477:: "True social-cost pricing of metropolitan travel has proven to be a theoretical ideal that so far has eluded real-world implementation. The primary obstacle is that except for professors of transportation economics and a cadre of vocal environmentalists, few people are in favor of considerably higher charges for peak-period travel. Middle-class motorists often complain they already pay too much in gasoline taxes and registration fees to drive their cars, and that to pay more during congested periods would add insult to injury. In the United States, few politicians are willing to champion the cause of congestion pricing in fear of reprisal from their constituents... Critics also argue that charging more to drive is elitist policy, pricing the poor off of roads so that the wealthy can move about unencumbered. It is for all these reasons that peak-period pricing remains a pipe dream in the minds of many."
124:
512:
restrictions by owning a second car. Moreover, congestion pricing (unlike rationing) acts "to allocate a scarce resource to its most valuable use, as evinced by users' willingness to pay for the resource". While some "opponents of congestion pricing fear that tolled roads will be used only by people with high income. But preliminary evidence suggests that the new toll lanes in
California are used by people of all income groups. The ability to get somewhere fast and reliably is valued in a variety of circumstances. Not everyone will need or want to incur a toll on a daily basis, but on occasions when getting somewhere quickly is necessary, the option of paying to save time is valuable to people at all income levels." Road space rationing based on license numbers has been implemented in cities such as
797:
who needs transportation from having access to it. And those who can choose between public transportation and private transportation will choose private transportation rather than face the inconveniences of public transportation. The lack of customers willing to use public transport creates a cycle that ultimately never leads to the transportation systems making significant progress. Another reason for low private vehicle ownership among welfare recipients are the established asset limitations. In the U.S. the asset limit is $ 1000 per vehicle. This forces welfare recipients to purchase old and sub standard vehicles in order not to lose their welfare funding.
438:
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transportation because the transportation was often designed to move people around cities, which becomes a problem when the jobs are no longer located in the cities. Those who cannot afford cars inevitably suffer the worst, because they have no choice but to rely on public transport. The problem is illustrated by an estimation that 70% of entry-level jobs are located in the suburbs, while only 32% of those jobs are within a quarter mile of public transportation. More difficult (or more expensive) access to jobs and other goods & services can act as a
492:
801:
choice in where and how they want to go somewhere. The system should also function as a whole, to prevent drivers from dangerously racing along routes to increase profit. Providing incentives to use public transportation can also be beneficial, as ridership increases the transportation systems can appropriately respond by increasing the frequency along those transportation routes. Even creating bus only lanes or priority lanes at intersections could improve service and speed.
670:
2905:
580:. Metropolitan area or city residents, or the taxpayers, will have the option to use the local government-issued mobility rights or congestion credits for themselves, or to trade or sell them to anyone willing to continue traveling by automobile beyond the personal quota. This trading system will allow direct benefits to be accrued by those users shifting to public transportation or by those reducing their peak-hour travel rather than the government.
278:
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demand compared to supply. This is because at peak times there is a large demand for trains, since people want to go home (i.e., a derived demand). However, space on the platforms and on the trains is limited and small compared to the demand for it. As a result, there are crowds of people outside the train doors and in the train station corridors. This increases delays for commuters, which can often cause a rise in stress or other problems.
