 6739: 6729: 6692:with a party of officials 6544:who rebelled against the 6532:(1655). Shang recaptured 6324:(Tartary) and abandoning 6105:lands, and the chieftain 5912:After the elimination of 5101:In the meantime, another 4994:Kuidong Thirteen Families 4415:San Francisco's Chinatown 3663:and his troops to pursue 3224:rebelled in the 1630s in 2976:("Pidao"). The defectors 2892:Lead-up to the Great Wall 2675:Building a mixed military 2566: 2511:Veritable Records of Ming 2440: 2434: 2428: 2420: 2408: 1897:Initial Jurchen conquests 1779:Manchuria under Ming rule 1431:Manchuria under Ming rule 1249: 1201: 1196: 1145: 967:Zhu Yuyue, Prince of Tang 881:Zhu Youzhen, Prince of Yi 872:(Hongguang Emperor) 870:Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu 626:(defected in 1644) ( 441: 198: 163:Suppression of the rebel 89: 75: 70: 17123:Great Qing Treasure Note 16943:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 16653:Administrative divisions 16470:Administrative divisions 16398:Flag of the Qing dynasty 15793:Great Ming Treasure Note 15672:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum 15455:Administrative divisions 15258:Prince of Ning rebellion 15031:10.1177/0097700405282349 14784:. New York: Free Press. 14521:Rossabi, Morris (1979). 14269:Imperial China, 900–1800 14235:Mair, Victor H. (2008). 14192:"Mêng Ch'iao-fang" 14118:. Chʻeng Wen Publishing. 13887:Ebrey, Patricia (1993). 13344:10.1177/0959683615572851 12388:Wong, Young-tsu (2017). 12021:, p. 973, note 194. 11946:, pp. 804, 822–827. 11402:, pp. 132–134, 137. 11277:China Heritage Quarterly 10668:Larsen & Numata 1943 9758:Dillon, Michael (1998). 9352:. ABC-CLIO. p. 30. 9346:Cathal J. Nolan (2008). 9167:. Macmillan. p. 47. 8844:The Augustan, vols 17–20 7829:. MacMillan. p. 35. 7515:Xinjiang under Qing rule 7505:Mongolia under Qing rule 7454:Mongol conquest of China 6429:Dutch East India Company 6320:considered returning to 6245:in 1646 and ennobled by 6122:himself and his family. 5214:, the base was moved to 5132:. In May, they besieged 4808:sent two expeditions to 4778:mobilised rebels in the 4131:Dutch East India Company 4044:, a first cousin of the 3629:fled to the hills or to 3162:and looting 12,000 gold 3035:at first fought against 2928:would complain that the 2284:, who was allied to the 1818:between Ming and Manchus 1488:Manchu conquest of China 601:(defected in 1633) 243:Dutch East India Company 16719:Chengde Mountain Resort 16520:Three Eastern Provinces 16170:First Sino-Japanese War 16145:Northern Chinese Famine 16004:Lin Shuangwen rebellion 15902:Qing invasion of Joseon 15612:The Hundred-word Eulogy 15278:Great Rites Controversy 15132:Ming conquest of Yunnan 14758:. U of Nebraska Press. 14754:Swope, Kenneth (2018). 14006:Forsyth, James (1994). 13575:Brook, Timothy (1999). 13113:China at the Crossroads 12762:Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). 12507:Graff & Higham 2012 12491:Graff & Higham 2012 12475:Graff & Higham 2012 11869:J.A.G. Roberts (1999). 11842:J.A.G. Roberts (2011). 11564:, pp. 64, 104–106. 11304:. Harpers. p. 242. 10143:Yoshiki Enatsu (2004). 9330:Graff & Higham 2012 9161:Owen Lattimore (1932). 9037:Shou Wang (Fall 2004). 9005:Watson & Ebrey 1991 8045:Kimberly Kagan (2010). 8026:Watson & Ebrey 1991 7889:Graff & Higham 2012 7571:Classic of Filial Piety 7246:Immediately before the 6552:The Qing had relied on 6389:Siege of Fort Zeelandia 5928:forces retreating from 5806:(75 km) away from 5695:, felt threatened that 5081:in the coastal city of 4657:"southern barbarians" ( 4377:on 15 June 1645, under 3954:, but were repelled at 3770:Administrative policies 3570:as the avengers of the 3122:banner artillery under 2903:Qing invasion of Joseon 1891:1642 Yellow River flood 1742:by Han Chinese admiral 1163:defectors (after 1644) 892:Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu 17100:Great Qing Copper Coin 16988:Convention of Tientsin 16921:Annotated Bibliography 16869:Qing official headwear 15912:Battle of Shanhai Pass 15650:Palaces and Mausoleums 15640:Ming Veritable Records 15288:Luso-Chinese agreement 13522:Allen, Robert (2009). 13192:Rowe, William (2010), 12050:, pp. 1030, 1033. 11046:Cheng, Weikun (1998). 9778:Parsons, J.B. (1970). 9260:, pp. 60–61, 200. 9137:(published 1949): 10. 8445:Sneath, David (2007). 7709:Kenneth Swope (2018). 7486:Qing conquest of Tibet 7170:The rebellions led by 7146:account of his meeting 7105: 7097: 7077:During the Qing, many 7074:subjects of the Qing. 6920:literati and officials 6911: 6873:Literature and thought 6817:). In 1679, after the 6693: 6549: 6517: 6215: 6062: 5971:Though the Qing under 5909: 5596:A major revolt around 5593: 5406:In May 1648, however, 5187:fled to the island of 5030:The Qing advance into 5027: 5016: 4426: 4282:who was in control at 4004:A few weeks after the 4001: 3677:Battle of Shanhai Pass 3579: 3574:and to conquer all of 3554:(1593–1665), a former 3462: 3440: 3417:Battle of Shanhai Pass 3396:stronghold of Ningyuan 3359: 2687: 2438:), and Zhang Wenheng ( 2330:in 1626. He organised 2322:was the eighth son of 2316: 1831: 1819: 1792:was kept in the rear. 1774: 1661:Battle of Shanhai Pass 1594:unified Jurchen tribes 1446:2nd invasion of Joseon 1441:1st invasion of Joseon 1169:Han Chinese soldiers, 969:(Shaowu Emperor) 861:(Longwu Emperor) 850:(Yongli Emperor) 442:Commanders and leaders 83:Battle of Shanhai Pass 17243:17th century in China 17174:Draft History of Qing 17033:Treaty of Shimonoseki 16814:performance criticism 16418:Imperial Commissioner 16408:Great Qing Legal Code 16207:Eight-Nation Alliance 16190:Third plague pandemic 16100:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 16024:White Lotus Rebellion 15745:Yongning Temple Stele 15482:Imperial Commissioner 15207:Reign of Ren and Xuan 15167:Ming treasure voyages 15157:Dao Ganmeng rebellion 14405:"The K'ang-hsi Reign" 14374:"The Shun-chih Reign" 14197:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 13953:Faure, David (2007). 13736:Dai Yingcong (2009). 13570:on 20 September 2010. 13110:Nolan, Peter (2013). 12304:Taiwan: A New History 12224:, pp. 1048–1049. 12122:, pp. 1043–1046. 10468:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko 1855 10429:Sin-wai Chan (2009). 10413:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko 1855 9641:. 梨大史學會. p. 105. 9606:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 9425:"Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi" 9403:"Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi" 8973:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 8870:Kim, Sun Joo (2011). 8801:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 8703:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 7843:Parker, E.H. (1899). 7510:Tibet under Qing rule 7376:. The Hui Muslims of 7285:Further information: 7103: 7091: 6952:The Peach Blossom Fan 6926:teachings emphasized 6890: 6877:Further information: 6688: 6523: 6512: 6306:Battle of Liaoluo Bay 6209: 6057: 5895: 5584: 5356:, but his retreat to 5022: 5007: 4412: 4278:had mutinied against 4008:committed suicide in 3988: 3669:the last Ming emperor 3605:'s Ming loyalists in 3558:official who advised 3549: 3478:Imperial examinations 3449:was a general of the 3445: 3430: 3346: 2682: 2557:after he surrendered 2332:imperial examinations 2307: 2122:First Joseon campaign 1947:in 1616, named after 1830:was injured in defeat 1825: 1814: 1764: 1530:, established by the 1197:Casualties and losses 345:Northern Yuan dynasty 260:Southern Ming dynasty 159:Southern Ming dynasty 17253:History of Manchuria 17105:Great Qing Gold Coin 17038:Treaty of Tarbagatai 16983:Convention of Peking 16863:Pentaglot Dictionary 16845:Literary inquisition 16555:Ever Victorious Army 16388:Deliberative Council 16292:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 16245:1905 Batang uprising 16185:Hundred Days' Reform 16075:Small Swords Society 15344:Sino-Dutch conflicts 15243:Rebellion of Cao Qin 15172:Ming–Turpan conflict 15122:Red Turban Rebellion 14697:. pp. 641–725. 14419:. pp. 120–182. 14409:Peterson, Willard J. 14378:Peterson, Willard J. 14252:Sino-Platonic Papers 13445:The Atlantic Monthly 11600:, pp. 670, 673. 10641:, pp. 695, 698. 9150:Another Google entry 8773:Till, Barry (2004). 7537:南征) on 1 April 1645. 6896:Ming imperial family 6495:on a trade mission. 6081:fleeing into nearby 5375:force led by former 5140:sent Prince of Lu's 4872:Gabriel de Magalhães 4357:'s southern bank at 3962:and allied with the 3651:Soon after entering 3503:civilians to vacate 2658:who defected to the 2549:'s daughter) to the 2526:Han–Manchu marriages 2459:were vassals of the 2395:and defected to the 1959:unify Jurchen tribes 1699:and other polities. 1564:and the short-lived 1484:Ming-Qing transition 1241:Ming−Qing transition 1152:Manchu, Mongol, Han 71:Ming-Qing transition 17158:Anti-Qing sentiment 17008:Treaty of the Bogue 16948:Treaty of Nerchinsk 16880:Complete Tang Poems 16560:Green Standard Army 16443:Provincial governor 16413:Imperial Clan Court 16393:Diplomatic missions 16368:Consultative Bureau 16115:Tongzhi Restoration 15994:Afaqi Khoja revolts 15974:Ten Great Campaigns 15882:Jurchen unification 15691:Society and Culture 15626:Yongle Encyclopedia 15465:Imperial Clan Court 15408:Kingdom of Tungning 15361:Jurchen unification 15293:Jiajing wokou raids 15182:Battle of Palembang 15147:Battle of Buir Lake 14649:Spence, Jonathan D. 14388:. pp. 73–119. 13336:2015Holoc..25..900X 12901:Dunnell et al. 2004 12869:Dunnell et al. 2004 12853:Dunnell et al. 2004 12740:, pp. 852–855. 12692:Khánh Trần (1993). 12633:on 15 November 2021 12396:. pp. 111–113. 12368:Spence, Jonathan D. 12185:, pp. 149–150. 12074:, pp. 263–267. 11994:, pp. 171–179. 11982:, pp. 990–991. 11970:, pp. 827–830. 11934:, pp. 838–841. 11922:, pp. 805–821. 11910:, pp. 785–792. 11898:, pp. 699–702. 11832:, pp. 767–768. 11805:, pp. 165–168. 11793:, pp. 764–766. 11769:, pp. 737–728. 11730:, pp. 768–771. 11691:, pp. 675–676. 11636:, pp. 736–737. 11588:, pp. 667–674. 11537:, pp. 666–667. 11513:, pp. 734–736. 11373:, pp. 731–733. 11361:, pp. 724–730. 11349:, pp. 717–723. 11181:, pp. 661–674. 11169:, pp. 651–655. 11133:, pp. 662–663. 11121:, pp. 648–650. 10985:, pp. 634–646. 10973:, pp. 598–601. 10945:, pp. 536–545. 10694:, pp. 802–804. 10613:, pp. 708–712. 10601:, pp. 703–707. 10542:, pp. 654–656. 10403:, pp. 713–716. 10391:, pp. 681–682. 10367:, pp. 501–506. 10331:, pp. 482–483. 10216:, pp. 305–306. 10069:, pp. 311–312. 10045:, pp. 310–311. 9736:, pp. 152–155. 9478:Dunnell et al. 2004 9429:Late Imperial China 9407:Late Imperial China 9075:on 11 January 2014. 8978:"Li Shih-yao" 8692:, pp. 204–208. 8668:, pp. 196–197. 8656:, pp. 179–180. 8644:, pp. 160–167. 8632:, pp. 201–203. 8048:The Imperial Moment 7784:2010ClCh..101..565F 7550:, pp. 523–543. 7332:Selected groups of 7144:'s Manchu language 6976:evidential learning 6709:Kingdom of Tungning 6673:Green Standard Army 6617:Green Standard Army 6393:Kingdom of Tungning 5723:who rose up in the 5711:, top commander in 5305:'s younger brother 4960:in the north under 4900:, the Ming general 4605:resistance stormed 4593:, was destroyed at 4145:Qing Prince of Yu, 3879:revolt and against 3675:in late May at the 3584:Green Standard Army 3423:of the Great Shun. 3194:'s forces near the 3190:collapsed, leaving 3150:garrison commander 2638:women, with Prince 2494:, above the rivers 2195:where Ming general 1908:Jurchen unification 1732:Kingdom of Tungning 1436:Jurchen unification 1161:Green Standard Army 956:Prince of Jingjiang 386:Kingdom of Portugal 333:Kingdom of Tungning 314:(Korea; until 1636) 235:(Korea; after 1636) 177:Kingdom of Tungning 17043:Treaty of Tientsin 16754:Western Qing tombs 16749:Eastern Qing tombs 16575:Peking Field Force 16319:Manchu Restoration 16212:Declaration of war 16165:Jindandao incident 15984:Lhasa riot of 1750 15540:Military conquests 15386:Peasant rebellions 15263:Capture of Malacca 15238:Defense of Beijing 15152:Lin Kuan rebellion 14971:Xing Hang (2016). 14950:Wu Shuhui (1995). 14843:. In two volumes. 14681:Mote, Frederick W. 14606:Song Gang (2018). 14264:Mote, Frederick W. 13155:Mao Peiqi (2006). 13091:Ch’iu, Chung-lin. 12292:, pp. 136–37. 12098:, p. 267–273. 11845:A History of China 9373:John Ross (1880). 8680:, pp. 96–101. 8298:, pp. 62, 64. 7250:was overthrown by 7106: 7098: 6914:The defeat of the 6912: 6771:Grand Matsu Temple 6755:Prince of Ningjing 6694: 6550: 6518: 6513:The revolt of the 6447:(Quemoy) from the 6355:disobeyed orders, 6351:After the admiral 6216: 6125:Loyalist generals 6063: 5910: 5896:The flight of the 5594: 5548:and from there to 5238:After the fall of 5199:by November 1646. 5116:In February 1646, 5095:Tokugawa Shogunate 5028: 5017: 4812:to try to destroy 4557:and the remaining 4551:Songjiang District 4427: 4334:who served in the 4322:who served in the 4197:"brutal slaughter" 4110:"Sichuan" soldiers 4002: 3997:in the defense of 3633:to avoid the war; 3580: 3463: 3360: 3130:, with supporting 3086:Battle of Song-Jin 2688: 2317: 2138:Battle of Ningyuan 2075:Liaodong peninsula 1832: 1820: 1816:Battle of Ningyuan 1775: 1685:the General Crisis 1617:peasant rebellions 1289:Peasant rebellions 1192:Nanai Hurka: 6,000 620:(defected in 1642) 595:(defected in 1633) 589:(defected in 1618) 412:(Zhang Xianzhong) 374:Tokugawa Shogunate 17230: 17229: 17141: 17140: 17053:Treaty of Whampoa 17048:Treaty of Wanghia 17023:Treaty of Nanking 16993:Li–Lobanov Treaty 16968:Chefoo Convention 16963:Burlingame Treaty 16834:Kangxi Dictionary 16739:Old Summer Palace 16570:Firearm Battalion 16373:Cup of Solid Gold 16327: 16326: 16272:Manchurian plague 16235:Late Qing reforms 16226:(1901–1912) 16160:Sikkim expedition 16090:Panthay Rebellion 16060:Taiping Rebellion 16036:(1801–1900) 16014:Sino-Nepalese War 15959:Dzungar–Qing Wars 15945:(1683–1799) 15873:(1616–1683) 15819: 15818: 15528:Gunpowder weapons 15487:Grand coordinator 15450:Grand Secretariat 15416: 15415: 15310:(1572–1683) 15219:(1435–1572) 15187:Battle of Kherlen 15137:Ming–Mong Mao War 15127:Wu Mian rebellion 15113:(1368–1435) 15056:on 25 March 2014. 