27:
2893:
369:
831:
The
Commission encourages again Member States to adopt this proposal as soon as possible and to adapt their car taxation policies so as to promote the purchase of fuel efficient cars throughout the EU and help manufacturers respect the upcoming fuel efficiency framework, thus contributing their share
796:
Since automobile use tends to be greater than public transportation use, it also becomes the norm for people to work towards car ownership. Private car ownership has led to a large allocation of resources towards road and bridge maintenance. But underfunding of public transportation prevents everyone
645:
Transport networks and services can take on any combination of regulated/deregulated and public/private provision. For example, bus services in the UK outside London are provided by both the public and private sectors in a deregulated economic environment (where no-one specifies which services are to
808:
of a poor family by as much as 35%. Transport, if analyzed for the cost-benefit analysis for rural poverty alleviation, has given one of the best returns in this regard. For example, road investments in India were a staggering 3–10 times more effective than almost all other investments and subsidies
792:
As a result of the transportation systems in use, but not adequately meeting the needs of those who rely on them, they tend to generate low revenue. And with minimal revenue or funding the transportation systems are forced to decrease service and increase fares, which causes those in poverty to face
700:
The appraisal of changes in the transport network is one of the most important applications of transport economics. In order to make an assessment of whether any given transport project should be carried out, transport economics can be used to compare the costs of the project with its benefits (both
657:
The regulation of public transport is often designed to achieve some social, geographic and temporal equity as market forces might otherwise lead to services being limited to the most popular travel times along the most densely settled corridors of development. National, regional or municipal taxes
296:
Traffic congestion is a negative externality caused by various factors. A 2005 American study stated that there are seven root causes of congestion, and gives the following summary of their contributions: bottlenecks 40%, traffic incidents 25%, bad weather 15%, work zones 10%, poor signal timing 5%,
349:
Congestion is not limited to road networks; the negative externality imposed by congestion is also important in busy public transport networks as well as crowded pedestrian areas, e.g. on the London
Underground on a weekday or any urban train station, at peak times. There is the classical excess in
800:
There are a number of ways in which public transportation could be improved and for it to become a better and more enticing option for other people who do not necessarily depend on it. Some of these include creating networks of overlapping routes even among different operators to give people more
301:
is considered to be an appropriate mechanism to deal with this problem (i.e. to internalise the externality) by allocating scarce roadway capacity to users. Capacity expansion is also a potential mechanism to deal with traffic congestion, but is often undesirable (particularly in urban areas) and
142:
within the transport sector. It has strong links to civil engineering. Transport economics differs from some other branches of economics in that the assumption of a spaceless, instantaneous economy does not hold. People and goods flow over networks at certain speeds. Demands peak. Advance ticket
784:
In the US those with low income living in cities face a problem called “poverty transportation.” The problem arises because many of the entry-level jobs which are sought out by those with little education are typically located in suburban areas. Those jobs are also not very accessible by public
752:
The evaluation of projects enables decision makers to understand whether the benefits and costs that were estimated in the appraisal materialised. Successful project evaluation requires that the necessary data to carry out the evaluation is specified in advance of carrying out the appraisal.
511:
an alternative to congestion pricing, but road space rationing is considered more equitable, as the restrictions force all drivers to reduce auto travel, while congestion pricing restrains less those who can afford paying the congestion charge. Nevertheless, high-income users can avoid the
793:
more inequality. Further those who live in cities with no public transportation become even more excluded from education and work. In places with no public transport a car is the only viable option and that creates unnecessary strain on the roads and environment.
658:
are often deployed to provide a network that is socially acceptable (e.g. extending timetables through the daytime, weekend, holiday or evening periods and intensifying the mesh of routes beyond that which a lightly regulated market would probably provide).
705:, and is usually a fundamental piece of information for decision-makers, as it places a value on the net benefits (or disbenefits) of schemes and generates a ratio of benefits to costs which may be used to prioritise projects when funding is constrained.
732:, a key issue has been how to present these assessments alongside estimates of those costs and benefits that can be expressed in monetary terms. Recent developments in transport appraisal practice in some European countries have seen the application of
650:), whereas bus services within London are provided by the private sector in a regulated economic environment (where the public sector specifies the services to be provided and the private sector competes for the right to supply those services – i.e.
727:
Another problem is that many transport projects have impacts that cannot be expressed in monetary terms, such as impacts on, for example, local air quality, biodiversity and community severance. Whilst these impacts can be included in a detailed
642:. Transport economics considers issues of the economic regulation of the supply of transport, particularly in relation to whether transport services and networks are provided by the public sector, by the private sector, or a mixture of both.
2344:(in Bulgarian, Spanish, Czech, Danish, German, Estonian, Greek, English, French, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Hungarian, Maltese, Dutch, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Finnish, and Swedish). Brussels: European Union: 212.