14942:978-0-520-07124-7 14923:978-0-520-25444-2 14904:978-0-520-25606-4 14881:978-0-520-23519-9 14860:978-0-520-23518-2 14838:978-0-520-04804-1 14823:Wakeman, Frederic 14800:Wakeman, Frederic 14774:Wakeman, Frederic 14704:978-0-521-24332-2 14536:978-0-300-02672-6 14492:978-1-88496-404-6 14450:978-0-520-92679-0 14426:978-0-521-24334-6 14395:978-0-521-24334-6 14337:978-0-674-04202-5 14279:978-0-674-44515-4 14239:Soldierly Methods 14181:978-0-674-82152-1 14136:978-9-5763-8066-2 14096:清代名人傳略: 1644–1912 14040:978-0-8131-3584-7 13989:978-0-7914-1423-1 13964:978-0-8047-5318-0 13930:Fairbank, John K. 13900:978-0-02-908752-7 13813:978-1-134-36222-6 13749:978-0-295-98952-5 13728:978-0-631-23591-0 13707:978-0-520-92884-8 13686:978-0-691-00877-6 13666:978-0-19-921734-2 13639:Chang, Kang-i Sun 13166:978-7-80206-237-5 13144:. 6 October 2014. 12584:Tainan City Guide 11882:978-0-674-00075-9 11855:978-0-230-34411-2 11669:978-1-107-12424-0 11449:978-7-5022-5215-1 11426:, pp. 17–18. 10526:978-981-4414-32-6 10442:978-962-996-355-2 10156:978-0-89264-165-9 9658:The Gachon Herald 9359:978-0-313-35920-0 8404:, pp. 59–64. 8274:, pp. 55–57. 8262:, pp. 51–53. 8250:, pp. 37–39. 8135:978-1-2855-2867-0 8058:978-0-674-05409-7 8010:pages.uoregon.edu 7943:978-0-520-23015-6 7756:978-1-139-05353-2 7597:For example, see 7521:Explanatory notes 7476:Dzungar–Qing Wars 7374:Xinhai Revolution 7362:Xinhai revolution 7212:natural disasters 7180:Yangzhou massacre 7006:Manchu literature 6835:Trần Thượng Xuyên 6653:Three Feudatories 6542:Three Feudatories 6515:Three Feudatories 6370:Three Feudatories 6284:In 1659, just as 6281:estuary in 1659. 5810:communities. The 5683:In January 1649, 5321:, the capital of 4916:. A young son of 4770:. Ming Prince of 4686:Yangzhou Massacre 4435:Hongguang Emperor 4413:A Chinese man in 4347:Hongguang Emperor 4213:Hongguang Emperor 4115:Hongguang Emperor 4046:Chongzhen Emperor 4032:Governor-general 4006:Chongzhen Emperor 3970:Fall of the south 3853:linbao jiancha fa 3774:On the orders of 3737:Jiugong Mountains 3564:Chongzhen Emperor 3467:Chongzhen Emperor 3408:Mandate of Heaven 3308:Chongzhen Emperor 3285:Chongzhen Emperor 3104:Shandong province 2933:Joseon subjects. 2457:Jianzhou Jurchens 2328:Later Jin dynasty 2116:besieged Ningyuan 2058:China's northeast 2054:Liaoning province 2024:fortress cities, 1981:, located on the 1957:. His efforts to 1945:Later Jin dynasty 1697:English Civil War 1645:Chongzhen Emperor 1627:to crown himself 1590:Jianzhou Jurchens 1475: 1474: 1206: 1205: 694:Chongzhen Emperor 194: 193: 181:Consolidation of 64: 63: 17295: 17207:New Qing History 17090:Qianlong Tongbao 17068: 17067: 17013:Treaty of Canton 16953:Unequal treaties 16759:Fuling Mausoleum 16358:Advisory Council 16287:Wuchang Uprising 16227: 16130:Tianjin Massacre 16095:Second Opium War 16037: 15999:Sino-Burmese War 15946: 15924:Battle of Penghu 15892:Seven Grievances 15874: 15867: 15866: 15846: 15839: 15832: 15823: 15822: 15619:Huang-Ming Zuxun 15391:Jiashen Incident 15381:She-An Rebellion 15366:Seven Grievances 15339:Donglin movement 15324:Bozhou rebellion 15311: 15220: 15197:Lam Sơn uprising 15177:Ming–Đại Ngu War 15162:Jingnan campaign 15114: 15107: 15106: 15086: 15079: 15072: 15063: 15062: 15057: 15055: 15049:. Archived from 15016: 15006: 14997: 14988: 14967: 14946: 14927: 14908: 14885: 14864: 14842: 14817: 14795: 14783: 14769: 14750: 14729: 14708: 14685:Twitchett, Denis 14668: 14644: 14623: 14602: 14579: 14577: 14575: 14569: 14562: 14551: 14540: 14517: 14496: 14475: 14454: 14430: 14399: 14368: 14341: 14320: 14283: 14259: 14249: 14231: 14214:Li Ling (1995). 14210: 14194: 14185: 14161: 14140: 14119: 14108: 14099: 14090: 14079: 14058: 14056: 14044: 14023: 14002: 13993: 13968: 13949: 13925: 13904: 13883: 13854: 13817: 13796: 13775: 13753: 13732: 13711: 13690: 13669: 13646: 13632: 13613: 13592: 13571: 13569: 13563:. Archived from 13546: 13528: 13508: 13507: 13487: 13481: 13471: 13465: 13455: 13449: 13448: 13437: 13431: 13430: 13410: 13404: 13394: 13388: 13378: 13372: 13362: 13356: 13355: 13318: 13312: 13302: 13296: 13286: 13280: 13270: 13264: 13254: 13248: 13238: 13232: 13222: 13216: 13215: 13214: 13212: 13189: 13183: 13177: 13171: 13170: 13152: 13146: 13145: 13142:Business Insider 13134: 13128: 13127: 13107: 13101: 13100: 13088: 13082: 13081: 13079: 13077: 13067: 13061: 13051: 13045: 13035: 13029: 13019: 13013: 13006: 13000: 12994: 12988: 12978: 12972: 12962: 12956: 12946: 12940: 12930: 12924: 12914: 12908: 12898: 12892: 12882: 12876: 12866: 12860: 12850: 12844: 12838: 12832: 12826: 12820: 12810: 12804: 12794: 12788: 12787: 12759: 12753: 12747: 12741: 12735: 12729: 12723: 12717: 12716: 12714: 12712: 12689: 12683: 12676:Việt Nam sử lược 12672: 12663: 12652: 12643: 12642: 12640: 12638: 12632: 12621: 12612: 12606: 12605: 12594: 12588: 12587: 12575: 12569: 12568: 12548: 12542: 12536: 12530: 12520: 12514: 12504: 12498: 12488: 12482: 12472: 12466: 12460: 12454: 12448: 12442: 12436: 12430: 12420: 12414: 12404: 12398: 12397: 12385: 12379: 12378: 12364: 12358: 12357: 12349: 12343: 12342: 12324: 12318: 12317: 12299: 12293: 12287: 12281: 12275: 12269: 12259: 12253: 12243: 12237: 12231: 12225: 12219: 12213: 12212: 12192: 12186: 12180: 12174: 12168: 12159: 12153: 12147: 12141: 12135: 12129: 12123: 12117: 12111: 12105: 12099: 12093: 12087: 12081: 12075: 12069: 12063: 12057: 12051: 12045: 12039: 12033: 12022: 12016: 12010: 12004: 11995: 11989: 11983: 11977: 11971: 11965: 11959: 11953: 11947: 11941: 11935: 11929: 11923: 11917: 11911: 11905: 11899: 11893: 11887: 11886: 11866: 11860: 11859: 11839: 11833: 11827: 11821: 11815: 11806: 11800: 11794: 11788: 11782: 11776: 11770: 11764: 11758: 11752: 11743: 11737: 11731: 11725: 11719: 11713: 11707: 11701: 11692: 11686: 11680: 11679: 11678: 11676: 11643: 11637: 11631: 11625: 11619: 11613: 11607: 11601: 11595: 11589: 11583: 11577: 11571: 11565: 11559: 11553: 11547: 11538: 11532: 11526: 11520: 11514: 11508: 11502: 11496: 11490: 11484: 11478: 11472: 11466: 11460: 11454: 11453: 11433: 11427: 11421: 11415: 11409: 11403: 11397: 11391: 11385: 11374: 11368: 11362: 11356: 11350: 11344: 11338: 11328: 11322: 11312: 11306: 11305: 11295: 11289: 11288: 11268: 11262: 11256: 11250: 11244: 11238: 11228: 11222: 11212: 11206: 11200: 11194: 11188: 11182: 11176: 11170: 11164: 11158: 11152: 11146: 11140: 11134: 11128: 11122: 11116: 11110: 11104: 11098: 11088: 11082: 11072: 11066: 11065: 11043: 11037: 11031: 11025: 11019: 11013: 11007: 10998: 10992: 10986: 10980: 10974: 10968: 10962: 10952: 10946: 10940: 10934: 10924: 10918: 10912: 10906: 10900: 10889: 10883: 10874: 10864: 10855: 10845: 10839: 10829: 10823: 10813: 10807: 10797: 10788: 10778: 10772: 10766: 10760: 10754: 10743: 10737: 10731: 10725: 10719: 10713: 10707: 10701: 10695: 10689: 10683: 10677: 10671: 10665: 10659: 10653: 10642: 10636: 10630: 10620: 10614: 10608: 10602: 10596: 10590: 10584: 10578: 10577: 10549: 10543: 10537: 10531: 10530: 10510: 10504: 10494: 10488: 10487: 10477: 10471: 10465: 10459: 10453: 10447: 10446: 10426: 10420: 10410: 10404: 10398: 10392: 10386: 10380: 10374: 10368: 10362: 10356: 10350: 10344: 10338: 10332: 10326: 10320: 10314: 10308: 10298: 10292: 10286: 10280: 10274: 10268: 10258: 10249: 10239: 10233: 10223: 10217: 10211: 10205: 10199: 10193: 10183: 10177: 10167: 10161: 10160: 10140: 10134: 10124: 10118: 10112: 10106: 10100: 10094: 10088: 10082: 10076: 10070: 10064: 10058: 10052: 10046: 10040: 10034: 10028: 10022: 10016: 10010: 10009: 10007: 10005: 9999: 9990: 9984: 9978: 9969: 9963: 9954: 9948: 9942: 9932: 9926: 9925: 9905: 9899: 9889: 9883: 9873: 9867: 9857: 9851: 9841: 9835: 9829: 9823: 9817: 9808: 9802: 9796: 9790: 9784: 9783: 9775: 9755: 9749: 9743: 9737: 9731: 9725: 9719: 9713: 9707: 9701: 9695: 9689: 9680: 9674: 9668: 9662: 9661: 9649: 9643: 9642: 9632: 9626: 9625: 9613: 9602: 9596: 9590: 9584: 9574: 9568: 9562: 9556: 9550: 9544: 9543: 9523: 9517: 9507: 9501: 9491: 9485: 9475: 9469: 9459: 9453: 9443: 9437: 9436: 9421: 9415: 9414: 9399: 9393: 9387: 9381: 9380: 9370: 9364: 9363: 9343: 9337: 9327: 9321: 9311: 9305: 9295: 9289: 9279: 9273: 9267: 9261: 9255: 9249: 9239: 9233: 9223: 9217: 9207: 9201: 9191: 9185: 9175: 9169: 9168: 9158: 9152: 9148: 9118: 9112: 9102: 9093: 9083: 9077: 9076: 9074: 9068:. Archived from 9043: 9034: 9028: 9018: 9012: 9002: 8993: 8992: 8980: 8969: 8963: 8953: 8947: 8937: 8931: 8930: 8910: 8904: 8894: 8888: 8887: 8867: 8861: 8855: 8849: 8848: 8839: 8833: 8827: 8821: 8820: 8808: 8797: 8791: 8790: 8770: 8764: 8758: 8752: 8751: 8741: 8735: 8729: 8723: 8722: 8710: 8699: 8693: 8687: 8681: 8675: 8669: 8663: 8657: 8651: 8645: 8639: 8633: 8627: 8621: 8611: 8605: 8604: 8584: 8578: 8572: 8561: 8555: 8549: 8548: 8528: 8522: 8512: 8506: 8505: 8485: 8479: 8469: 8463: 8462: 8442: 8436: 8430: 8424: 8414: 8405: 8399: 8393: 8383: 8377: 8376: 8356: 8350: 8349: 8329: 8323: 8317: 8311: 8305: 8299: 8293: 8287: 8281: 8275: 8269: 8263: 8257: 8251: 8245: 8239: 8229: 8220: 8210: 8204: 8194: 8188: 8178: 8172: 8162: 8156: 8146: 8140: 8139: 8119: 8113: 8107: 8101: 8091: 8082: 8072: 8063: 8062: 8042: 8033: 8023: 8014: 8013: 8002: 7993: 7987: 7978: 7977: 7957: 7948: 7947: 7927: 7918: 7917: 7905: 7896: 7886: 7877: 7871: 7865: 7864: 7862: 7860: 7840: 7831: 7830: 7822: 7816: 7810: 7804: 7803: 7778:(3–4): 565–573. 7767: 7761: 7760: 7734: 7725: 7724: 7706: 7700: 7691: 7682: 7672: 7663: 7662: 7660: 7658: 7640: 7618: 7595: 7589: 7586: 7580: 7566: 7560: 7557: 7551: 7544: 7538: 7531: 7443: 7438: 7437: 7436: 7429: 7424: 7423: 7422: 7390:Shaanxi province 7346:Qianlong emperor 7159:were unlike the 7000:form of poetry. 6902:. Art historian 6821:was put down by 6742: 6741: 6732: 6731: 6725:Battle of Penghu 6465:Zhoushan Islands 6170:was captured by 6011:(in what is now 5869:, just south of 5565:Banner generals 5391:and sending the 5332:established the 5128:in northeastern 4786:area and around 4692:Chongming Island 4563:Chongming Island 4489:A minor scholar 4444:Donglin movement 4252:was unharmed by 4024:Minister of War 3956:Gongchang, Gansu 3438: 3427:Ethnic situation 3267:had founded the 3160:Jiangsu province 3058:Tungusic peoples 2612:Board of Revenue 2573: 2568: 2492:Korean peninsula 2469:Manzhou Shilu Tu 2443: 2442: 2437: 2436: 2432:), Shen Peirui ( 2431: 2430: 2425: 2424: 2413: 2412: 2401:Southern Chinese 2136:had lost at the 1971:Seven Grievances 1885:and a battle in 1859:She-An Rebellion 1767:Aisin Gioro Clan 1740:Battle of Penghu 1730:and founded the 1586:Seven Grievances 1538:in contemporary 1502:, the incumbent 1451:Seven Grievances 1306:She–An Rebellion 1244: 1242: 1232: 1225: 1218: 1209: 1208: 1138: 1107: 1079: 1058: 1052:Gao Yigong 1049: 1038: 1027: 1015: 999: 974: 963: 941: 924: 888: 877: 866: 855: 839: 813: 801: 788: 775: 762: 744: 731: 719: 707: 678: 673:(defected) 655: 650:(defected) 630: 607: 511: 479: 457: 418:She-An Rebellion 416:Kingdom of Shu ( 395: 394: 393: 384: 383: 372: 371: 370: 362:Armament support 343: 342: 341: 331: 330: 329: 310: 295: 294: 293: 253: 252: 251: 241: 231: 216:Aisin-Gioro clan 214: 213: 212: 153:Collapse of the 91: 90: 80: 68: 67: 59: 56: 50: 27: 19: 17303: 17302: 17298: 17297: 17296: 17294: 17293: 17292: 17233: 17232: 17231: 17226: 17222:Willow Palisade 17168:Chuang Guandong 17137: 17109: 17059: 17018:Treaty of Kulja 17003:Treaty of Aigun 16936: 16928: 16827:History of Ming 16779: 16773: 16711: 16705: 16631:Special regions 16626: 16565:Imperial Guards 16531: 16323: 16282:1911 Revolution 16228: 16225: 16218: 16195:Boxer Rebellion 16155:Sino-French War 16105:Amur Annexation 16050:First Opium War 16038: 16035: 16028: 15947: 15944: 15935: 15919:Great Clearance 15875: 15872: 15856: 15850: 15820: 15815: 15810:History of Ming 15797: 15764: 15686: 15662:Chaotian Palace 15645: 15605:History of Yuan 15592: 15549: 15506: 15412: 15312: 15309: 15302: 15298:Single whip law 15273:Ningbo incident 15248:Miao rebellions 15221: 15218: 15211: 15115: 15112: 15096: 15090: 15060: 15053: 15014: 14985: 14964: 14943: 14924: 14905: 14882: 14861: 14839: 14814: 14792: 14766: 14747: 14726: 14705: 14665: 14641: 14620: 14599: 14573: 14571: 14567: 14560: 14554: 14537: 14514: 14493: 14472: 14451: 14427: 14396: 14365: 14338: 14301:10.2307/2941233 14280: 14247: 14228: 14182: 14168:Kuhn, Philip A. 14158: 14137: 14129:. Taipei: SMC. 14102: 14093: 14076: 14054: 14041: 14020: 13990: 13965: 13946: 13922: 13901: 13814: 13793: 13772: 13750: 13729: 13708: 13687: 13667: 13629: 13610: 13589: 13567: 13544:10.1.1.149.5916 13526: 13517: 13512: 13511: 13504: 13488: 13484: 13472: 13468: 13456: 13452: 13439: 13438: 13434: 13427: 13411: 13407: 13395: 13391: 13379: 13375: 13363: 13359: 13319: 13315: 13303: 13299: 13287: 13283: 13271: 13267: 13255: 13251: 13239: 13235: 13223: 13219: 13210: 13208: 13206: 13190: 13186: 13178: 13174: 13167: 13153: 13149: 13136: 13135: 13131: 13124: 13108: 13104: 13089: 13085: 13075: 13073: 13069: 13068: 13064: 13052: 13048: 13036: 13032: 13020: 13016: 13007: 13003: 12995: 12991: 12979: 12975: 12963: 12959: 12947: 12943: 12931: 12927: 12915: 12911: 12899: 12895: 12883: 12879: 12867: 12863: 12851: 12847: 12839: 12835: 12827: 12823: 12811: 12807: 12795: 12791: 12784: 12760: 12756: 12748: 12744: 12736: 12732: 12724: 12720: 12710: 12708: 12706: 12690: 12686: 12673: 12666: 12653: 12646: 12636: 12634: 12630: 12619: 12613: 12609: 12596: 12595: 12591: 12576: 12572: 12565: 12549: 12545: 12537: 12533: 12521: 12517: 12505: 12501: 12489: 12485: 12473: 12469: 12465:, p. 1116. 12461: 12457: 12449: 12445: 12437: 12433: 12421: 12417: 12405: 12401: 12386: 12382: 12365: 12361: 12350: 12346: 12339: 12325: 12321: 12314: 12300: 12296: 12288: 12284: 12276: 12272: 12260: 12256: 12244: 12240: 12236:, p. 1049. 12232: 12228: 12220: 12216: 12209: 12193: 12189: 12181: 12177: 12171:Dennerline 2002 12169: 12162: 12158:, p. 1046. 12154: 12150: 12146:, p. 1003. 12142: 12138: 12130: 12126: 12118: 12114: 12106: 12102: 12094: 12090: 12086:, p. 1035. 12082: 12078: 12070: 12066: 12058: 12054: 12046: 12042: 12036:Dennerline 2002 12034: 12025: 12017: 12013: 12005: 11998: 11990: 11986: 11978: 11974: 11966: 11962: 11954: 11950: 11942: 11938: 11930: 11926: 11918: 11914: 11906: 11902: 11894: 11890: 11883: 11867: 11863: 11856: 11840: 11836: 11828: 11824: 11816: 11809: 11801: 11797: 11789: 11785: 11777: 11773: 11765: 11761: 11753: 11746: 11738: 11734: 11726: 11722: 11714: 11710: 11702: 11695: 11687: 11683: 11674: 11672: 11670: 11644: 11640: 11632: 11628: 11620: 11616: 11608: 11604: 11596: 11592: 11584: 11580: 11576:, pp. 67–. 11572: 11568: 11560: 11556: 11548: 11541: 11533: 11529: 11521: 11517: 11509: 11505: 11497: 11493: 11485: 11481: 11473: 11469: 11461: 11457: 11450: 11434: 11430: 11422: 11418: 11410: 11406: 11398: 11394: 11386: 11377: 11369: 11365: 11357: 11353: 11345: 11341: 11329: 11325: 11313: 11309: 11296: 11292: 11279:. No. 27. 