809:
in rural economy in the decade of the 1990s. What a road does at a macro level to increase transport, the bicycle supports at the micro level. Bicycle, in that sense, can be one of the best means to eradicate the poverty in poor nations.
154:
and choices between dissimilar goods (e.g. car and bus travel) make estimating the demand for transportation facilities difficult. The development of models to estimate the likely choices between the goods involved in transport decisions
472:
Even the transport economists who advocate congestion pricing have anticipated several practical limitations, concerns and controversial issues regarding the actual implementation of this policy. As summarized by noted regional planner
143:
purchase is often induced by lower fares. The networks themselves may or may not be competitive. A single trip (the final good, in the consumer's eyes) may require the bundling of services provided by several firms, agencies and modes.
836:
emissions of cars. Taxes differentiated over the whole range of cars on the market, so as to gradually induce a switch towards less emitting cars, would be an efficient way to reduce compliance costs for manufacturers.
715:
Appraising projects on the basis of their supposed reductions in travel times has come under scrutiny in recent years with the recognition that improvements in capacity generate trips that would not have been made
712:. Travel time savings are often cited as a key benefit of transport projects, but people in different occupations, carrying out different activities and in different social classes value time differently.
252:
is a significant negative externality which is difficult to evaluate quantitatively, making it difficult (but not impossible) to include in transport economics-based research and analysis.
724:
and consumer benefits from a transport project rather than the measuring benefits accruing to travellers themselves. However, this method of analysis is much more difficult to carry out.
383:
strategy that requires the users to pay more for that public good, thus increasing the welfare gain or net benefit for society. Congestion pricing is one of a number of alternative
2394:
1403:
740:
and environmental impact assessment techniques and help decision makers weigh up the monetary and non-monetary impacts of transport projects. In the UK, one such application, the
1694:. Third Seminar of the IMPRINT-EUROPE Thematic Network: “Implementing Reform on Transport Pricing: Constraints and solutions: learning from best practice”. Archived from
817:
Car taxation is an instrument to influence the purchase decisions of consumers. Taxes can be differentiated to support the market introduction of fuel efficient and low
327:
596:
Methods of funding and financing transport network maintenance, improvement and expansion are debated extensively and form part of the transport economics field.
560:
A more acceptable policy on automobile travel restrictions, proposed by transport economists to avoid inequality and revenue allocation issues, is to implement a
2797:
1878:
828:
The
European Union Commission has made a proposal for a Council Directive on passenger car taxation which is currently before the Council and Parliament.
2177:"Business models for transport infrastructure assets? Some experiences in Europe. In The decision-making process for infrastructural investment choices"
2192:"Beyond project governance. Enhancing funding and enabling financing for infrastructure in transport. Findings from the importance analysis approach"
661:
Franchising may be used to create a supply of transport that balances the free-market supply outcome and the most socially desirable supply outcome.
259:
by economists. An externality occurs when a transaction causes costs or benefits to third party, often, although not necessarily, from the use of a
2108:
1458:
2191:
123:
1989:
1720:
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1407:
1294:
850:
2735:
1963:
1429:
1688:
676:
The most sophisticated methods of project appraisal and evaluation have been developed and applied in the transport sector. The terms
619:), and user fees may be tolls, congestion charges or fares. The method of funding often attracts strong political and public debate.
564:
of peak period travel but through revenue-neutral credit-based congestion pricing. This concept is similar to the existing system of
311:
2342:
Autopreise in der Europäischen Union Am ... = Car Prices within the
European Union = Prix des Voitures Au Sein de l'Union Européenne
2767:
2458:
2122:
Viegas, José M. (2001). "Making urban road pricing acceptable and effective: Searching for quality and equity in urban mobility".
2051:
720:), partially eroding the benefits of reduced travel times. Therefore, an alternative method of appraisal is to measure changes in
326:, a fellow Nobel prize winner "for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources",
91:
2020:
1772:
63:
2149:
Kockelman, Kara M.; Kalmanje, Sukumar (2005). "Credit-based congestion pricing: A policy proposal and the public's response".