11269: 11265: 11257: 11253: 11245: 11241: 11229: 11225: 11213: 11209: 11201: 11197: 11189: 11185: 11177: 11173: 11165: 11161: 11153: 11149: 11141: 11137: 11129: 11125: 11117: 11113: 11105: 11101: 11089: 11085: 11073: 11069: 11062: 11044: 11040: 11032: 11028: 11020: 11016: 11008: 11001: 10995:Dennerline 2002 10993: 10989: 10981: 10977: 10969: 10965: 10953: 10949: 10941: 10937: 10925: 10921: 10913: 10909: 10901: 10892: 10884: 10877: 10865: 10858: 10846: 10842: 10830: 10826: 10814: 10810: 10798: 10791: 10779: 10775: 10767: 10763: 10755: 10746: 10738: 10734: 10726: 10722: 10714: 10710: 10702: 10698: 10690: 10686: 10678: 10674: 10666: 10662: 10654: 10645: 10637: 10633: 10621: 10617: 10609: 10605: 10597: 10593: 10585: 10581: 10566: 10550: 10546: 10538: 10534: 10527: 10511: 10507: 10495: 10491: 10478: 10474: 10466: 10462: 10454: 10450: 10443: 10427: 10423: 10411: 10407: 10399: 10395: 10387: 10383: 10375: 10371: 10363: 10359: 10351: 10347: 10339: 10335: 10327: 10323: 10315: 10311: 10299: 10295: 10287: 10283: 10275: 10271: 10259: 10252: 10240: 10236: 10224: 10220: 10212: 10208: 10204:, p. 1020. 10200: 10196: 10184: 10180: 10168: 10164: 10157: 10141: 10137: 10125: 10121: 10113: 10109: 10101: 10097: 10089: 10085: 10077: 10073: 10065: 10061: 10053: 10049: 10041: 10037: 10029: 10025: 10019:Dennerline 2002 10017: 10013: 10003: 10001: 9997: 9991: 9987: 9979: 9972: 9964: 9957: 9949: 9945: 9933: 9929: 9922: 9906: 9902: 9890: 9886: 9874: 9870: 9858: 9854: 9842: 9838: 9830: 9826: 9818: 9811: 9803: 9799: 9791: 9787: 9772: 9756: 9752: 9744: 9740: 9732: 9728: 9720: 9716: 9708: 9704: 9696: 9692: 9681: 9677: 9669: 9665: 9650: 9646: 9633: 9629: 9603: 9599: 9591: 9587: 9575: 9571: 9563: 9559: 9551: 9547: 9540: 9524: 9520: 9508: 9504: 9492: 9488: 9476: 9472: 9460: 9456: 9444: 9440: 9423: 9422: 9418: 9401: 9400: 9396: 9388: 9384: 9371: 9367: 9360: 9344: 9340: 9328: 9324: 9312: 9308: 9296: 9292: 9280: 9276: 9268: 9264: 9256: 9252: 9240: 9236: 9224: 9220: 9208: 9204: 9192: 9188: 9176: 9172: 9159: 9155: 9145: 9119: 9115: 9103: 9096: 9084: 9080: 9072: 9041: 9035: 9031: 9019: 9015: 9003: 8996: 8970: 8966: 8954: 8950: 8938: 8934: 8927: 8911: 8907: 8895: 8891: 8884: 8868: 8864: 8856: 8852: 8841: 8840: 8836: 8828: 8824: 8806:"Nurhaci" 8798: 8794: 8787: 8771: 8767: 8759: 8755: 8742: 8738: 8730: 8726: 8700: 8696: 8688: 8684: 8676: 8672: 8664: 8660: 8652: 8648: 8640: 8636: 8628: 8624: 8612: 8608: 8601: 8585: 8581: 8573: 8564: 8556: 8552: 8545: 8529: 8525: 8513: 8509: 8502: 8486: 8482: 8470: 8466: 8459: 8443: 8439: 8431: 8427: 8415: 8408: 8400: 8396: 8384: 8380: 8373: 8357: 8353: 8346: 8330: 8326: 8318: 8314: 8306: 8302: 8294: 8290: 8282: 8278: 8270: 8266: 8258: 8254: 8246: 8242: 8230: 8223: 8211: 8207: 8195: 8191: 8179: 8175: 8163: 8159: 8147: 8143: 8136: 8120: 8116: 8108: 8104: 8092: 8085: 8073: 8066: 8059: 8043: 8036: 8024: 8017: 8004: 8003: 7996: 7988: 7981: 7974: 7958: 7951: 7944: 7928: 7921: 7911: 7906: 7899: 7887: 7880: 7872: 7868: 7858: 7856: 7841: 7834: 7823: 7819: 7811: 7807: 7772:Climatic Change 7768: 7764: 7757: 7735: 7728: 7721: 7707: 7703: 7692: 7685: 7673: 7666: 7656: 7654: 7642: 7641: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7621: 7596: 7592: 7587: 7583: 7567: 7563: 7558: 7554: 7545: 7541: 7532: 7528: 7523: 7472: 7439: 7434: 7432: 7425: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7289: 7230:. An estimated 7204:Zhang Xianzhong 7176:Zhang Xianzhong 7118:Khalkha Mongols 7028: 7018: 6885: 6875: 6843:Nguyễn Phúc Tần 6795:Dương Ngạn Địch 6791: 6697:Zheng Chenggong 6683: 6507: 6501: 6267:Zhoushan Island 6239:Zheng Chenggong 6204: 6166:. In 1662, the 6144:Irrawaddy River 6091:Toungoo dynasty 6052: 6032:Shunzhi Emperor 5914:Zhang Xianzhong 5890: 5885: 5879: 5725:Helan Mountains 5703:, commander of 5666:Dongming County 5579: 5516:was massacred. 5338:Zhang Xianzhong 5309:, who had fled 5236: 5224:Zheng Chenggong 5179:on 17 October, 5053:Meanwhile, the 5002: 4990:Xingshan County 4922:Fuling District 4918:Zhang Xianzhong 4856:Zhang Xianzhong 4814:Zhang Xianzhong 4802: 4800:Zhang Xianzhong 4796: 4407: 3983: 3977: 3972: 3861: 3772: 3731:and further to 3649: 3643: 3594:Bannermen, and 3566:to present the 3439: 3436: 3429: 3322:Grand Secretary 3230:Zhang Xianzhong 3214: 3208: 3168:Grand Secretary 3088: 3082: 3009: 2905: 2899: 2894: 2754:red coat cannon 2677: 2669:Manchu language 2632:Shunzhi Emperor 2528: 2516:History of Ming 2505:History of Ming 2302: 2240: 2130: 2124: 2052:in what is now 1979:captured Fushun 1910: 1904: 1899: 1883:Zhang Xianzhong 1785: 1777:Main articles: 1759: 1724:Zheng Chenggong 1708:Great Clearance 1562:Zhang Xianzhong 1540:Northeast China 1520: 1496:Chinese history 1482:(or simply the 1476: 1471: 1470: 1466:Great Clearance 1367: 1245: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1191: 1183: 1179: 1165: 1157: 1140: 1128: 1127: 1117: 1116: 1103: 1075: 1071:Zhang Xianzhong 1066: 1065: 1054: 1011: 995: 965: 949: 948: 937: 901: 797: 784: 771: 758: 740: 727: 703: 687: 603: 582: 581: 500:Shunzhi Emperor 433: 422: 414: 407: 391: 389: 388: 378: 377: 368: 366: 365: 360: 358: 354: 351:Yarkent Khanate 348: 339: 337: 336: 327: 325: 324: 320: 315: 305: 303:Combat support: 301: 291: 289: 278:Guangzhou court 258: 249: 247: 236: 226: 224: 222: 218: 210: 208: 207: 147: 130: 118:, and parts of 81: 60: 54: 51: 44: 32:This article's 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 17301: 17291: 17290: 17285: 17280: 17275: 17270: 17265: 17260: 17255: 17250: 17245: 17228: 17227: 17225: 17224: 17219: 17214: 17209: 17204: 17199: 17194: 17189: 17184: 17177: 17170: 17165: 17160: 17155: 17149: 17147: 17143: 17142: 17139: 17138: 17136: 17135: 17130: 17125: 17119: 17117: 17111: 17110: 17108: 17107: 17102: 17097: 17092: 17087: 17085:Kangxi Tongbao 17082: 17076: 17074: 17065: 17061: 17060: 17058: 17057: 17056: 17055: 17050: 17045: 17040: 17035: 17030: 17025: 17020: 17015: 17010: 17005: 17000: 16995: 16990: 16985: 16980: 16975: 16970: 16965: 16960: 16958:Boxer Protocol 16950: 16945: 16939: 16937: 16930: 16929: 16927: 16926: 16925: 16924: 16910: 16905: 16900: 16895: 16888: 16883: 16876: 16871: 16866: 16859: 16852: 16847: 16842: 16837: 16830: 16823: 16818: 16817: 16816: 16806: 16801: 16794: 16789: 16783: 16781: 16775: 16774: 16772: 16771: 16766: 16761: 16756: 16751: 16746: 16741: 16736: 16731: 16726: 16724:Forbidden City 16721: 16715: 16713: 16707: 16706: 16704: 16703: 16702: 16701: 16691: 16690: 16689: 16687:General of Ili 16684: 16674: 16673: 16672: 16670:List of ambans 16667: 16657: 16656: 16655: 16645: 16640: 16634: 16632: 16628: 16627: 16625: 16624: 16619: 16618: 16617: 16612: 16607: 16597: 16592: 16587: 16582: 16577: 16572: 16567: 16562: 16557: 16552: 16547: 16541: 16539: 16533: 16532: 16530: 16529: 16524: 16523: 16522: 16517: 16512: 16507: 16502: 16497: 16492: 16487: 16482: 16472: 16467: 16466: 16465: 16455: 16450: 16445: 16440: 16435: 16430: 16425: 16420: 16415: 16410: 16405: 16400: 16395: 16390: 16385: 16380: 16375: 16370: 16365: 16360: 16355: 16354: 16353: 16348: 16337: 16335: 16329: 16328: 16325: 16324: 16322: 16321: 16316: 16311: 16310: 16309: 16304: 16299: 16294: 16289: 16279: 16274: 16269: 16264: 16263: 16262: 16257: 16247: 16242: 16237: 16231: 16229: 16224: 16220: 16219: 16217: 16216: 16215: 16214: 16204: 16203: 16202: 16192: 16187: 16182: 16177: 16172: 16167: 16162: 16157: 16152: 16147: 16142: 16137: 16135:Margary Affair 16132: 16127: 16125:Mudan incident 16122: 16117: 16112: 16107: 16102: 16097: 16092: 16087: 16082: 16077: 16072: 16067: 16065:Nian Rebellion 16062: 16057: 16052: 16047: 16041: 16039: 16034: 16030: 16029: 16027: 16026: 16021: 16016: 16011: 16006: 16001: 15996: 15991: 15986: 15981: 15976: 15971: 15966: 15961: 15956: 15950: 15948: 15943: 15937: 15936: 15934: 15933: 15928: 15927: 15926: 15916: 15915: 15914: 15904: 15899: 15894: 15889: 15884: 15878: 15876: 15871: 15864: 15858: 15857: 15849: 15848: 15841: 15834: 15826: 15817: 15816: 15814: 15813: 15805: 15803: 15799: 15798: 15796: 15795: 15790: 15789: 15788: 15786:Yongle Tongbao 15783: 15781:Hongwu Tongbao 15772: 15770: 15766: 15765: 15763: 15762: 15757: 15752: 15747: 15742: 15737: 15732: 15727: 15726: 15725: 15720: 15715: 15705: 15700: 15694: 15692: 15688: 15687: 15685: 15684: 15679: 15674: 15669: 15664: 15659: 15657:Forbidden City 15653: 15651: 15647: 15646: 15644: 15643: 15636: 15629: 15622: 15615: 15608: 15600: 15598: 15594: 15593: 15591: 15590: 15585: 15580: 15575: 15574: 15573: 15568: 15557: 15555: 15551: 15550: 15548: 15547: 15545:Nine Garrisons 15542: 15537: 15536: 15535: 15525: 15520: 15514: 15512: 15508: 15507: 15505: 15504: 15499: 15494: 15489: 15484: 15479: 15478: 15477: 15467: 15462: 15457: 15452: 15447: 15446: 15445: 15440: 15435: 15424: 15422: 15418: 15417: 15414: 15413: 15411: 15410: 15405: 15400: 15399: 15398: 15393: 15388: 15383: 15378: 15373: 15368: 15363: 15353: 15352: 15351: 15341: 15336: 15331: 15329:Ordos campaign 15326: 15321: 15315: 15313: 15308: 15304: 15303: 15301: 15300: 15295: 15290: 15285: 15280: 15275: 15270: 15265: 15260: 15255: 15250: 15245: 15240: 15235: 15230: 15224: 15222: 15217: 15213: 15212: 15210: 15209: 15204: 15199: 15194: 15192:Ming–Kotte War 15189: 15184: 15179: 15174: 15169: 15164: 15159: 15154: 15149: 15144: 15139: 15134: 15129: 15124: 15118: 15116: 15111: 15104: 15098: 15097: 15089: 15088: 15081: 15074: 15066: 15059: 15058: 15007: 14998: 14989: 14984:978-1316453841 14983: 14968: 14963:978-3447037563 14962: 14947: 14941: 14928: 14922: 14909: 14903: 14888: 14887: 14886: 14880: 14865: 14859: 14837: 14819: 14813:978-0520025974 14812: 14796: 14791:978-0029336908 14790: 14770: 14765:978-0803249950 14764: 14751: 14746:978-1134462094 14745: 14730: 14725:978-0300075533 14724: 14709: 14703: 14676: 14671:See profile at 14664:978-0393307801 14663: 14645: 14640:978-0300042771 14639: 14624: 14619:978-0429959202 14618: 14603: 14598:978-1442221949 14597: 14582: 14581: 14580: 14541: 14535: 14518: 14512: 14497: 14491: 14476: 14471:978-0295980409 14470: 14455: 14449: 14434: 14433: 14432: 14425: 14400: 14394: 14363: 14342: 14336: 14321: 14295:(3): 387–400. 14284: 14278: 14260: 14232: 14226: 14211: 14186: 14180: 14164: 14163: 14162: 14157:978-9004218017 14156: 14141: 14135: 14120: 14109: 14091: 14080: 14075:978-3447055284 14074: 14059: 14045: 14039: 14024: 14019:978-0521477710 14018: 14003: 13994: 13988: 13969: 13963: 13950: 13945:978-0674036659 13944: 13926: 13921:978-0804746847 13920: 13905: 13899: 13884: 13872:10.2307/601450 13866:(4): 653–661. 13855: 13818: 13812: 13797: 13792:978-1135789558 13791: 13776: 13770: 13764:. Hutchinson. 13761:Imperial China 13755: 13748: 13733: 13727: 13712: 13706: 13691: 13685: 13670: 13665: 13647: 13635: 13634: 13633: 13628:978-0199792122 13627: 13609:978-0199792122 13608: 13593: 13588:978-0520221543 13587: 13572: 13537:(3): 525–550. 13518: 13516: 13513: 13510: 13509: 13502: 13482: 13466: 13450: 13432: 13425: 13405: 13389: 13373: 13357: 13330:(6): 900–910. 13313: 13297: 13281: 13273:Xing Hang 2016 13265: 13249: 13233: 13217: 13204: 13184: 13172: 13165: 13147: 13129: 13123:978-0745657615 13122: 13102: 13097:中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊 13083: 13062: 13046: 13030: 13014: 13001: 12999:, p. 269. 12989: 12973: 12957: 12941: 12925: 12909: 12893: 12877: 12861: 12845: 12843:, p. 146. 12841:Rodriguez 1997 12833: 12821: 12805: 12789: 12783:978-0199792054 12782: 12754: 12742: 12730: 12728:, p. 163. 12718: 12704: 12684: 12664: 12644: 12607: 12602:Chinatownology 12589: 12570: 12564:978-0230614246 12563: 12543: 12541:, p. 146. 12531: 12515: 12499: 12483: 12467: 12455: 12443: 12431: 12423:Xing Hang 2016 12415: 12407:Xing Hang 2016 12399: 12380: 12359: 12344: 12337: 12319: 12312: 12294: 12282: 12270: 12262:Xing Hang 2016 12254: 12238: 12226: 12214: 12208:978-1134006069 12207: 12187: 12175: 12173:, p. 118. 12160: 12148: 12136: 12134:, p. 136. 12124: 12112: 12110:, p. 710. 12100: 12088: 12076: 12064: 12052: 12040: 12038:, p. 117. 12023: 12011: 12009:, p. 704. 11996: 11984: 11972: 11960: 11958:, p. 192. 11948: 11936: 11924: 11912: 11900: 11888: 11881: 11861: 11854: 11834: 11822: 11820:, p. 767. 11807: 11795: 11783: 11781:, p. 738. 11771: 11759: 11757:, p. 737. 11744: 11732: 11720: 11708: 11706:, p. 676. 11693: 11681: 11668: 11638: 11626: 11624:, p. 675. 11614: 11612:, p. 674. 11602: 11590: 11578: 11574:Xing Hang 2016 11566: 11562:Xing Hang 2016 11554: 11552:, p. 667. 11539: 11527: 11525:, p. 665. 11515: 11503: 11491: 11479: 11467: 11465:, p. 399. 11455: 11448: 11428: 11416: 11414:, p. 544. 11404: 11392: 11375: 11363: 11351: 11339: 11323: 11307: 11290: 11263: 11251: 11249:, p. 164. 11239: 11223: 11207: 11195: 11183: 11171: 11159: 11157:, p. 650. 11147: 11135: 11123: 11111: 11109:, p. 868. 11099: 11083: 11075:Xing Hang 2016 11067: 11061:978-0791437414 11060: 11038: 11026: 11024:, p. 662. 11014: 11012:, p. 647. 10999: 10987: 10975: 10963: 10947: 10935: 10919: 10917:, p. 580. 10907: 10905:, p. 660. 10890: 10888:, p. 658. 10875: 10856: 10840: 10824: 10808: 10789: 10773: 10771:, p. 522. 10761: 10759:, p. 657. 10744: 10742:, p. 521. 10732: 10730:, p. 644. 10720: 10718:, p. 346. 10708: 10706:, p. 642. 10696: 10684: 10682:, p. 800. 10672: 10670:, p. 572. 10660: 10658:, p. 191. 10643: 10631: 10615: 10603: 10591: 10579: 10565:978-1684170890 10564: 10544: 10532: 10525: 10505: 10489: 10472: 10460: 10448: 10441: 10421: 10405: 10393: 10381: 10379:, p. 507. 10369: 10357: 10355:, p. 501. 10345: 10343:, p. 483. 10333: 10321: 10319:, p. 317. 10309: 10301:Song Gang 2018 10293: 10291:, p. 198. 10281: 10279:, p. 135. 10269: 10250: 10234: 10218: 10206: 10194: 10178: 10162: 10155: 10135: 10119: 10107: 10105:, p. 257. 10095: 10093:, p. 817. 10083: 10081:, p. 313. 10071: 10059: 10057:, p. 311. 10047: 10035: 10033:, p. 308. 10023: 10011: 9985: 9983:, p. 304. 9970: 9968:, p. 296. 9955: 9953:, p. 290. 9943: 9927: 9921:978-0804740449 9920: 9900: 9884: 9868: 9852: 9836: 9834:, p. 809. 9824: 9822:, p. 641. 9809: 9807:, p. 893. 9797: 9785: 9771:978-0700704392 9770: 9750: 9748:, p. 221. 9738: 9726: 9724:, p. 215. 9714: 9712:, p. 212. 9702: 9700:, p. 142. 9690: 9675: 9673:, p. 217. 9663: 9644: 9638:梨大史苑, Volume 7 9635:梨大史學會 (1968). 9627: 9611:"Dorgon" 9608:, ed. (1943). 9597: 9595:, p. 275. 9585: 9569: 9567:, p. 217. 9557: 9555:, p. 217. 9545: 9539:978-1598849011 9538: 9518: 9502: 9486: 9470: 9454: 9438: 9416: 9394: 9382: 9365: 9358: 9338: 9322: 9306: 9290: 9274: 9272:, p. 210. 9262: 9250: 9234: 9218: 9202: 9186: 9170: 9153: 9143: 9113: 9094: 9078: 9052:(2): 212–222. 9029: 9013: 8994: 8975:, ed. (1943). 8964: 8948: 8932: 8925: 8905: 8889: 8883:978-0295802176 8882: 8862: 8860:, p. 598. 