1746:
1671:
1620:
1522:
1798:
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on non-users. The consideration of these externalities – particularly the negative ones – is a part of transport economics.
2425:
2223:
263:. For example, manufacturing or transportation cause air pollution imposing costs on others when making use of public air.
70:
44:
2827:
846:
2897:
411:
in 2001, as an upgrade to the manual zone control system implemented in 1998; London in 2003 and extended in 2007 (see
127:
This picture illustrates a variety of transportation systems: public transportation; private vehicle road use; and rail
2719:
2357:
1920:
853:, 5G 2T) the taxation rate (all inclusive, i.e. VAT+registration tax+any other taxes) on acquisition was as follows:
110:
77:
2473:
733:
2868:
2802:
2334:
2293:"An Analysis of the Huge Unnoticed Potential Increased Bicycle Density has in Accelerating Rural Growth in India"
1274:
729:
342:
was also a pioneer in this field, and his ideas were presented to the
British government in what is known as the
59:
2817:
627:
48:
2321:
2292:
599:
Funding issues relate to the ways in which money is raised for the supply of transport capacity. Taxation and
399:
measures, stringent car ownership rules and improvements in mass transit. Thanks to technological advances in
339:
622:
Financing issues relate to the way in which these funds are used to pay for the supply of transport. Loans,
2929:
2322:
COM(2005) 261, Proposal for a COUNCIL DIRECTIVE on passenger car related taxes, presented by the
Commission
1334:
1279:
2842:
2832:
2745:
2651:
1465:
804:
Experiments done in Africa (Uganda and
Tanzania) and Sri Lanka on hundreds of households have shown that
756:
The appraisal and evaluation of projects form stages within a broader policy making cycle that includes:
193:
The effect of increases in supply (i.e. capacity) are of particular interest in transport economics (see
1447:. The University of California Transportation Center, University of California at Berkeley. p. 213.
2714:
400:
225:
391:) strategies offered by economists to address congestion. Congestion pricing was first implemented in
2934:
2624:
2448:
805:
741:
2282:. Department of Transport Engineering and Logistics, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 2010.
1605:
1573:
545:
2629:
2418:
458:
420:
412:
174:
can be measured in number of journeys made or in total distance traveled across all journeys (e.g.
1997:
2571:
2176:
437:
404:
372:
260:
84:
37:
1724:
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is considered to be a measure of capacity. The price of the good (travel) is measured using the
2740:
2698:
2693:
2576:
2453:
1663:
214:
210:
1825:
1459:"Traffic Congestion and Reliability: Trends and Advanced Strategies for Congestion Mitigation"
2807:
2671:
2510:
1592:
1560:
1517:. World Bank Staff Occasional Papers Number Five, Chapter VII, Washington, D.C. pp. 191–217.
1329:
1284:
737:
702:
588:
392:
1967:
1655:
408:
2837:
2792:
2760:
2755:
2681:
2656:
2612:
1695:
1319:
1304:
1269:
639:
577:
508:
486:
319:
318:", is considered one of the fathers of congestion pricing, as he first proposed it for the
289:
8:
2908:
2686:
2517:
2468:
2411:
1349:
175:
139:
2028:
2812:
2750:
2538:
2527:
2505:
2500:
2489:
2059:
647:
462:
359:
298:
272:
245:
221:
183:
171:
2135:
2087:"Tradeable permits: their potential in the regulation of road transport externalities"
2787:
2661:
2554:
2463:
2363:
2353:
2102:
1916:
1776:
1667:
1656:
1518:
1423:
1344:
1299:
638:
Regulation of the supply of transport capacity relates to both safety regulation and
565:
525:
432:
384:
380:
285:
179:
147:
419:
in 2006, as seven-month trial, and then on a permanent basis since August 2007 (see
2863:
2858:
2644:
2639:
2522:
2478:
2345:
2203:
2158:
2131:
1750:
1383:
1339:
721:
491:
187:
2208:
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684:
are often confused in relation to the assessment of projects. Appraisal refers to
2873:
2634:
2398:
2086:
1802:
1388:
1371:
307:
233:
229:
209:
In addition to providing benefits to their users, transport networks impose both
164:
156:
1851:
220:
Positive externalities of transport networks may include the ability to provide
2878:
1908:
1314:
1289:
1264:
818:
717:
623:
612:
573:
474:
323:
303:
249:
237:
228:. Negative externalities are wide-ranging and may include local air pollution,
194:
151:
2162:
1937:"Vehicle Restrictions. Limiting Automobile Travel at Certain Times and Places"
517:
241:
2923:
2617:
2566:
2367:
2082:
1539:
709:
569:
282:
135:
1445:
Road
Pricing for Congestion Management: The Transition from Theory to Policy
2666:
2243:. Department of City & Metropolitan Planning, University of Utah, 2005.
466:
396:
363:
343:
335:
315:
160:
669:
521:
496:
322:
in 1952. In the road transportation arena these theories were extended by
2549:
651:
388:
256:
1964:"LEDA Measure: License plate based traffic restrictions, Athens, Greece"
2434:
1723:. Land Transport Authority (Singapore). Website oficial. Archived from
1464:. U.S. Federal Highway Administration. 1 September 2005. Archived from
786:
604:
549:
331:
297:
and special events/other 5%. Within the transport economics community,
2604:
2392:
1886:
1259:
608:
600:
561:
416:
277:
1936:
603:
are the main methods of fund-raising. Taxation may be general (e.g.
533:
197:), as the potential environmental consequences are significant (see
26:
2676:
2599:
2560:
2300:
1324:
1309:
630:
and concessions are all methods of financing transport investment.
616:
537:
2349:
1491:
1653:
1586:
541:
454:
450:
248:. The contribution of transport systems to potentially hazardous
2080:
2581:
2089:. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 24(4) 527–548
646:
be provided, so the provision of services is influenced by the
513:
500:
334:
recommendation the first system was put in place in Singapore.
178:
for public transport or vehicle-kilometers of travel (VKT) for
134:
is a branch of economics founded in 1959 by American economist
1618:
281:
Typical traffic congestion in an urban freeway. Shown here is
2403:
1801:. Swedish Road Administration. 21 August 2007. Archived from
529:
446:
2224:"Green Book, Appraisal and evaluation in central government"
1587:
Small, Kenneth A.; Verhoef, Erik T. (2007). "op. cit": 120.
368:
190:
of travel, which includes both money and time expenditure.
2021:"Hoy empieza restricción para autos en centro de San José"
2196:
European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research
1442:
330:
who was instrumental in the first designs and upon whose
159:
models) led to the development of an important branch of
1749:. UK Commission for Integrated Transport. Archived from
1631:(3). U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Archived from
701:
social and financial). Such an assessment is known as a
688:(before the event) assessment and evaluation refers to
2798:
International Conference on Population and Development
1541:
Road pricing: the economic and technical possibilities
736:
based decision support tools. These build on existing
2189:
1879:"Milan Introduces Congestion Charge To Cut Pollution"
1619:
Sheldon G. Strickland & Wayne Ber (Winter 1995).
2280:
On the development of public transit in large cities
744:
has become a cornerstone of UK transport appraisal.
2151:
Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice
664:
453:, that exempted higher emission standard vehicles (
51:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
395:in 1975, together with a comprehensive package of
2148:
1915:. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 67–68.
708:A primary difficulty in project appraisal is the
503:, despite no-drive days based on license numbers.
150:theory as other industries, the complications of
2921:
2235:
2233:
1489:
1443:Small, Kenneth A.; José A. Gomez-Ibañez (1998).
1369:
2049:
1990:"Los choferes públicos acataron la restricción"
1876:
1686:
1612:
461:This was later replaced by a more conventional
407:). Similar pricing schemes were implemented in
1370:Hörcher, Daniel; Tirachini, Alejandro (2021).