8850: 8834: 8832:, p. 598. 8822: 8803:, ed. (1943). 8792: 8785: 8765: 8753: 8736: 8724: 8708:"Abahai" 8705:, ed. (1943). 8694: 8682: 8670: 8658: 8646: 8634: 8622: 8606: 8600:978-0824830212 8599: 8579: 8562: 8550: 8544:978-0500771471 8543: 8523: 8507: 8501:978-0300189193 8500: 8480: 8464: 8458:978-0231511674 8457: 8437: 8435:, p. 597. 8425: 8406: 8394: 8378: 8372:978-0774832922 8371: 8351: 8345:978-1503600683 8344: 8324: 8322:, p. 269. 8312: 8300: 8288: 8276: 8264: 8252: 8240: 8221: 8205: 8189: 8173: 8157: 8141: 8134: 8114: 8102: 8083: 8064: 8057: 8034: 8015: 7994: 7992:, p. 146. 7979: 7973:978-0300046021 7972: 7949: 7942: 7919: 7897: 7878: 7866: 7832: 7817: 7805: 7762: 7755: 7726: 7719: 7701: 7683: 7664: 7634: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7590: 7581: 7561: 7552: 7539: 7525: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7518: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7471: 7468: 7467: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7445: 7444: 7441:History portal 7430: 7414: 7411: 7400:population of 7228:Koxinga regime 7216:Little Ice Age 7150:Torghut leader 7138:Russian Empire 7134:Oirat Khanates 7108:When the Qing 7031:Dulimbai Gurun 7017: 7014: 6874: 6871: 6829:together with 6790: 6787: 6721:Kangxi Emperor 6717:Zheng Keshuang 6701:Kangxi Emperor 6682: 6679: 6578:Kangxi Emperor 6503:Main article: 6500: 6497: 6263:Zhang Mingzhen 6257:, he captured 6243:Longwu Emperor 6203: 6200: 6194:and contacted 6168:Yongli Emperor 6079:Yongli Emperor 6077:, sending the 6051: 6048: 6005:Hong Chengchou 5985:Yongli Emperor 5898:Yongli Emperor 5889: 5886: 5878: 5875: 5867:Mount Banchang 5831:Tang Zhongheng 5709:Wang Yongqiang 5705:Yulin, Shaanxi 5662:Chengwu County 5658:Dingtao County 5622:Tianqi Emperor 5578: 5575: 5542:Yongli Emperor 5534:Geng Zhongming 5393:Yongli Emperor 5389:Shaowu Emperor 5387:, killing the 5303:Longwu Emperor 5284:Yongli Emperor 5235: 5232: 5204:Zhang Mingzhen 5154:Hong Chengchou 5126:Longwu Emperor 5122:Qiantang River 5079:Longwu Emperor 5048:inward-looking 5001: 4998: 4970:Yongli Emperor 4926:Yunyang County 4804:In early 1646 4795: 4792: 4774:and Prince of 4738:resistance in 4678:Hong Chengchou 4461:just like the 4406: 4403: 4242:Qiantang River 4137:observed that 4135:Johann Nieuhof 3979:Main article: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3938:, governor of 3860: 3857: 3815:The Art of War 3771: 3768: 3756:millenarianist 3655:in June 1644, 3642: 3639: 3552:Hong Chengchou 3550:A portrait of 3529:Geng Zhongming 3459:Kangxi Emperor 3434: 3428: 3425: 3400:Hong Chengchou 3347:The battle at 3297:Central Plains 3289:Forbidden City 3207: 3204: 3084:Main article: 3081: 3078: 3008: 3005: 2997:Princess Uisun 2978:Geng Zhongming 2901:Main article: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2806:Hong Chengchou 2798:Deng Changchun 2782:Geng Zhongming 2746:Hong Chengchou 2708:Geng Zhongming 2676: 2673: 2628:Geng Jingzhong 2624:Geng Zhongming 2572:sān děng zǐjué 2527: 2524: 2389:Geng Zhongming 2301: 2298: 2239: 2236: 2232:Ganghwa Island 2154:Yuan Chonghuan 2126:Main article: 2123: 2120: 1927:. In 1589 the 1906:Main article: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1758: 1755: 1704:Kangxi Emperor 1689:Spanish Empire 1687:affecting the 1673:Little Ice Age 1653:Forbidden City 1574: 1573: 1554: 1543: 1519: 1516: 1473: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1427: 1426: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1274: 1273: 1272: 1267: 1256: 1255: 1251: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1235: 1234: 1227: 1220: 1212: 1204: 1203: 1199: 1198: 1194: 1193: 1174: 1167: 1148: 1147: 1143: 1142: 1126: 1125: 1122: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1109: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1050: 1039: 1028: 1017: 1004: 1001: 988: 983: 977: 975: 947: 946: 943: 930: 925: 914: 908: 900: 899: 894: 889: 878: 867: 856: 845: 840: 829: 824: 819: 814: 803: 790: 777: 764: 751: 746: 733: 720: 712:Yuan Chonghuan 709: 696: 690: 688: 686: 685: 679: 668: 662: 656: 645: 639: 636:Hong Chengchou 633: 621: 615: 609: 596: 593:Geng Zhongming 590: 583: 580: 579: 577:Kangxi Emperor 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 470: 465: 460: 447: 444: 443: 439: 438: 399: 359:Turpan Khanate 300: 299: 287: 281: 275: 269: 245: 223:Ming defectors 201: 200: 196: 195: 192: 191: 190: 189: 179: 165:Kingdom of Shu 161: 149: 143: 142: 136: 132: 131: 128:Southeast Asia 105: 103: 99: 98: 95: 87: 86: 73: 72: 62: 61: 41:the key points 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17300: 17289: 17286: 17284: 17281: 17279: 17276: 17274: 17271: 17269: 17268:Southern Ming 17266: 17264: 17261: 17259: 17256: 17254: 17251: 17249: 17248:Eight Banners 17246: 17244: 17241: 17240: 17238: 17223: 17220: 17218: 17215: 17213: 17210: 17208: 17205: 17203: 17200: 17198: 17197:Manchu people 17195: 17193: 17190: 17188: 17185: 17183: 17182: 17178: 17176: 17175: 17171: 17169: 17166: 17164: 17163:Canton System 17161: 17159: 17156: 17154: 17151: 17150: 17148: 17144: 17134: 17131: 17129: 17128:Hubu Guanpiao 17126: 17124: 17121: 17120: 17118: 17116: 17112: 17106: 17103: 17101: 17098: 17096: 17093: 17091: 17088: 17086: 17083: 17081: 17078: 17077: 17075: 17073: 17069: 17066: 17062: 17054: 17051: 17049: 17046: 17044: 17041: 17039: 17036: 17034: 17031: 17029: 17026: 17024: 17021: 17019: 17016: 17014: 17011: 17009: 17006: 17004: 17001: 16999: 16996: 16994: 16991: 16989: 16986: 16984: 16981: 16979: 16976: 16974: 16971: 16969: 16966: 16964: 16961: 16959: 16956: 16955: 16954: 16951: 16949: 16946: 16944: 16941: 16940: 16938: 16935: 16931: 16923: 16922: 16918: 16917: 16916: 16915: 16911: 16909: 16906: 16904: 16901: 16899: 16896: 16894: 16893: 16889: 16887: 16884: 16882: 16881: 16877: 16875: 16872: 16870: 16867: 16865: 16864: 16860: 16858: 16857: 16853: 16851: 16848: 16846: 16843: 16841: 16838: 16836: 16835: 16831: 16829: 16828: 16824: 16822: 16819: 16815: 16812: 16811: 16810: 16807: 16805: 16802: 16800: 16799: 16795: 16793: 16790: 16788: 16785: 16784: 16782: 16778:Society & 16776: 16770: 16767: 16765: 16762: 16760: 16757: 16755: 16752: 16750: 16747: 16745: 16744:Summer Palace 16742: 16740: 16737: 16735: 16734:Mukden Palace 16732: 16730: 16727: 16725: 16722: 16720: 16717: 16716: 16714: 16710:Palaces & 16708: 16700: 16697: 16696: 16695: 16692: 16688: 16685: 16683: 16680: 16679: 16678: 16675: 16671: 16668: 16666: 16663: 16662: 16661: 16658: 16654: 16651: 16650: 16649: 16646: 16644: 16641: 16639: 16636: 16635: 16633: 16629: 16623: 16620: 16616: 16613: 16611: 16608: 16606: 16603: 16602: 16601: 16598: 16596: 16593: 16591: 16588: 16586: 16583: 16581: 16578: 16576: 16573: 16571: 16568: 16566: 16563: 16561: 16558: 16556: 16553: 16551: 16550:Eight Banners 16548: 16546: 16543: 16542: 16540: 16538: 16534: 16528: 16525: 16521: 16518: 16516: 16513: 16511: 16508: 16506: 16503: 16501: 16498: 16496: 16493: 16491: 16488: 16486: 16483: 16481: 16478: 16477: 16476: 16473: 16471: 16468: 16464: 16461: 16460: 16459: 16456: 16454: 16451: 16449: 16446: 16444: 16441: 16439: 16436: 16434: 16431: 16429: 16426: 16424: 16421: 16419: 16416: 16414: 16411: 16409: 16406: 16404: 16403:Grand Council 16401: 16399: 16396: 16394: 16391: 16389: 16386: 16384: 16381: 16379: 16376: 16374: 16371: 16369: 16366: 16364: 16361: 16359: 16356: 16352: 16349: 16347: 16344: 16343: 16342: 16339: 16338: 16336: 16334: 16330: 16320: 16317: 16315: 16312: 16308: 16305: 16303: 16300: 16298: 16295: 16293: 16290: 16288: 16285: 16284: 16283: 16280: 16278: 16275: 16273: 16270: 16268: 16265: 16261: 16258: 16256: 16253: 16252: 16251: 16248: 16246: 16243: 16241: 16238: 16236: 16233: 16232: 16230: 16223:20th century 16221: 16213: 16210: 16209: 16208: 16205: 16201: 16198: 16197: 16196: 16193: 16191: 16188: 16186: 16183: 16181: 16178: 16176: 16173: 16171: 16168: 16166: 16163: 16161: 16158: 16156: 16153: 16151: 16148: 16146: 16143: 16141: 16138: 16136: 16133: 16131: 16128: 16126: 16123: 16121: 16118: 16116: 16113: 16111: 16108: 16106: 16103: 16101: 16098: 16096: 16093: 16091: 16088: 16086: 16083: 16081: 16078: 16076: 16073: 16071: 16068: 16066: 16063: 16061: 16058: 16056: 16053: 16051: 16048: 16046: 16043: 16042: 16040: 16033:19th century 16031: 16025: 16022: 16020: 16017: 16015: 16012: 16010: 16007: 16005: 16002: 16000: 15997: 15995: 15992: 15990: 15987: 15985: 15982: 15980: 15977: 15975: 15972: 15970: 15967: 15965: 15962: 15960: 15957: 15955: 15952: 15951: 15949: 15942: 15938: 15932: 15929: 15925: 15922: 15921: 15920: 15917: 15913: 15910: 15909: 15908: 15905: 15903: 15900: 15898: 15895: 15893: 15890: 15888: 15885: 15883: 15880: 15879: 15877: 15868: 15865: 15863: 15859: 15854: 15847: 15842: 15840: 15835: 15833: 15828: 15827: 15824: 15812: 15811: 15807: 15806: 15804: 15800: 15794: 15791: 15787: 15784: 15782: 15779: 15778: 15777: 15774: 15773: 15771: 15767: 15761: 15758: 15756: 15753: 15751: 15748: 15746: 15743: 15741: 15738: 15736: 15733: 15731: 15728: 15724: 15721: 15719: 15716: 15714: 15711: 15710: 15709: 15706: 15704: 15701: 15699: 15696: 15695: 15693: 15689: 15683: 15680: 15678: 15675: 15673: 15670: 15668: 15667:Ming Xiaoling 15665: 15663: 15660: 15658: 15655: 15654: 15652: 15648: 15642: 15641: 15637: 15635: 15634: 15630: 15628: 15627: 15623: 15621: 15620: 15616: 15614: 15613: 15609: 15607: 15606: 15602: 15601: 15599: 15595: 15589: 15586: 15584: 15581: 15579: 15576: 15572: 15569: 15567: 15564: 15563: 15562: 15559: 15558: 15556: 15552: 15546: 15543: 15541: 15538: 15534: 15531: 15530: 15529: 15526: 15524: 15521: 15519: 15516: 15515: 15513: 15509: 15503: 15500: 15498: 15495: 15493: 15490: 15488: 15485: 15483: 15480: 15476: 15475:Vassal prince 15473: 15472: 15471: 15468: 15466: 15463: 15461: 15460:Eastern Depot 15458: 15456: 15453: 15451: 15448: 15444: 15441: 15439: 15436: 15434: 15431: 15430: 15429: 15426: 15425: 15423: 15419: 15409: 15406: 15404: 15403:Southern Ming 15401: 15397: 15394: 15392: 15389: 15387: 15384: 15382: 15379: 15377: 15374: 15372: 15369: 15367: 15364: 15362: 15359: 15358: 15357: 15354: 15350: 15347: 15346: 15345: 15342: 15340: 15337: 15335: 15332: 15330: 15327: 15325: 15322: 15320: 15317: 15316: 15314: 15305: 15299: 15296: 15294: 15291: 15289: 15286: 15284: 15281: 15279: 15276: 15274: 15271: 15269: 15266: 15264: 15261: 15259: 15256: 15254: 15251: 15249: 15246: 15244: 15241: 15239: 15236: 15234: 15231: 15229: 15226: 15225: 15223: 15214: 15208: 15205: 15203: 15200: 15198: 15195: 15193: 15190: 15188: 15185: 15183: 15180: 15178: 15175: 15173: 15170: 15168: 15165: 15163: 15160: 15158: 15155: 15153: 15150: 15148: 15145: 15143: 15140: 15138: 15135: 15133: 15130: 15128: 15125: 15123: 15120: 15119: 15117: 15108: 15105: 15103: 15099: 15094: 15087: 15082: 15080: 15075: 15073: 15068: 15067: 15064: 15052: 15048: 15044: 15040: 15036: 15032: 15028: 15024: 15020: 15013: 15008: 15004: 14999: 14995: 14990: 14986: 14980: 14976: 14975: 14969: 14965: 14959: 14955: 14954: 14948: 14944: 14938: 14934: 14929: 14925: 14919: 14915: 14910: 14906: 14900: 14896: 14895: 14889: 14883: 14877: 14873: 14872: 14866: 14862: 14856: 14852: 14851: 14845: 14844: 14840: 14834: 14830: 14829: 14824: 14820: 14815: 14809: 14805: 14801: 14797: 14793: 14787: 14782: 14781: 14775: 14771: 14767: 14761: 14757: 14752: 14748: 14742: 14738: 14737: 14731: 14727: 14721: 14717: 14716: 14710: 14706: 14700: 14696: 14693:. Cambridge: 14692: 14691: 14686: 14682: 14677: 14675: 14672: 14666: 14660: 14656: 14655: 14650: 14646: 14642: 14636: 14632: 14631: 14625: 14621: 14615: 14612:. Routledge. 14611: 14610: 14604: 14600: 14594: 14590: 14589: 14583: 14566: 14559: 14558: 14553: 14552: 14549: 14548: 14542: 14538: 14532: 14528: 14524: 14519: 14515: 14513:9780874368857 14509: 14505: 14504: 14498: 14494: 14488: 14484: 14483: 14477: 14473: 14467: 14463: 14462: 14456: 14452: 14446: 14442: 14441: 14435: 14428: 14422: 14418: 14415:. Cambridge: 14414: 14410: 14406: 14401: 14397: 14391: 14387: 14384:. Cambridge: 14383: 14379: 14375: 14370: 14369: 14366: 14364:9781139053532 14360: 14356: 14352: 14348: 14343: 14339: 14333: 14329: 14328: 14322: 14318: 14314: 14310: 14306: 14302: 14298: 14294: 14290: 14285: 14281: 14275: 14271: 14270: 14265: 14261: 14257: 14253: 14246: 14244: 14243:Sun Zi bingfa 14240: 14233: 14229: 14227:9787507102888 14223: 14219: 14218: 14217:Son of Heaven 14212: 14208: 14204: 14203: 14198: 14193: 14187: 14183: 14177: 14173: 14169: 14165: 14159: 14153: 14149: 14148: 14142: 14138: 14132: 14128: 14127: 14121: 14117: 14116: 14110: 14106: 14101: 14100: 14097: 14092: 14088: 14087: 14081: 14077: 14071: 14067: 14066: 14060: 14053: 14052: 14046: 14042: 14036: 14032: 14031: 14025: 14021: 14015: 14011: 14010: 14004: 14000: 13995: 13991: 13985: 13981: 13980: 13975: 13970: 13966: 13960: 13956: 13951: 13947: 13941: 13937: 13936: 13931: 13927: 13923: 13917: 13913: 13912: 13906: 13902: 13896: 13892: 13891: 13885: 13881: 13877: 13873: 13869: 13865: 13861: 13856: 13852: 13848: 13844: 13840: 13836: 13832: 13828: 13824: 13819: 13815: 13809: 13806:. Routledge. 13805: 13804: 13798: 13794: 13788: 13784: 13783: 13777: 13773: 13771:9780091084806 13767: 13763: 13762: 13756: 13751: 13745: 13741: 13740: 13734: 13730: 13724: 13720: 13719: 13713: 13709: 13703: 13699: 13698: 13692: 13688: 13682: 13678: 13677: 13671: 13668: 13662: 13658: 13657: 13652: 13651:Clunas, Craig 13648: 13644: 13640: 13636: 13630: 13624: 13620: 13615: 13614: 13611: 13605: 13601: 13600: 13594: 13590: 13584: 13580: 13579: 13573: 13566: 13562: 13558: 13554: 13550: 13545: 13540: 13536: 13532: 13525: 13520: 13519: 13505: 13503:9780828100052 13499: 13495: 13494: 13486: 13479: 13475: 13470: 13463: 13459: 13454: 13446: 13442: 13436: 13428: 13426:9780404004385 13422: 13418: 13417: 13409: 13402: 13398: 13397:Crossley 2000 13393: 13386: 13382: 13381:Crossley 2000 13377: 13370: 13366: 13361: 13353: 13349: 13345: 13341: 13337: 13333: 13329: 13325: 13317: 13310: 13306: 13301: 13294: 13290: 13285: 13278: 13274: 13269: 13262: 13258: 13253: 13246: 13242: 13237: 13230: 13226: 13221: 13207: 13205:9780674054554 13201: 13197: 13196: 13188: 13181: 13176: 13168: 13162: 13158: 13151: 13143: 13139: 13133: 13125: 13119: 13115: 13114: 13106: 13098: 13094: 13087: 13072: 13066: 13059: 13055: 13050: 13043: 13039: 13034: 13027: 13023: 13018: 13011: 13005: 12998: 12993: 12986: 12982: 12977: 12970: 12966: 12961: 12954: 12950: 12945: 12938: 12934: 12929: 12922: 12918: 12913: 12906: 12902: 12897: 12890: 12886: 12881: 12874: 12870: 12865: 12858: 12854: 12849: 12842: 12837: 12830: 12825: 12818: 12814: 12809: 12802: 12798: 12793: 12785: 12779: 12775: 12771: 12767: 12766: 12758: 12752:, p. 71. 12751: 12746: 12739: 12734: 12727: 12722: 12707: 12705:9789813016675 12701: 12697: 12696: 12688: 12682: 12678: 12677: 12671: 12669: 12662: 12658: 12657: 12651: 12649: 12629: 12625: 12618: 12611: 12603: 12599: 12593: 12585: 12581: 12574: 12566: 12560: 12556: 12555: 12547: 12540: 12535: 12528: 12524: 12519: 12512: 12508: 12503: 12496: 12492: 12487: 12480: 12476: 12471: 12464: 12459: 12452: 12447: 12440: 12435: 12428: 12424: 12419: 12412: 12408: 12403: 12395: 12391: 12384: 12377:. p. 44. 12376: 12372: 12369: 12363: 12355: 12348: 12340: 12334: 12330: 12323: 12315: 12313:9780765614957 12309: 12305: 12298: 12291: 12286: 12279: 12274: 12267: 12263: 12258: 12251: 12247: 12246:Wakeman 1985a 12242: 12235: 12230: 12223: 12218: 12210: 12204: 12200: 12199: 12191: 12184: 12179: 12172: 12167: 12165: 12157: 12152: 12145: 12140: 12133: 12128: 12121: 12116: 12109: 12104: 12097: 12092: 12085: 12080: 12073: 12068: 12061: 12056: 12049: 12044: 12037: 12032: 12030: 12028: 12020: 12015: 12008: 12003: 12001: 11993: 11988: 11981: 11976: 11969: 11964: 11957: 11952: 11945: 11940: 11933: 11928: 11921: 11916: 11909: 11904: 11897: 11892: 11884: 11878: 11874: 11873: 11865: 11857: 11851: 11847: 11846: 11838: 11831: 11826: 11819: 11814: 11812: 11804: 11799: 11792: 11787: 11780: 11775: 11768: 11763: 11756: 11751: 11749: 11741: 11736: 11729: 11724: 11717: 11712: 11705: 11700: 11698: 11690: 11685: 11671: 11665: 11661: 11657: 11653: 11649: 11642: 11635: 11630: 11623: 11618: 11611: 11606: 11599: 11594: 11587: 11582: 11575: 11570: 11563: 11558: 11551: 11546: 11544: 11536: 11531: 11524: 11519: 11512: 11507: 11500: 11495: 11488: 11483: 11477:, p. 18. 11476: 11471: 11464: 11459: 11451: 11445: 11441: 11440: 11432: 11425: 11420: 11413: 11408: 11401: 11396: 11390:, p. 17. 11389: 11384: 11382: 11380: 11372: 11367: 11360: 11355: 11348: 11343: 11336: 11332: 11327: 11320: 11316: 11311: 11303: 11302: 11294: 11286: 11282: 11278: 11274: 11267: 11260: 11255: 11248: 11243: 11236: 11232: 11231:Wakeman 1985a 11227: 11220: 11216: 11211: 11205:, p. 83. 11204: 11203:Wakeman 1975b 11199: 11193:, p. 78. 11192: 11191:Wakeman 1975b 11187: 11180: 11175: 11168: 11163: 11156: 11151: 11145:, p. 56. 11144: 11143:Wakeman 1975b 11139: 11132: 11127: 11120: 11115: 11108: 11103: 11096: 11092: 11091:Wakeman 1985a 11087: 11080: 11076: 11071: 11063: 11057: 11053: 11049: 11042: 11036:, p. 12. 11035: 11030: 11023: 11018: 11011: 11006: 11004: 10997:, p. 87. 10996: 10991: 10984: 10979: 10972: 10967: 10960: 10956: 10951: 10944: 10939: 10932: 10928: 10923: 10916: 10911: 10904: 10899: 10897: 10895: 10887: 10882: 10880: 10872: 10868: 10863: 10861: 10853: 10849: 10848:Crossley 1990 10844: 10837: 10833: 10832:Wakeman 1985a 10828: 10821: 10817: 10816:Wakeman 1985a 10812: 10805: 10801: 10796: 10794: 10786: 10782: 10777: 10770: 10765: 10758: 10753: 10751: 10749: 10741: 10736: 10729: 10724: 10717: 10712: 10705: 10700: 10693: 10688: 10681: 10676: 10669: 10664: 10657: 10652: 10650: 10648: 10640: 10635: 10628: 10624: 10619: 10612: 10607: 10600: 10595: 10589:, p. vi. 10588: 10583: 10575: 10571: 10567: 10561: 10557: 10556: 10548: 10541: 10536: 10528: 10522: 10518: 10517: 10509: 10502: 10498: 10493: 10485: 10484: 10476: 10470:, p. 39. 10469: 10464: 10458:, p. 53. 10457: 10452: 10444: 10438: 10434: 10433: 10425: 10418: 10414: 10409: 10402: 10397: 10390: 10385: 10378: 10373: 10366: 10361: 10354: 10349: 10342: 10337: 10330: 10325: 10318: 10313: 10306: 10302: 10297: 10290: 10285: 10278: 10273: 10266: 10262: 10257: 10255: 10247: 10243: 10238: 10231: 10227: 10222: 10215: 10210: 10203: 10198: 10191: 10187: 10186:Di Cosmo 2007 10182: 10175: 10171: 10166: 10158: 10152: 10148: 10147: 10139: 10132: 10128: 10123: 10116: 10111: 10104: 10099: 10092: 10087: 10080: 10075: 10068: 10063: 10056: 10051: 10044: 10039: 10032: 10027: 10021:, p. 81. 10020: 10015: 9996: 9989: 9982: 9977: 9975: 9967: 9962: 9960: 9952: 9947: 9940: 9936: 9931: 9923: 9917: 9913: 9912: 9904: 9897: 9893: 9888: 9881: 9877: 9872: 9865: 9861: 9856: 9849: 9845: 9840: 9833: 9828: 9821: 9816: 9814: 9806: 9801: 9795:, p. 15. 9794: 9789: 9781: 9773: 9767: 9763: 9762: 9754: 9747: 9742: 9735: 9730: 9723: 9718: 9711: 9706: 9699: 9694: 9688: 9684: 9679: 9672: 9667: 9659: 9655: 9648: 9640: 9639: 9631: 9623: 9619: 9618: 9612: 9607: 9601: 9594: 9589: 9582: 9578: 9573: 9566: 9561: 9554: 9549: 9541: 9535: 9531: 9530: 9522: 9515: 9511: 9506: 9499: 9495: 9494:Crossley 2000 9490: 9483: 9479: 9474: 9467: 9463: 9458: 9451: 9447: 9442: 9434: 9430: 9426: 9420: 9412: 9408: 9404: 9398: 9392:, p. 84. 9391: 9386: 9378: 9377: 9369: 9361: 9355: 9351: 9350: 9342: 9335: 9331: 9326: 9319: 9315: 9314:Di Cosmo 2007 9310: 9303: 9299: 9294: 9287: 9283: 9282:Di Cosmo 2007 9278: 9271: 9266: 9259: 9254: 9247: 9243: 9238: 9231: 9227: 9222: 9215: 9211: 9206: 9199: 9195: 9190: 9183: 9179: 9174: 9166: 9165: 9157: 9151: 9146: 9144:9781422377192 9140: 9136: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9117: 9110: 9106: 9101: 9099: 9091: 9087: 9086:Walthall 2008 9082: 9071: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9040: 9033: 9026: 9022: 9021:Walthall 2008 9017: 9010: 9006: 9001: 8999: 8990: 8986: 8985: 8979: 8974: 8968: 8961: 8957: 8952: 8945: 8941: 8940:Walthall 2008 8936: 8928: 8926:9780493415963 8922: 8918: 8917: 8909: 8902: 8898: 8893: 8885: 8879: 8875: 8874: 8866: 8859: 8854: 8846: 8845: 8838: 8831: 8826: 8818: 8814: 8813: 8807: 8802: 8796: 8788: 8786:9780888852168 8782: 8778: 8777: 8769: 8762: 8757: 8749: 8748: 8740: 8733: 8728: 8720: 8716: 8715: 8709: 8704: 8698: 8691: 8686: 8679: 8674: 8667: 8662: 8655: 8650: 8643: 8638: 8631: 8626: 8619: 8615: 8610: 8602: 8596: 8592: 8591: 8583: 8577:, p. 65. 8576: 8571: 8569: 8567: 8560:, p. 64. 8559: 8554: 8546: 8540: 8536: 8535: 8527: 8520: 8516: 8511: 8503: 8497: 8493: 8492: 8484: 8477: 8473: 8472:Crossley 1990 8468: 8460: 8454: 8450: 8449: 8441: 8434: 8429: 8422: 8418: 8417:Wakeman 1975a 8413: 8411: 8403: 8398: 8391: 8387: 8386:Crossley 2000 8382: 8374: 8368: 8364: 8363: 8355: 8347: 8341: 8337: 8336: 8328: 8321: 8316: 8310:, p. 30. 8309: 8304: 8297: 8296:Crossley 2002 8292: 8286:, p. 58. 8285: 8280: 8273: 8268: 8261: 8256: 8249: 8244: 8237: 8233: 8228: 8226: 8218: 8214: 8209: 8202: 8198: 8193: 8186: 8182: 8177: 8170: 8166: 8165:Wakeman 1975a 8161: 8154: 8150: 8145: 8137: 8131: 8127: 8126: 8118: 8111: 8110:Crossley 2002 8106: 8099: 8095: 8094:Di Cosmo 2007 8090: 8088: 8080: 8076: 8071: 8069: 8060: 8054: 8050: 8049: 8041: 8039: 8031: 8027: 8022: 8020: 8011: 8007: 8001: 7999: 7991: 7986: 7984: 7975: 7969: 7965: 7964: 7956: 7954: 7945: 7939: 7935: 7934: 7926: 7924: 7915: 7910:, p. 65. 7909: 7908:Fairbank 1978 7904: 7902: 7894: 7890: 7885: 7883: 7875: 7870: 7854: 7850: 7846: 7839: 7837: 7828: 7821: 7814: 7809: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7766: 7758: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7733: 7731: 7722: 7720:9781496206244 7716: 7712: 7705: 7699: 7695: 7690: 7688: 7680: 7676: 7675:Crossley 2000 7671: 7669: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7639: 7635: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7594: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7572: 7565: 7556: 7549: 7543: 7536: 7530: 7526: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7500: 7497:and parts of 7496: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7473: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7442: 7431: 7428: 7417: 7410: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7392:) joined the 7391: 7387: 7383: 7379: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7358: 7356: 7351: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7330: 7328: 7323: 7319: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7288: 7283: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7244: 7242: 7238: 7237:Yangtze delta 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7168: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7122:Inner Mongols 7119: 7115: 7111: 7102: 7095: 7090: 7086: 7084: 7080: 7075: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7027: 7023: 7013: 7011: 7007: 7001: 6999: 6998: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6944:Kong Shangren 6941: 6937: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6893: 6889: 6884: 6880: 6870: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6786: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6751: 6749: 6745: 6736: 6735:Eight Banners 6726: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6691: 6687: 6678: 6676: 6674: 6670: 6669:Eight Banners 6666: 6662: 6658: 6657:Eight Banners 6654: 6650: 6645: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6629: 6625: 6620: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6605: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6538:Southern Ming 6535: 6531: 6530:Johan Nieuhof 6527: 6522: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6496: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6449:Southern Ming 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6425: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6362:Southern Ming 6358: 6354: 6349: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6333: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6290:Yangtze River 6287: 6282: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6265:had captured 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6251:Southern Ming 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6213: 6208: 6199: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6140: 6137:and attacked 6136: 6132: 6128: 6123: 6120: 6117:was taken by 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6069:(1636–1661), 6068: 6061: 6056: 6047: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5969: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5926:Southern Ming 5923: 5919: 5915: 5907: 5903: 5902:Southern Ming 5899: 5894: 5884: 5883:Southern Ming 5874: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5835:Zhu Changying 5832: 5828: 5823: 5821: 5817: 5816:Kumul Khanate 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5792:Suzhou, Gansu 5789: 5785: 5780: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5681: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5626:Zhang Tianbao 5623: 5619: 5614: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5592: 5588: 5587:Southern Ming 5583: 5574: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5504:(present-day 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5488:armies under 5487: 5483: 5479: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5423: 5421: 5420:Jin Shenghuan 5417: 5413: 5409: 5404: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5377:Southern Ming 5374: 5370: 5365: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5340:'s attack on 5339: 5335: 5331: 5328: 5327:Prince of Gui 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5231: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5212:Huang Binqing 5209: 5205: 5200: 5198: 5197:Jin Shenghuan 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5181:Zheng Zhilong 5178: 5174: 5170: 5165: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5150:Zheng Zhilong 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5114: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5099: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5087:Zheng Zhilong 5084: 5080: 5076: 5075:Zhu Yuanzhang 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5055:Southern Ming 5051: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5026: 5025:Southern Ming 5023:Situation of 5021: 5014: 5013:Southern Ming 5010: 5006: 4997: 4995: 4991: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4946:Southern Ming 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4910:Yangtzi River 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4852: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4837: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4791: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4736:Southern Ming 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4622: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4487: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4445: 4440: 4439:Southern Ming 4436: 4432: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4411: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4341: 4340:Southern Ming 4337: 4333: 4332:Hao Xiaozhong 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4300:Jin Shenghuan 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4257: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4238:Southern Ming 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4098:Southern Ming 4095: 4091: 4087: 4084:north of the 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3981:Southern Ming 3967: 3965: 3964:Kumul Khanate 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3936:Meng Qiaofang 3933: 3932:Islamic state 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3893:Meng Qiaofang 3890: 3887:forces under 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3856: 3854: 3849: 3847: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3834: 3829: 3825: 3819: 3817: 3816: 3811: 3810: 3805: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3767: 3765: 3760: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3740: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3648: 3638: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3544: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3472: 3471:Southern Ming 3468: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3433: 3424: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3370:north of the 3369: 3365: 3358: 3354: 3351:that allowed 3350: 3345: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3298: 3292: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3235: 3232:broke out in 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3213: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3087: 3077: 3075: 3074:Eight Banners 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3015:defeated the 3014: 3004: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2904: 2889: 2887: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2869:Eight Banners 2865: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2846:Liu Liangchen 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2822:Meng Qiaofang 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2737: 2736:Eight Banners 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2685: 2681: 2672: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2646:'s (a son of 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2618: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2512: 2507: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2445: 2423: 2418:, Ma Guozhu ( 2417: 2411: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2381:Wuqiao mutiny 2377: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2290:Northern Yuan 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2235: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2214: 2213:Taedong River 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2185:Gang Hong-rip 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2119: 2117: 2112: 2110: 2109: 2104: 2103: 2097: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2082:Eight Banners 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1940: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1915: 1909: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1865:broke out in 1864: 1860: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1829: 1824: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1790: 1784: 1780: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1754: 1752: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1677:Kenneth Swope 1674: 1668: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1428: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1311: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1287: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1265:Southern Ming 1263: 1262: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1253: 1252: 1248: 1243: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1214: 1213: 1210: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1188: 1182: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1162: 1156: 1155: 1150: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1137: 1132: 1123: 1121:She Chongming 1120: 1119: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1106: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1078: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1061: 1059: 1057: 1051: 1048: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1014: 1008: 1005: 1002: 1000: 998: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 978: 976: 973: 968: 964: 962: 957: 953: 944: 942: 940: 934: 931: 929: 926: 923: 918: 915: 913: 910: 909: 907: 905: 898: 895: 893: 890: 887: 882: 879: 876: 871: 868: 865: 860: 857: 854: 849: 846: 844: 841: 838: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 812: 807: 804: 802: 800: 794: 793:Sun Chuanting 791: 789: 787: 781: 778: 776: 774: 768: 765: 763: 761: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 743: 737: 734: 732: 730: 724: 723:Lu Xiangsheng 721: 718: 713: 710: 708: 706: 700: 699:Sun Chengzong 697: 695: 692: 691: 689: 683: 680: 677: 672: 669: 666: 663: 660: 659:Meng Qiaofang 657: 654: 649: 648:Zheng Zhilong 646: 643: 640: 637: 634: 631: 625: 622: 619: 616: 613: 610: 608: 606: 600: 597: 594: 591: 588: 585: 584: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 512: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 480: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 458: 452: 449: 448: 446: 445: 440: 436: 432: 430: 426: 421: 419: 413: 411: 406: 405:(Li Zicheng) 404: 400: 398: 387: 382: 375: 363: 357: 356:Kumul Khanate 352: 346: 334: 323: 318: 313: 309: 304: 298: 288: 285: 284:Nanning court 282: 279: 276: 273: 270: 267: 266:Nanjing court 264: 263: 262:(1644–1662): 261: 256: 246: 244: 240: 234: 230: 221: 217: 206: 203: 202: 197: 188: 184: 180: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 160: 156: 152: 151: 150: 145: 144: 140: 137: 134: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 104: 101: 100: 96: 93: 92: 88: 84: 79: 74: 69: 66: 58: 48: 42: 40: 35: 30: 26: 21: 20: 17263:Qing dynasty 17258:Ming dynasty 17217:Treaty ports 17179: 17172: 17146:Other topics 16919: 16912: 16890: 16878: 16861: 16856:Peiwen Yunfu 16854: 16832: 16825: 16796: 16545:Beiyang Army 16527:Zongli Yamen 16383:Da-Qing Bank 16200:Red Lanterns 15906: 15853:Qing dynasty 15808: 15802:Other topics 15713:Four Masters 15638: 15631: 15624: 15617: 15610: 15603: 15443:House of Zhu 15396:Shanhai Pass 15376:Great Plague 15355: 15319:Jianzhou war 15093:Ming dynasty 15051:the original 15022: 15019:Modern China 15018: 15002: 14993: 14973: 14952: 14932: 14913: 14893: 14870: 14849: 14827: 14803: 14779: 14755: 14735: 14714: 14689: 14674:Google Books 14652: 14629: 14608: 14587: 14572:. Retrieved 14556: 14546: 14526: 14506:. ABC-CLIO. 14502: 14481: 14460: 14439: 14412: 14381: 14346: 14326: 14292: 14288: 14268: 14255: 14251: 14242: 14238: 14216: 14200: 14171: 14146: 14125: 14114: 14104: 14095: 14085: 14064: 14050: 14029: 14008: 13998: 13978: 13954: 13934: 13910: 13889: 13863: 13859: 13826: 13822: 13802: 13781: 13760: 13738: 13717: 13696: 13675: 13656:Art in China 13655: 13642: 13618: 13598: 13577: 13565:the original 13534: 13530: 13492: 13485: 13469: 13453: 13444: 13435: 13415: 13408: 13392: 13376: 13365:Elliott 2001 13360: 13327: 13324:The Holocene 13323: 13316: 13300: 13284: 13268: 13252: 13236: 13220: 13209:, retrieved 13194: 13187: 13175: 13156: 13150: 13141: 13132: 13112: 13105: 13096: 13086: 13074:. Retrieved 13065: 13049: 13033: 13022:Wakeman 1985 13017: 13004: 12992: 12976: 12960: 12944: 12928: 12912: 12896: 12885:Elliott 2001 12880: 12864: 12848: 12836: 12824: 12808: 12792: 12769: 12764: 12757: 12745: 12733: 12721: 12709:. Retrieved 12694: 12687: 12674: 12654: 12635:. Retrieved 12628:the original 12623: 12610: 12601: 12592: 12583: 12573: 12553: 12546: 12534: 12523:Wakeman 2009 12518: 12502: 12486: 12470: 12463:Wakeman 1985 12458: 12451:Wakeman 1985 12446: 12439:Wakeman 1985 12434: 12418: 12402: 12389: 12383: 12370: 12362: 12353: 12347: 12328: 12322: 12303: 12297: 12285: 12278:Gregory 2015 12273: 12257: 12241: 12234:Wakeman 1985 12229: 12222:Wakeman 1985 12217: 12197: 12190: 12178: 12156:Wakeman 1985 12151: 12144:Wakeman 1985 12139: 12127: 12120:Wakeman 1985 12115: 12103: 12091: 12084:Wakeman 1985 12079: 12067: 12060:Wakeman 1985 12055: 12048:Wakeman 1985 12043: 12019:Wakeman 1985 12014: 11987: 11980:Wakeman 1985 11975: 11968:Wakeman 1985 11963: 11956:Rossabi 1979 11951: 11944:Wakeman 1985 11939: 11932:Wakeman 1985 11927: 11920:Wakeman 1985 11915: 11908:Wakeman 1985 11903: 11896:Wakeman 1985 11891: 11871: 11864: 11844: 11837: 11830:Wakeman 1985 11825: 11818:Wakeman 1985 11798: 11791:Wakeman 1985 11786: 11779:Wakeman 1985 11774: 11767:Wakeman 1985 11762: 11755:Wakeman 1985 11740:Wakeman 1985 11735: 11728:Wakeman 1985 11723: 11716:Wakeman 1985 11711: 11684: 11673:, retrieved 11651: 11641: 11634:Wakeman 1985 11629: 11617: 11605: 11593: 11581: 11569: 11557: 11530: 11518: 11511:Wakeman 1985 11506: 11494: 11482: 11470: 11463:Parsons 1957 11458: 11438: 11431: 11419: 11412:Wakeman 1985 11407: 11395: 11371:Wakeman 1985 11366: 11359:Wakeman 1985 11354: 11347:Wakeman 1985 11342: 11331:Elliott 2001 11326: 11315:Elliott 2001 11310: 11300: 11293: 11276: 11266: 11254: 11242: 11226: 11215:Wakeman 2009 11210: 11198: 11186: 11179:Wakeman 1985 11174: 11167:Wakeman 1985 11162: 11155:Wakeman 1985 11150: 11138: 11126: 11119:Wakeman 1985 11114: 11107:Wakeman 1985 11102: 11086: 11070: 11051: 11041: 11029: 11017: 11010:Wakeman 1985 10990: 10983:Wakeman 1985 10978: 10971:Wakeman 1985 10966: 10955:Wakeman 1985 10950: 10943:Wakeman 1985 10938: 10922: 10915:Wakeman 1985 10910: 10867:Finnane 1993 10843: 10827: 10811: 10776: 10769:Wakeman 1985 10764: 10740:Wakeman 1985 10735: 10723: 10716:Wakeman 1985 10711: 10699: 10692:Wakeman 1985 10687: 10680:Wakeman 1985 10675: 10663: 10656:Rossabi 1979 10639:Wakeman 1985 10634: 10623:Wakeman 1985 10618: 10611:Wakeman 1985 10606: 10599:Wakeman 1985 10594: 10582: 10554: 10547: 10540:Durrant 1979 10535: 10515: 10508: 10492: 10482: 10475: 10463: 10456:Durrant 1977 10451: 10431: 10424: 10408: 10401:Wakeman 1985 10396: 10389:Wakeman 1985 10384: 10377:Wakeman 1985 10372: 10365:Wakeman 1985 10360: 10353:Wakeman 1985 10348: 10341:Wakeman 1985 10336: 10329:Wakeman 1985 10324: 10317:Wakeman 1985 10312: 10296: 10284: 10272: 10261:Wakeman 1985 10242:Wakeman 1985 10237: 10226:Wakeman 1985 10221: 10214:Wakeman 1985 10209: 10202:Wakeman 1985 10197: 10181: 10165: 10145: 10138: 10127:Wakeman 1985 10122: 10115:Wakeman 1985 10110: 10103:Wakeman 1985 10098: 10086: 10079:Wakeman 1985 10074: 10067:Wakeman 1985 10062: 10055:Wakeman 1985 10050: 10043:Wakeman 1985 10038: 10031:Wakeman 1985 10026: 10014: 10002:. Retrieved 9988: 9981:Wakeman 1985 9966:Wakeman 1985 9951:Wakeman 1985 9946: 9935:Wakeman 1985 9930: 9910: 9903: 9892:Wakeman 1985 9887: 9871: 9860:Wakeman 2009 9855: 9844:Wakeman 2009 9839: 9827: 9805:Wakeman 1985 9800: 9788: 9779: 9760: 9753: 9746:Wakeman 1985 9741: 9734:Wakeman 1985 9729: 9722:Wakeman 1985 9717: 9710:Wakeman 1985 9705: 9698:Wakeman 1985 9693: 9683:Forsyth 1994 9678: 9671:Li Ling 1995 9666: 9657: 9647: 9637: 9630: 9615: 9600: 9588: 9577:Wakeman 1985 9572: 9560: 9548: 9528: 9521: 9505: 9489: 9473: 9457: 9446:Wakeman 1985 9441: 9432: 9428: 9419: 9410: 9406: 9397: 9390:Gregory 2015 9385: 9375: 9368: 9348: 9341: 9325: 9309: 9298:Wakeman 2009 9293: 9277: 9270:Wakeman 1985 9265: 9258:Wakeman 1985 9253: 9242:Wakeman 1985 9237: 9226:Wakeman 1985 9221: 9205: 9194:Wakeman 1985 9189: 9178:Wakeman 1985 9173: 9163: 9156: 9130: 9126: 9116: 9105:Wakeman 1985 9081: 9070:the original 9049: 9045: 9032: 9016: 8982: 8967: 8951: 8935: 8915: 8908: 8892: 8872: 8865: 8853: 8843: 8837: 8825: 8810: 8795: 8775: 8768: 8763:, p. 2. 8756: 8746: 8739: 8734:, p. 2. 8727: 8712: 8697: 8690:Wakeman 1985 8685: 8673: 8666:Wakeman 1985 8661: 8654:Wakeman 1985 8649: 8642:Wakeman 1985 8637: 8630:Wakeman 1985 8625: 8614:Wakeman 1985 8609: 8589: 8582: 8553: 8533: 8526: 8510: 8490: 8483: 8467: 8447: 8440: 8428: 8402:Wakeman 1985 8397: 8381: 8361: 8354: 8334: 8327: 8315: 8303: 8291: 8284:Wakeman 1985 8279: 8272:Wakeman 1985 8267: 8260:Wakeman 1985 8255: 8248:Wakeman 1985 8243: 8232:Wakeman 1985 8213:Wakeman 1985 8208: 8197:Wakeman 1985 8192: 8181:Wakeman 1985 8176: 8160: 8149:Wakeman 1985 8144: 8124: 8117: 8112:, p. 3. 8105: 8047: 8009: 7962: 7932: 7874:Wakeman 1985 7869: 7857:. Retrieved 7852: 7848: 7826: 7820: 7808: 7775: 7771: 7765: 7738: 7710: 7704: 7694:Forsyth 1994 7655:. Retrieved 7647: 7638: 7614: 7593: 7584: 7569: 7564: 7555: 7548:Wakeman 1985 7542: 7534: 7529: 7499:Central Asia 7427:China portal 7359: 7331: 7290: 7260:Shanhai Pass 7248:Ming dynasty 7245: 7169: 7107: 7094:Qing dynasty 7076: 7030: 7029: 7002: 6995: 6968:Huang Zongxi 6940:Bada Shanren 6931: 6916:Ming dynasty 6913: 6908:Ming dynasty 6904:Craig Clunas 6863:Ming dynasty 6839:Trần An Bình 6823:Qing dynasty 6792: 6782: 6778: 6763:memorialized 6752: 6743: 6695: 6677: 6646: 6638:Fan Wencheng 6632: 6621: 6609:Shang Zhixin 6606: 6598:Wang Pingfan 6570:Shang Zhixin 6558:Li Chengdong 6551: 6524:Portrait of 6480: 6426: 6418:Zhu Honghuan 6400: 6396: 6374: 6350: 6334: 6332:missionary. 6283: 6237: 6232:Lang Tingzuo 6217: 6124: 6064: 6025: 5970: 5944: 5937: 5911: 5824: 5803: 5788:Ding Guodong 5781: 5757:Zhao Ronggui 5682: 5615: 5595: 5475: 5424: 5408:Li Chengdong 5405: 5381:Li Chengdong 5366: 5300: 5267: 5262:, under the 5246:governor of 5237: 5201: 5193:Yang Tinglin 5166: 5162:Tong Yangjia 5158:Li Chengdong 5115: 5100: 5061:fell to the 5052: 5029: 5011:conquest of 4993: 4986: 4892: 4880:Liu Jinzhong 4853: 4849:Liu Jinzhong 4838: 4824:(the son of 4803: 4760:Mount Yuntai 4746:official of 4722:area, under 4716:Ruan Dacheng 4690: 4671: 4638:Liu Liangzuo 4623: 4599:Li Chengdong 4535: 4521:and scholar 4515:Yang Yongyan 4488: 4476: 4448: 4428: 4391:Liu Liangzuo 4389:and general 4379:Zhang Tianlu 4363:Huang Degong 4344: 4308:Zuo Menggeng 4273: 4258: 4201:Yangzi River 4174: 4159: 4155:Yellow River 4144: 4119:Ruan Dacheng 4078:Liu Liangzuo 4074:Li Chengdong 4064:conquest of 4038:Prince of Fu 4003: 3989:Portrait of 3924:Ding Guodong 3909: 3862: 3852: 3850: 3845: 3842: 3831: 3820: 3813: 3807: 3802: 3793: 3788: 3773: 3764:Zheng Dengqi 3761: 3741: 3697:Shun dynasty 3650: 3600: 3581: 3509: 3494: 3486:Board of War 3476: 3464: 3455:Qing dynasty 3451:Ming dynasty 3431: 3413: 3404:Fan Wencheng 3393: 3376:Shanhai Pass 3361: 3357:China proper 3349:Shanhai Pass 3326:Shun dynasty 3320:, the Chief 3301: 3293: 3269:Shun dynasty 3238: 3215: 3196:Shanhai Pass 3089: 3049:Amur peoples 3010: 2989:Joseon Korea 2986: 2935: 2906: 2871:that ethnic 2866: 2838:Sun Dingliao 2834:Zhang Cunren 2830:Sun Dingliao 2818:Zhang Cunren 2802:Wang Shixian 2766:Ma Guangyuan 2762: 2740: 2717: 2689: 2652:Geng Juzhong 2634:and married 2621: 2601: 2570: 2529: 2515: 2509: 2503: 2468: 2464: 2446: 2426:), Zu Kefa ( 2416:Fan Wencheng 2405: 2378: 2318: 2294:Yuan dynasty 2271: 2261:Mongols and 2249:allied with 2241: 2217: 2166: 2131: 2113: 2108:Water Margin 2106: 2100: 2098: 2093: 2089: 2079: 2019: 1991: 1952: 1941: 1929:Ming dynasty 1925:Qing dynasty 1911: 1856: 1840:Zongdu Junwu 1839: 1836:Ming dynasty 1834:In the late 1833: 1794: 1786: 1748: 1701: 1675:. Historian 1669: 1641:Shun dynasty 1614: 1600:clan of the 1575: 1566:Shun dynasty 1547:Ming dynasty 1528:Qing dynasty 1521: 1508:Shun dynasty 1504:Ming dynasty 1500:Qing dynasty 1487: 1483: 1479: 1477: 1461:Great Plague 1414:Shanhai Pass 1254:Belligerents 1239: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1158: 1151: 1129: 1104: 1076: 1055: 1012: 996: 950: 938: 904:Supported by 903: 902: 832:Ou Guangchen 798: 785: 782:(丁國棟) 780:Ding Guodong 772: 759: 741: 728: 704: 665:Zhang Cunren 604: 522:Fan Wencheng 423: 415: 408: 403:Shun dynasty 401: 361: 302: 272:Fuzhou court 255:Ming dynasty 205:Qing dynasty 199:Belligerents 187:China proper 183:Qing dynasty 173:Shun dynasty 155:Ming dynasty 124:Central Asia 65: 52: 36: 34:lead section 17153:Aisin Gioro 17115:Paper money 16874:Qing poetry 16595:Wuwei Corps 16590:Shuishiying 16351:Family tree 15755:Tai history 15438:Family tree 15349:Liaoluo Bay 15283:Renyin plot 15233:Tumu Crisis 15025:(1): 3–30. 14574:29 February 13823:Early China 13718:The Manchus 13474:Rhoads 2000 13458:Rhoads 2000 13399:, pp. 13275:, pp. 13211:3 September 13159:. 光明日报出版社. 13076:3 September 13056:, pp. 13024:, pp. 12997:Struve 1993 12981:Perdue 2009 12965:Cassel 2012 12949:Cassel 2011 12933:Cassel 2012 12917:Cassel 2011 12903:, pp. 12738:Mote (1999) 12726:Clunas 2009 12539:Spence 2002 12509:, pp. 12354:Haiji jiyao 12290:Spence 2002 12132:Spence 2002 12108:Struve 1988 12007:Struve 1988 11704:Struve 1988 11689:Struve 1988 11622:Struve 1988 11610:Struve 1988 11598:Struve 1988 11586:Struve 1988 11550:Struve 1988 11535:Struve 1988 11523:Struve 1988 11261:, p. . 11131:Struve 1988 11093:, pp. 11022:Struve 1988 10957:, pp. 10929:, pp. 10927:Struve 1993 10903:Struve 1988 10886:Struve 1988 10834:, pp. 10802:, pp. 10800:Struve 1993 10781:Struve 1993 10757:Struve 1988 10728:Struve 1988 10704:Struve 1988 10625:, pp. 10587:Hummel 1991 10497:Perdue 2009 10415:, pp. 10263:, pp. 10172:, pp. 10170:Spence 1988 9937:, pp. 9894:, pp. 9878:, pp. 9862:, pp. 9846:, pp. 9820:Struve 1988 9593:Dawson 1972 9565:Hummel 1970 9553:Hummel 1991 9462:Rawski 1998 9448:, pp. 9212:, pp. 9210:Rawski 1998 9007:, pp. 8956:Rawski 1998 8858:Hummel 1991 8830:Hummel 2010 8761:Hummel 1991 8732:Hummel 2010 8433:Hummel 1970 8320:Hummel 2010 8075:Spence 1990 7815:, p. . 7648:nmth.gov.tw 7394:Han Chinese 7334:Han Chinese 7309:Grand Canal 7297:South Zhili 7272:cannibalism 7128:(including 7079:Han Chinese 7064:Han Chinese 7059:Han Chinese 6992:Qian Qianyi 6984:Gong Dingzi 6960:Qing poetry 6956:Ming poetry 6883:Qing poetry 6879:Ming poetry 6767:Mazu temple 6744:tengpaiying 6703:dispatched 6665:Han Chinese 6634:Fan Chengmo 6590:Wang Fuchen 6582:Sun Yanling 6554:Han Chinese 6459:complex at 6416:and Prince 6399:instead of 6310:Grand Canal 6152:Pindale Min 6131:Bai Wenxuan 6087:Pindale Min 6036:janissaries 5966:Ming-Ho War 5964:during the 5855:Sun Shoujin 5845:commander, 5841:and a Ming 5808:Han Chinese 5767:rose up in 5765:Zhang Wugui 5701:Liu Denglou 5685:Jiang Xiang 5632:, south of 5589:, from the 5563:Han Chinese 5467:He Tengjiao 5395:fleeing to 5330:Zhu Youlang 5260:He Tengjiao 5138:Prince Bolo 5015:territories 4978:Zhu Rongfan 4930:Li Zhanchun 4888:cannibalism 4870:missionary 4712:Qian Qianyi 4663:Queue Order 4650:Han Chinese 4611:Wang Guocai 4597:by general 4555:Chen Zilong 4527:Prince Dodo 4523:Zhu Jihuang 4519:Wang Zuocai 4467:Han Chinese 4342:loyalists. 4276:Zuo Liangyu 4166:Han Chinese 4151:Zhu Yousong 4106:Han Chinese 4042:Zhu Yousong 3867:, who were 3717:Shi Tingzhu 3659:despatched 3590:Bannermen, 3588:Han Chinese 3501:Han Chinese 3482:North China 3144:Xia Chengde 3120:Han Chinese 3062:Amur region 2962:Han Chinese 2911:had forced 2877:Han Chinese 2816:, Zu Kefa, 2732:Han Chinese 2692:Li Yongfang 2636:Aisin-Gioro 2555:Li Yongfang 2537:were often 2531:Han Chinese 2476:Aisin-Gioro 2461:Han Chinese 2348:Prince Amin 2336:Han Chinese 2278:Zhangjiakou 2197:Mao Wenlong 2189:Li Yongfang 2062:Aisin Gioro 2046:Li Yongfang 1967:Han Chinese 1933:Yalu Region 1797:Han Chinese 1712:South China 1621:Han Chinese 1536:Aisin Gioro 1112:Bai Wenxuan 1031:Yuan Zongdi 991:Liu Zongmin 986:Ma Shouying 952:Zhu Hengjia 945:Sultan Khan 912:Ligdan Khan 843:Zuo Liangyu 827:Qin Liangyu 769:(米喇印) 682:Wang Fuchen 587:Li Yongfang 572:Yao Qisheng 567:Li Shuaitai 431:federation 353:(1646–1650) 347:(1618–1635) 335:(1661–1683) 286:(1646–1662) 280:(1646–1647) 274:(1645–1646) 268:(1644–1645) 257:(1618–1644) 146:Territorial 106:Modern-day 17237:Categories 16821:Four Wangs 16712:mausoleums 16665:Golden Urn 16638:Inner Asia 16615:Xiang Army 16585:Hushenying 16510:Liangguang 16490:Liangjiang 16428:Lifan Yuan 16333:Government 15723:Zhe School 15677:Ming tombs 15561:Inner Asia 15533:Shenjiying 15523:Great Wall 15421:Government 13476:, p. 13460:, p. 13383:, p. 13367:, p. 13307:, p. 13305:Brook 1999 13291:, p. 13289:Brook 1999 13259:, p. 13257:Brook 1999 13243:, p. 13241:Brook 1999 13227:, p. 13225:Smith 2015 13182:, table 7. 13180:Allen 2009 13099:: 331–388. 13054:Smith 2015 13040:, p. 13038:Swope 2014 12983:, p. 12967:, p. 12951:, p. 12935:, p. 12919:, p. 12887:, p. 12871:, p. 12855:, p. 12815:, p. 12799:, p. 12797:Hauer 2007 12750:Zhang 2002 12637:5 November 12525:, p. 12493:, p. 12477:, p. 12425:, p. 12409:, p. 12338:0804720665 12264:, p. 12248:, p. 12096:Swope 2018 12072:Swope 2018 11992:Swope 2018 11803:Swope 2018 11499:Swope 2018 11487:Swope 2018 11400:Swope 2018 11333:, p. 11317:, p. 11259:Ebrey 1993 11247:Faure 2007 11233:, p. 11217:, p. 11077:, p. 10869:, p. 10850:, p. 10818:, p. 10783:, p. 10574:1048096749 10499:, p. 10303:, p. 10244:, p. 10228:, p. 10188:, p. 10129:, p. 9876:Swope 2014 9685:, p. 9579:, p. 9512:, p. 9510:Swope 2014 9496:, p. 9480:, p. 9464:, p. 9332:, p. 9316:, p. 9300:, p. 9284:, p. 9244:, p. 9228:, p. 9196:, p. 9180:, p. 9133:(Part 1). 9107:, p. 9088:, p. 9023:, p. 8958:, p. 8942:, p. 8899:, p. 8897:Smith 2015 8678:Swope 2014 8616:, p. 8575:Swope 2014 8558:Swope 2014 8517:, p. 8515:Swope 2014 8474:, p. 8419:, p. 8388:, p. 8234:, p. 8215:, p. 8199:, p. 8183:, p. 8167:, p. 8153:24, note 1 8151:, p. 8096:, p. 8077:, p. 8028:, p. 7891:, p. 7813:Swope 2014 7696:, p. 7677:, p. 7625:References 7611:Zhang 2002 7603:Chang 2001 7406:Ma Anliang 7370:Hui Muslim 7252:Li Zicheng 7172:Li Zicheng 7153:Ayuka Khan 7020:See also: 6972:Fang Yizhi 6859:Minh Huong 6845:to settle 6831:Hoàng Tiến 6803:Ming China 6723:after the 6613:Geng Jimao 6574:Geng Jimao 6526:Shang Kexi 6481:Cuylenburg 6473:Zheng Jing 6414:Zhu Shugui 6409:Zheng Jing 6368:, and the 6218:In 1656 a 6210:Extent of 6127:Li Dingguo 6040:Lu Guangxu 5977:Li Dingguo 5934:Sun Kewang 5918:Xi dynasty 5881:See also: 5812:Jiayu Pass 5786:rebels of 5650:Li Huajing 5618:Yang Sihai 5571:Geng Jimao 5567:Shang Kexi 5530:Shang Kexi 5490:Kong Youde 5379:commander 5317:regime in 5280:Kong Youde 5242:, the old 5067:Zhu Yujian 5036:Tong Guoqi 4962:Li Guoying 4906:Liu Wenxiu 4894:Sun Kewang 4864:Li Guoying 4826:Hong Taiji 4818:Xi dynasty 4798:See also: 4573:forces in 4517:, general 4395:Tian Xiong 4349:fled into 4326:campaign, 4320:Li Guoying 4316:Lu Guangzu 4290:forces in 4280:Ma Shiying 4256:soldiers. 4133:secretary 4123:Ma Shiying 4086:Huai River 4034:Ma Shiying 3881:Li Zicheng 3875:against a 3824:Hong Taiji 3665:Li Zicheng 3647:Li Zicheng 3645:See also: 3615:clearances 3533:Kong Youde 3525:Shang Kexi 3385:Li Zicheng 3372:Great Wall 3334:Great Wall 3265:Li Zicheng 3222:Li Zicheng 3210:See also: 3171:Zhou Yanru 3108:Great Wall 3098:as far as 3045:Hong Taiji 2982:Shang Kexi 2966:Kong Youde 2950:Hong Taiji 2926:Hong Taiji 2826:Kong Youde 2814:Liu Wuyuan 2810:Shang Kexi 2742:Hong Taiji 2704:Shang Kexi 2700:Kong Youde 2648:Hong Taiji 2597:Hong Taiji 2585:Shang Kexi 2581:Geng Jimao 2393:Bohai Gulf 2385:Kong Youde 2320:Hong Taiji 2234:in panic. 2158:Hong Taiji 1879:Li Zicheng 1861:among the 1637:Li Zicheng 1625:Hong Taiji 1570:Li Zicheng 1558:Xi dynasty 1512:Xi dynasty 1171:Hui Muslim 1124:An Bangyan 1094:Liu Wenxiu 1089:Sun Kewang 1084:Li Dingguo 1062:Liu Tichun 1042:Wang Deren 1007:Li Laiheng 981:Li Zicheng 928:Sa'id Baba 822:Li Dingguo 749:Ma Shilong 684:(defected) 671:Sun Kewang 667:(defected) 661:(defected) 644:(defected) 638:(defected) 614:(defected) 612:Shang Kexi 599:Kong Youde 527:Manggūltai 463:Hong Taiji 410:Xi dynasty 169:Xi dynasty 16643:Manchuria 16610:Huai Army 16600:Yong Ying 16485:Shaan-Gan 15941:High Qing 15887:Later Jin 15718:Wu School 15703:Musicians 15566:Manchuria 15554:Frontiers 15047:144587815 14776:(1975a). 14317:162377335 13851:191822020 13829:: 52–54. 13561:153993424 13539:CiteSeerX 13352:129183241 12829:Zhao 2006 11285:1833-8461 11034:Kuhn 1990 10091:Mote 1999 9832:Mote 1999 9066:151328254 7800:153997845 7630:Citations 7599:Fong 2001 7579:top-knot. 7576:Confucius 7535:nan zheng 7222:like the 7220:epidemics 7188:Guangzhou 7148:with the 7096:in 1820 . 7043:Manchuria 7037:name for 7016:Aftermath 6948:Confucius 6924:Confucian 6746:) served 6649:Wu Sangui 6636:, son of 6624:Wu Sangui 6566:Wu Sangui 6534:Guangzhou 6461:Putuoshan 6422:Zhu Yihai 6420:, son of 6322:Manchuria 6172:Wu Sangui 6119:Wu Sangui 6115:Yuanjiang 6044:Bannermen 6001:Guangdong 5954:Mu family 5839:Zhu Youdu 5761:Wu Sangui 5741:Zhu Senfu 5733:Wu Sangui 5554:Guangzhou 5538:Guangdong 5498:Lekedehun 5494:Jirgalang 5439:An Lushan 5435:Wang Mang 5412:Guangdong 5385:Guangzhou 5383:captured 5362:Cantonese 5354:Guangdong 5323:Guangdong 5319:Guangzhou 5307:Zhu Yuyue 5298:in 1649. 5107:Zhu Yihai 4974:Guangdong 4966:Zhangzhou 4938:Yang Zhan 4902:Zeng Ying 4898:Chongqing 4854:En route 4816:'s Great 4732:Tu Guobao 4630:Songjiang 4615:Songjiang 4595:Chushenpu 4567:Wu Zhikui 4559:Ming navy 4491:Wang Zhan 4483:Confucian 4471:Confucian 4205:Zhenjiang 4185:Bannermen 3952:Liangzhou 3901:Fengxiang 3846:kao cheng 3754:province 3733:Tongcheng 3721:Han River 3661:Wu Sangui 3619:Guangdong 3447:Wu Sangui 3364:Wu Sangui 3355:to enter 3338:Wu Sangui 3318:Wei Zaode 3192:Wu Sangui 3184:Zu Dashou 3152:Wu Sangui 3128:Jirgalang 3090:In 1638, 2942:Jirgalang 2922:King Injo 2909:Later Jin 2850:Zu Zehong 2786:Zu Zehong 2774:Zu Dashou 2595:and Khan 2589:Wu Sangui 2360:Confucian 2296:as well. 2224:King Injo 2209:Pyongyang 2201:Bohai Sea 2173:Jirgalang 2134:Later Jin 1983:Hun River 1961:gave the 1863:Yi people 1848:vassalage 1720:Wu Sangui 1693:Philip IV 1657:Wu Sangui 1606:Ming rule 1578:Later Jin 1492:dynasties 1486:) or the 1363:Guangning 1358:Zhenjiang 1353:Shen-Liao 1282:Later Jin 1189:fighters 1154:Bannermen 1099:Ai Nengqi 1020:Hao Yaoqi 624:Wu Sangui 618:Zu Dashou 505:Jirgalang 349:Chagatai 322:Tiandihui 55:June 2024 39:summarize 17095:Hongqian 17064:Currency 16934:Treaties 16840:Kaozheng 16787:Booi Aha 16729:Hetu Ala 16682:Timeline 16677:Xinjiang 16648:Mongolia 16605:Chu Army 16580:New Army 16537:Military 16475:Viceroys 15769:Currency 15708:Painting 15518:Military 15511:Military 15039:20062627 14871:Volume 2 14850:Volume 1 14825:(1985). 14687:(eds.). 14651:(1990). 14565:Archived 14266:(1999). 14170:(1990). 13843:23351361 13653:(2009), 12711:26 April 12394:Springer 11475:Dai 2009 11424:Dai 2009 11388:Dai 2009 9793:Dai 2009 7495:Xinjiang 7413:See also 7350:Liaodong 7322:Hangzhou 7305:Zhejiang 7301:Jiangnan 7258:entered 7254:and the 7184:Yangzhou 7161:Russians 7157:Torghuts 7130:Tibetans 7051:Mongolia 7047:Xinjiang 6988:Wu Weiye 6964:Gu Yanwu 6867:Biên Hòa 6759:Shi Lang 6705:Shi Lang 6690:Shi Lang 6642:Liaodong 6548:in 1673. 6489:Nagasaki 6457:Buddhist 6453:Shi Lang 6379:fled to 6353:Shi Lang 6275:Zhejiang 6259:Chaozhou 6220:Lake Mao 6009:Changsha 5958:Mu Sheng 5939:de facto 5847:Shibulai 5818:and the 5638:Shandong 5602:Shandong 5544:fled to 5514:Xiangtan 5471:Xiangtan 5463:Changsha 5459:Jiangnan 5367:The two 5350:Zhaoqing 5296:Xiangtan 5220:Jiangnan 5216:Zhoushan 5208:Shacheng 5173:Tingzhou 5142:Zhejiang 5111:Zhejiang 5073:founder 5059:Hangzhou 5044:Liaodong 5032:Zhejiang 4934:Yu Dahai 4784:Yangzhou 4776:Ruichang 4768:Xinchang 4756:Tangshan 4740:Zhejiang 4728:Zhou Rui 4720:Lake Tai 4682:Jiangnan 4646:Jiangyin 4634:Jiangyin 4603:Lake Tai 4591:Lake Mao 4583:Zhejiang 4575:Zhejiang 4542:Lake Tai 4531:Jiangyin 4451:Jiangnan 4431:Jiangnan 4399:Ma Deong 4359:Tongling 4296:Liaodong 4292:Jiujiang 4261:Yangzhou 4236:and the 4230:Hangzhou 4222:Jiangnan 4189:Shi Kefa 4177:Yangzhou 4162:Jiangnan 4127:Wang Duo 4094:Yangzhou 4090:Shi Kefa 4066:Jiangnan 4058:era name 4030:Fengyang 4028:and the 4026:Shi Kefa 3999:Yangzhou 3991:Shi Kefa 3944:Yanchang 3905:Ren Zhen 3865:Monguors 3742:Between 3735:and the 3705:Shandong 3521:Liaodong 3499:ordered 3490:Liaodong 3435:— 3368:Ningyuan 3259:capital 3239:Just as 3148:Ningyuan 3140:Songshan 3076:system. 3039:and the 3025:Bombogor 3001:Lianshan 2862:Zu Zerun 2794:Zu Zerun 2778:Quan Jie 2770:Wu Rujie 2758:Liaodong 2722:to rule 2686:firearms 2563:Liaoning 2553:general 2467:and the 2449:Jurchens 2397:Jurchens 2368:between 2365:Dalinghe 2356:Yongping 2255:Jurchens 2253:and the 2244:Khorchin 2228:Hanseong 2042:Jurchens 2034:Liaoyang 2030:Shenyang 2022:Liaodong 2011:Gintaisi 2002:Bujantai 1987:Shenyang 1975:Hetu Ala 1914:Jianzhou 1875:Fengyang 1844:Liaodong 1801:Liaodong 1771:Jurchens 1751:Liaodong 1744:Shi Lang 1610:Liaoning 1602:Jurchens 1551:Zhu clan 1518:Overview 1404:Song-Jin 1384:Dalinghe 1374:Ning-Jin 1369:Ningyuan 1270:Tungning 1185:300,000 1146:Strength 1131:Bombogor 933:Turumtay 917:Gintaisi 806:Shi Kefa 642:Shi Lang 319:Jurchens 185:rule in 116:Mongolia 102:Location 17080:Zhiqian 17072:Coinage 16809:Economy 16780:culture 16515:Yun-Gui 16505:Min-Zhe 16500:Sichuan 16495:Huguang 16341:Emperor 15862:History 15776:Coinage 15750:Economy 15578:Vietnam 15470:Princes 15428:Emperor 15216:Middle 15102:History 14411:(ed.). 14380:(ed.). 14309:2941233 14199:(ed.). 14098:. 經文書局. 13332:Bibcode 12813:Wu 1995 12183:Ho 2011 10959:572–573 10289:Ho 2011 10277:Ho 2011 10004:11 July 9450:194–196 8308:Li 2002 7859:1 April 7780:Bibcode 7607:Yu 2002 7568:In the 7378:Shaanxi 7313:Yangtze 7293:Jiangxi 7280:Huangpi 7268:Huguang 7241:Britain 7208:Shaanxi 7200:Sichuan 7196:Nanjing 7192:Beijing 7165:Manchus 7142:Tulisen 7033:is the 6928:loyalty 6827:Da Nang 6815:Guangxi 6811:Qinzhou 6807:Koxinga 6799:Vietnam 6783:tianfei 6779:Tianhou 6602:Sichuan 6594:Shaanxi 6586:Guangxi 6493:Batavia 6471:'s son 6469:Koxinga 6463:on the 6387:in the 6377:Koxinga 6366:Koxinga 6357:Koxinga 6318:Manchus 6314:Beijing 6304:at the 6298:Nanjing 6294:Nanjing 6286:Shunzhi 6279:Yangtze 6271:Taizhou 6253:. From 6228:Koxinga 6212:Koxinga 6192:Vietnam 6184:Manchus 6156:Pye Min 6135:Burmese 6095:Burmese 6089:of the 6028:Manchus 6017:Guizhou 5997:Huguang 5993:Guangxi 5981:Sichuan 5962:Vietnam 5930:Guangxi 5922:Guizhou 5859:Xing'an 5851:Sichuan 5827:Shaanxi 5779:scout. 5753:Sichuan 5751:, near 5749:Shaanxi 5745:Jiezhou 5721:Zhamasu 5719:leader 5674:Fengqiu 5670:Lanyang 5654:Caozhou 5634:Tianjin 5630:Qingyun 5598:Zouping 5550:Guizhou 5546:Nanning 5518:Jiangxi 5502:Huguang 5455:Xu Yong 5451:Kaifeng 5447:Nanjing 5443:Wuchang 5416:Jiangxi 5401:Guangxi 5397:Nanning 5358:Guangxi 5292:Guizhou 5248:Huguang 5240:Nanjing 5185:Koxinga 5169:Ganzhou 5134:Ganzhou 5130:Jiangxi 5091:Koxinga 4982:Kuizhou 4958:Baoning 4950:Jiading 4914:Guizhou 4884:Chengdu 4876:Xichong 4845:Sichuan 4834:Chengdu 4830:Shaanxi 4810:Sichuan 4788:Nanjing 4780:Huai'an 4764:Haizhou 4748:Jiashan 4696:Yangtzi 4694:in the 4667:Jiading 4655:Jiading 4626:Jiading 4511:Kunshan 4507:Jiaxing 4503:Chen Wu 4499:Xiushui 4495:Taicang 4463:Manchus 4423:Manchus 4383:Guazhou 4367:Nanjing 4353:on the 4328:Xu Yong 4324:Sichuan 4304:Jiangxi 4284:Nanjing 4265:Nanjing 4250:Nanjing 4246:Nieuhof 4218:Beijing 4209:Nanjing 4181:Manchus 4139:Nanjing 4102:Nanjing 4054:emperor 4050:crowned 4022:Nanjing 4018:Nanjing 4010:Beijing 3948:Ganzhou 3940:Shaanxi 3928:Lanzhou 3920:Ganzhou 3916:Milayin 3877:Tibetan 3800:), and 3776:Nurhaci 3750:and in 3744:Beijing 3725:Wuchang 3693:Shaanxi 3681:Gu Pass 3653:Beijing 3607:Nanjing 3603:Koxinga 3541:Mongols 3537:Manchus 3513:Shunzhi 3505:Beijing 3421:Emperor 3380:Beijing 3353:Manchus 3330:Beijing 3306:to the 3277:Taiyuan 3261:Beijing 3234:Sichuan 3226:Shaanxi 3200:Beijing 3180:Jinzhou 3126:prince 3116:Jinzhou 3060:of the 3041:Manchus 3037:Nurhaci 3029:Banners 2970:Ganghwa 2930:Koreans 2886:Nurhaci 2873:Manchus 2858:Zu Kufa 2854:Zu Zepu 2790:Zu Zepu 2750:Banners 2734:to the 2728:Mongols 2720:Manchus 2660:Manchus 2656:Mongols 2608:Banners 2604:Shunzhi 2543:Nurhaci 2535:Manchus 2520:Mingshi 2484:Koreans 2453:Manchus 2374:Beijing 2352:Qian'an 2340:Manchus 2324:Nurhaci 2259:Khalkha 2251:Nurhaci 2247:Mongols 2220:Hwangju 2150:Jurchen 2142:Nurhaci 2084:, many 2067:Beijing 2015:Pacific 1998:Jurchen 1963:Jurchen 1921:Nurhaci 1919:chief, 1917:Jurchen 1887:Kaifeng 1871:Shaanxi 1867:Sichuan 1852:Jurchen 1828:Nurhaci 1806:Nurhaci 1789:Manchus 1718:led by 1649:Zuihuai 1633:Beijing 1629:emperor 1582:Nurhaci 1568:led by 1560:led by 1425:Related 1409:Beijing 1343:Xicheng 1338:Tieling 1333:Kaiyuan 1312:Battles 1105:† 1077:† 1056:† 1013:† 997:† 939:† 817:Koxinga 799:† 786:† 773:† 767:Milayin 760:† 742:† 736:Man Gui 729:† 705:† 605:† 557:Suksaha 507: ( 475: ( 453: ( 451:Nurhaci 376:(Japan) 297:Koxinga 220:Manchus 148:changes 141:victory 16694:Taiwan 15870:Early 15855:topics 15698:Poetry 15588:Yunnan 15110:Early 15095:topics 15045: 15037: 14981: 14960: 14939: 14920: 14901: 14878: 14857: 14835: 14810: 14788: 14762: 14743: 14722: 14701: 14661: 14637: 14616: 14595: 14533: 14510: 14489: 14468: 14447: 14423: 14392: 14361: 14334: 14315: 14307: 14276: 14224: 14178: 14154: 14133: 14072: 14037: 14016: 13986: 13961: 13942: 13918: 13897: 13880:601450 13878: 13849: 13841: 13810: 13789: 13768: 13746: 13725: 13704: 13683: 13663: 13625: 13606: 13585: 13559: 13541: 13500: 13423: 13350: 13202: 13163: 13120: 12780: 12702: 12661:vol. 6 12561: 12335: 12310: 12205: 11879: 11852: 11675:26 May 11666: 11446: 11283: 11097:, 650. 11058: 10838:–642]. 10572: 10562: 10523: 10439: 10419:–xlix. 10267:–1048. 10153: 9918: 9768: 9536: 9356: 9141: 9064: 8923: 8880: 8783: 8597: 8541: 8498: 8455: 8369: 8342: 8132: 8055: 7970: 7940: 7798: 7753: 7717: 7657:9 July 7615:passim 7609:, and 7398:Manchu 7368:. The 7342:Fushun 7338:Manchu 7318:Fujian 7264:Huzhou 7218:, and 7126:Oirats 7114:Oirats 7083:slaves 7072:Mongol 7070:, and 7068:Manchu 7035:Manchu 7010:Manchu 6970:, and 6892:Shitao 6855:Khmers 6851:Nam Ky 6847:Mỹ Tho 6713:Taiwan 6661:Manchu 6572:, and 6562:Taiwan 6445:Kinmen 6441:Xiamen 6437:Taiwan 6433:Fujian 6381:Taiwan 6346:Taiwan 6342:Xiamen 6338:Fujian 6330:French 6255:Xiamen 6247:Yongli 6224:Yongli 6188:Dorgon 6180:Yunnan 6075:Yunnan 6021:Yunnan 5989:Guilin 5973:Dorgon 5946:Yunnan 5871:Ziyang 5863:Tan Qi 5843:Mongol 5800:Muslim 5784:Muslim 5777:Manchu 5769:Shanxi 5737:Puzhou 5717:Mongol 5713:Yan'an 5707:, and 5697:Dorgon 5693:Shanxi 5689:Datong 5678:Gao Di 5664:, and 5644:, and 5526:Holhoi 5522:Tantai 5486:Mongol 5482:Manchu 5334:Yongli 5311:Fuzhou 5268:(zhen) 5264:Longwu 5228:Xiamen 5189:Taiwan 5177:Fuzhou 5146:Fujian 5083:Fuzhou 5040:Fujian 4928:under 4868:Jesuit 4806:Dorgon 4772:Rui'an 4752:Liyang 4700:Anqing 4674:Fuzhou 4642:Manchu 4619:Fuzhou 4607:Suzhou 4587:Fujian 4565:under 4553:under 4546:ad hoc 4479:Dorgon 4455:Dorgon 4419:Dorgon 4381:, the 4355:Yangzi 4312:Datong 4226:Suzhou 4170:Manchu 4082:Xuzhou 3960:Suzhou 3912:Muslim 3838:Erdeni 3828:Mukden 3803:Sanlüe 3794:Su Shu 3789:Liutao 3780:Manchu 3752:Shanxi 3748:Datong 3715:, and 3685:Shanxi 3657:Dorgon 3635:Fuzhou 3631:Taiwan 3627:Fujian 3623:Fujian 3611:Fujian 3596:Manchu 3592:Mongol 3560:Dorgon 3531:, and 3517:Kangxi 3497:Dorgon 3389:Dorgon 3304:Du Xun 3281:Shanxi 3249:Manchu 3241:Dorgon 3188:Liaoxi 3175:Dorgon 3156:Abatai 3132:Korean 3124:Manchu 3110:. The 3070:Nanais 3066:Evenks 3033:Nanais 3031:. The 2993:Dorgon 2960:, and 2958:Mongol 2954:Manchu 2944:, and 2938:Abatai 2913:Joseon 2881:Mongol 2842:Liu Wu 2664:Dorgon 2640:Abatai 2617:Dorgon 2587:, and 2577:Kangxi 2559:Fushun 2547:Abatai 2488:Joseon 2473:Manchu 2370:Mukden 2309:Jesuit 2282:Ligdan 2274:Dorgon 2263:Chahar 2179:, and 2162:Joseon 2086:Manchu 2071:Lüshun 2050:Fushun 2038:Mongol 2032:, and 2026:Fushun 1736:Taiwan 1695:, the 1691:under 1665:Dorgon 1532:Manchu 1419:Penghu 1394:Lüshun 1389:Wuqiao 1348:Chahar 1323:Qinghe 1318:Fushun 1141:Sosoku 1133: 1101: 1073: 1044: 1033: 1022: 1009: 1003:Li Guo 993: 958: 935: 919: 883: 834: 808: 795: 756: 738: 725: 714: 701: 562:Laimbu 552:Ebilun 532:Abatai 485:Dorgon 468:Daišan 312:Joseon 233:Joseon 175:, and 135:Result 120:Russia 16886:Queue 16804:Dibao 16660:Tibet 16480:Zhili 16363:Amban 15760:Islam 15583:Wokou 15571:Tibet 15502:Fotou 15371:Sarhū 15307:Late 15054:(PDF) 15043:S2CID 15035:JSTOR 15015:(PDF) 14568:(PDF) 14561:(PDF) 14407:. In 14376:. In 14313:S2CID 14305:JSTOR 14248:(PDF) 14195:. In 14055:(PDF) 13876:JSTOR 13847:S2CID 13839:JSTOR 13568:(PDF) 13557:S2CID 13527:(PDF) 13403:–105. 13348:S2CID 13277:64–65 13058:49–50 13028:–586. 13010:揚州十日記 12905:76–77 12768:[ 12631:(PDF) 12620:(PDF) 12513:–122. 10931:65–66 10804:57–58 10629:–689. 10417:xxxvi 9998:(PDF) 9941:–295. 9898:–262. 9882:–199. 9850:–303. 9776:from 9214:66–67 9073:(PDF) 9062:S2CID 9042:(PDF) 9011:–180. 7796:S2CID 7402:Xi'an 7386:Xi'an 7382:Gansu 7366:Xi'an 7327:Henan 7276:Henan 7055:Tibet 7039:China 6932:zhōng 6536:from 6485:Japan 6479:ship 6477:fluyt 6405:China 6385:Dutch 6326:China 6302:Dutch 6174:near 6164:Burma 6107:Nayan 6103:Hmong 6083:Burma 6013:Hunan 5820:Gansu 5796:He Bi 5773:Wutai 5646:Henan 5642:Hebei 5558:Dutch 5510:Hunan 5506:Hubei 5346:Hunan 5342:Hubei 5288:Hunan 5270:with 5256:Hunan 5252:Hubei 4860:Hooge 4843:into 4841:Xi'an 4822:Hooge 4724:Wu Yi 4708:Hunan 4704:Hubei 4659:manzi 4579:Hunan 4509:. In 4497:. In 4459:queue 4361:, in 4351:Anhui 4336:Hunan 4269:taels 4070:Xi'an 3897:Xi'an 3889:Ajige 3784:Dahai 3729:Hubei 3723:into 3709:Ajige 3701:Hebei 3689:Xi'an 3683:into 3576:China 3495:When 3313:taels 3273:Xi'an 3164:taels 3136:Yu Im 3100:Jinan 3096:China 3054:Daurs 3017:Evenk 2946:Ajige 2724:China 2690:When 2644:Haoge 2500:Tumen 2177:Ajige 2090:mukun 1994:Hulun 1728:Dutch 1580:khan 1534:clan 1328:Sarhū 542:Sonin 517:Hooge 490:Ajige 437:Hurka 435:Nanai 425:Evenk 112:Korea 108:China 16622:Navy 16463:Ejen 16346:List 15497:Tusi 15433:List 14979:ISBN 14958:ISBN 14937:ISBN 14918:ISBN 14899:ISBN 14876:ISBN 14855:ISBN 14833:ISBN 14808:ISBN 14786:ISBN 14760:ISBN 14741:ISBN 14720:ISBN 14699:ISBN 14659:ISBN 14635:ISBN 14614:ISBN 14593:ISBN 14576:2016 14531:ISBN 14508:ISBN 14487:ISBN 14466:ISBN 14445:ISBN 14421:ISBN 14390:ISBN 14359:ISBN 14332:ISBN 14274:ISBN 14222:ISBN 14176:ISBN 14152:ISBN 14131:ISBN 14070:ISBN 14035:ISBN 14014:ISBN 13984:ISBN 13959:ISBN 13940:ISBN 13916:ISBN 13895:ISBN 13808:ISBN 13787:ISBN 13766:ISBN 13744:ISBN 13723:ISBN 13702:ISBN 13681:ISBN 13661:ISBN 13623:ISBN 13604:ISBN 13583:ISBN 13498:ISBN 13421:ISBN 13213:2023 13200:ISBN 13161:ISBN 13118:ISBN 13078:2023 12778:ISBN 12713:2012 12700:ISBN 12639:2021 12559:ISBN 12333:ISBN 12308:ISBN 12203:ISBN 11877:ISBN 11850:ISBN 11677:2022 11664:ISBN 11444:ISBN 11281:ISSN 11056:ISBN 10570:OCLC 10560:ISBN 10521:ISBN 10437:ISBN 10305:120? 10265:1047 10151:ISBN 10131:1038 10006:2016 9916:ISBN 9866:–70. 9766:ISBN 9534:ISBN 9354:ISBN 9198:1018 9182:1017 9139:ISBN 8921:ISBN 8878:ISBN 8781:ISBN 8595:ISBN 8539:ISBN 8496:ISBN 8453:ISBN 8367:ISBN 8340:ISBN 8130:ISBN 8053:ISBN 7968:ISBN 7938:ISBN 7914:help 7861:2013 7855:: 75 7751:ISBN 7715:ISBN 7659:2021 7256:Qing 7194:and 7186:and 7092:The 7024:and 6990:and 6958:and 6936:Qing 6900:Qing 6881:and 6837:and 6775:Mazu 6659:and 6628:Ming 6611:and 6596:and 6546:Qing 6443:and 6435:and 6397:guan 6269:and 6196:Siam 6160:Qing 6148:Ming 6129:and 6111:tusi 6071:Dodo 6067:Doni 6026:The 6019:and 5999:and 5950:tusi 5837:and 5731:and 5729:Bolo 5672:and 5610:Qing 5606:Ming 5569:and 5532:and 5508:and 5496:and 5449:and 5437:and 5431:Tang 5429:and 5373:Qing 5369:Ming 5315:Ming 5301:The 5290:and 5276:Qing 5272:Shun 5254:and 5244:Ming 5160:and 5118:Qing 5103:Ming 5071:Ming 5063:Qing 5009:Qing 4954:Qing 4942:Ming 4932:and 4924:and 4862:and 4744:Qing 4726:and 4714:and 4702:and 4628:and 4585:and 4571:Qing 4538:Ming 4397:and 4387:Dodo 4375:Wuhu 4371:Qing 4345:The 4330:and 4318:and 4288:Qing 4254:Qing 4234:Qing 4228:and 4193:Dodo 4183:and 4147:Dodo 4121:and 4076:and 4062:Qing 4014:Ming 3995:Qing 3950:and 3891:and 3885:Qing 3873:Ming 3869:tusi 3863:The 3812:and 3809:Wuzi 3746:and 3713:Dodo 3703:and 3673:Qing 3621:and 3572:Ming 3568:Qing 3556:Ming 3515:and 3402:and 3257:Ming 3253:Ming 3245:Qing 3218:Ming 3112:Ming 3092:Qing 3056:and 3021:Daur 3013:Qing 3011:The 2980:and 2972:and 2952:led 2917:Ming 2907:The 2860:and 2713:Qing 2706:and 2696:Ming 2684:Ming 2593:Yoto 2567:三等子爵 2551:Ming 2498:and 2496:Yalu 2480:Ming 2387:and 2372:and 2354:and 2344:Ming 2313:Qing 2286:Ming 2267:Qing 2242:The 2205:Anju 2193:Uiju 2187:and 2181:Yoto 2169:Amin 2146:Ming 2132:The 2105:and 2094:hala 2007:Yehe 1992:The 1954:Khan 1937:Yehe 1912:The 1881:and 1857:The 1787:The 1781:and 1769:and 1598:Yehe 1545:the 1526:the 1510:and 1478:The 1399:Amur 1379:Jisi 1294:Shun 1277:Qing 1260:Ming 1159:Han 547:Bolo 537:Amin 495:Oboi 473:Dodo 429:Daur 317:Yehe 157:and 139:Qing 126:and 94:Date 15027:doi 14351:doi 14297:doi 14256:178 13868:doi 13831:doi 13549:doi 13478:193 13462:192 13401:103 13385:128 13340:doi 13309:245 13293:237 13261:163 13245:239 13042:218 13026:583 12985:218 12937:205 12921:205 12889:503 12817:102 12801:117 12527:116 12511:121 12495:120 12479:119 12427:190 12411:154 12250:994 11656:doi 11335:223 11319:224 11235:659 11219:206 11095:647 10871:131 10836:641 10820:581 10627:688 10501:122 10246:481 10230:480 10174:4–5 9939:294 9896:261 9880:198 9848:302 9687:213 9581:892 9514:115 9334:117 9246:868 9230:872 9109:478 9090:140 9054:doi 9025:148 9009:179 8944:154 8901:216 8618:860 8390:194 8030:175 7893:116 7853:XXX 7788:doi 7776:101 7743:doi 7698:214 7679:196 6930:(忠 6785:). 6740:藤牌营 6730:海澄公 6711:in 6600:in 6592:in 6584:in 6528:by 6491:to 6176:Ava 6139:Ava 6099:Ava 6060:Ava 5916:'s 5790:at 5478:Han 5469:in 5427:Han 5399:in 5352:in 5348:to 5226:in 4972:in 4762:to 4672:In 4561:at 4160:In 4092:in 4052:as 3826:in 3782:by 3539:or 3279:in 3271:in 3102:in 2561:in 2486:of 2451:to 2441:張文衡 2435:沈佩瑞 2429:祖可法 2422:馬國柱 2414:), 2410:寧完我 2230:to 2056:in 1877:by 1734:in 1608:in 1494:in 629:WIA 510:WIA 478:WIA 456:WIA 17239:: 15041:. 15033:. 15023:32 15021:. 15017:. 14853:. 14683:; 14669:- 14563:. 14357:. 14311:. 14303:. 14293:16 14291:. 14254:. 14250:. 14205:. 13874:. 13864:99 13862:. 13845:. 13837:. 13825:. 13555:. 13547:. 13535:62 13533:. 13529:. 13443:. 13369:84 13346:. 13338:. 13328:25 13326:. 13229:49 13140:. 13095:. 12969:44 12953:44 12873:83 12857:77 12776:. 12774:80 12679:, 12667:^ 12659:, 12647:^ 12622:. 12600:. 12582:. 12392:. 12373:. 12266:88 12163:^ 12026:^ 11999:^ 11810:^ 11747:^ 11696:^ 11662:, 11650:, 11542:^ 11378:^ 11275:. 11079:40 11002:^ 10893:^ 10878:^ 10859:^ 10852:59 10792:^ 10785:61 10747:^ 10646:^ 10568:. 10253:^ 9973:^ 9958:^ 9864:69 9812:^ 9656:. 9620:. 9614:. 9498:95 9482:16 9466:61 9433:10 9431:. 9427:. 9411:10 9409:. 9405:. 9318:23 9302:99 9131:36 9129:. 9125:. 9097:^ 9060:. 9050:11 9048:. 9044:. 8997:^ 8987:. 8981:. 8960:72 8815:. 8809:. 8717:. 8711:. 8565:^ 8519:16 8476:33 8421:79 8409:^ 8236:44 8224:^ 8217:42 8201:39 8185:43 8169:83 8086:^ 8079:41 8067:^ 8037:^ 8018:^ 8008:. 7997:^ 7982:^ 7952:^ 7922:^ 7900:^ 7881:^ 7851:. 7847:. 7835:^ 7794:. 7786:. 7774:. 7749:. 7729:^ 7686:^ 7667:^ 7650:. 7646:. 7613:, 7605:, 7601:, 7574:, 7357:. 7174:, 7167:. 7124:, 7120:, 7085:. 7066:, 7053:, 7049:, 7045:, 6997:ci 6986:, 6982:"— 6966:, 6922:. 6833:, 6813:, 6750:. 6588:, 6568:, 6424:. 6407:. 6401:bu 6364:, 6348:. 5804:li 5798:, 5747:, 5691:, 5668:, 5660:, 5656:, 5640:, 5600:, 5573:. 5536:. 5528:, 5524:, 5492:, 5418:, 5403:. 5258:) 5230:. 4836:. 4621:. 4314:, 4244:. 4187:. 4040:, 3907:. 3840:. 3818:. 3798:素書 3792:, 3727:, 3711:, 3527:, 3492:. 3336:, 3202:. 3182:, 3068:, 3003:. 2974:Ka 2956:, 2940:, 2856:, 2852:, 2848:, 2844:, 2840:, 2836:, 2828:, 2824:, 2820:, 2812:, 2808:, 2804:, 2800:, 2796:, 2792:, 2788:, 2784:, 2780:, 2776:, 2772:, 2768:, 2702:, 2671:. 2583:, 2569:; 2376:. 2269:. 2222:. 2215:. 2175:, 2171:, 2077:. 2028:, 1989:. 1619:. 1612:. 1299:Xi 1187:Yi 954:, 906:: 420:) 171:, 167:, 122:, 114:, 110:, 15845:e 15838:t 15831:v 15085:e 15078:t 15071:v 15029:: 14987:. 14966:. 14945:. 14926:. 14907:. 14884:. 14863:. 14841:. 14818:. 14816:. 14794:. 14768:. 14749:. 14728:. 14707:. 14667:. 14643:. 14622:. 14601:. 14578:. 14539:. 14516:. 14495:. 14474:. 14453:. 14431:. 14429:. 14398:. 14367:. 14353:: 14340:. 14319:. 14299:: 14282:. 14258:. 14245:" 14237:" 14230:. 14209:. 14184:. 14160:. 14139:. 14078:. 14043:. 14022:. 13992:. 13967:. 13948:. 13924:. 13903:. 13882:. 13870:: 13853:. 13833:: 13827:3 13816:. 13795:. 13774:. 13754:. 13752:. 13731:. 13710:. 13689:. 13631:. 13612:. 13591:. 13551:: 13506:. 13480:. 13464:. 13429:. 13387:. 13371:. 13354:. 13342:: 13334:: 13311:. 13295:. 13279:. 13263:. 13247:. 13231:. 13169:. 13126:. 13080:. 13060:. 13044:. 13012:. 12987:. 12971:. 12955:. 12939:. 12923:. 12907:. 12891:. 12875:. 12859:. 12819:. 12803:. 12786:. 12715:. 12641:. 12604:. 12586:. 12567:. 12529:. 12497:. 12481:. 12429:. 12413:. 12341:. 12316:. 12268:. 12252:. 12211:. 11885:. 11858:. 11658:: 11452:. 11337:. 11321:. 11287:. 11237:. 11221:. 11064:. 10961:. 10933:. 10873:. 10854:. 10822:. 10806:. 10787:. 10576:. 10529:. 10503:. 10445:. 10307:. 10248:. 10232:. 10192:. 10190:7 10176:. 10159:. 10133:. 10008:. 9924:. 9774:. 9660:. 9624:. 9583:. 9542:. 9516:. 9500:. 9484:. 9468:. 9452:. 9362:. 9336:. 9320:. 9304:. 9288:. 9286:6 9248:. 9232:. 9216:. 9200:. 9184:. 9147:. 9111:. 9092:. 9056:: 9027:. 8991:. 8962:. 8946:. 8929:. 8903:. 8886:. 8819:. 8789:. 8721:. 8620:. 8603:. 8547:. 8521:. 8504:. 8478:. 8461:. 8423:. 8392:. 8375:. 8348:. 8238:. 8219:. 8203:. 8187:. 8171:. 8155:. 8138:. 8100:. 8098:9 8081:. 8061:. 8032:. 8012:. 7976:. 7946:. 7916:) 7895:. 7863:. 7802:. 7790:: 7782:: 7759:. 7745:: 7723:. 7681:. 7661:. 7617:. 7501:) 7493:( 7388:( 7299:( 6910:. 5991:( 5908:. 5484:- 5480:- 5344:/ 5250:( 4782:- 4706:- 4425:. 4168:- 3796:( 3691:( 3461:. 3064:( 3019:- 1572:. 1553:; 1542:; 1231:e 1224:t 1217:v 632:) 513:) 481:) 459:) 427:- 364:: 57:) 53:( 43:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Transition from Ming to Qing

Index