441:Energy Efficiency of different Transport Modes
2419:
2230:
2190:Cardenas, I.; Voordijk, H; Geert, D. (2018).
2018:
1773:"The history of Limited Access Zones in Rome"
633:
403:, Singapore upgraded its system in 1998 (see
2107:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2052:"Evaluarán restricción vehicular en capital"
1996:(in Spanish). 7 January 2003. Archived from
1747:"Road Charging Scheme: Europe – Italy, Rome"
1654:Small, Kenneth A.; Verhoef, Erik T. (2007).
1492:"Principles of Efficient Congestion Pricing"
779:
555:
2823:United Nations world population conferences
1295:List of important publications in economics
840:
146:Although transport systems follow the same
2736:Population and housing censuses by country
2426:
2412:
2332:
2241:Poverty, policy, and public transportation
1823:
1621:"Congestion Control and Demand Management"
1555:Button, Kenneth J. (1993). "op. cit": 153.
592:Corridor Capacity and Infrastructure Costs
2267:Urban Sprawl, Auto Dependency and Poverty
2207:
1387:
302:sometimes has questionable benefits (see
111:Learn how and when to remove this message
2459:Estimates of historical world population
2326:
1372:"A review of public transport economics"
668:
587:
583:
490:
436:
367:
276:
122:
2333:Commission, European (1 January 2011).
2254:The Social Inequality of Public Transit
1907:
1512:
480:
2922:
2335:"Car prices within the European Union"
2121:
1554:
1428:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
769:monitoring implementation of a project
375:Gantry at North Bridge Road, Singapore
340:Transport and Road Research Laboratory
2407:
1689:"Road pricing Singapore's experience"
1658:The Economics of Urban Transportation
1537:
1494:. Victoria Transport Policy Institute
760:identifying a rationale for a project
353:
266:
2892:
426:
255:Congestion is considered a negative
49:adding citations to reliable sources
20:
2828:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
1941:Victoria Transport Policy Institute
1687:Chin Kian Keong (23 October 2002).
405:Singapore's Electronic Road Pricing
13:
2226:. HM Treasury 2003. 15 March 2023.
1877:Marco Bertacche (3 January 2008).
1775:. PRoGR€SS Project. Archived from
1515:The Economics of Road User Charges
775:feedback to inform future projects
14:
2946:
2720:Population and Development Review
2385:
2050:Mercedes Agüero (12 April 2006).
1852:"Milan introduces traffic charge"
806:a bicycle can increase the income
2904:
2903:
2891:
2768:Population concern organizations
2474:Projections of population growth
1826:"Toll Discounts for Going Green"
734:multi-criteria decision analysis
665:Project appraisal and evaluation
204:
25:
2869:Human impact on the environment
2803:Population Action International
2315:
2285:
2278:Munoz, Juan and Grange, Louis.
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2259:
2246:
2216:
2183:
2169:
2142:
2115:
2074:
2043:
2019:Ángela Ávalos (3 August 2005).
2012:
1982:
1966:. LEDA database. Archived from
1956:
1929:
1901:
1870:
1843:
1817:
1791:
1765:
1739:
1713:
1680:
1662:. Routledge, England. pp.
1647:
1275:Effects of the car on societies
812:
730:environmental impact assessment
495:Traffic congestion persists in
224:, increases in land value, and
163:, as well as a Nobel Prize for
36:needs additional citations for
2818:United Nations Population Fund
2433:
1824:Ken Belson (27 January 2008).
1580:
1548:
1531:
1506:
1483:
1451:
1436:
1396:
1363:
692:(after the event) assessment.
507:Transport economists consider
1:
2209:10.18757/ejtir.2018.18.4.3261
2136:10.1016/S0967-070X(01)00024-5
1799:"Congestion tax in Stockholm"
1356:
747:
449:had a traffic charge scheme,
338:, the deputy director of the
2058:(in Spanish). Archived from
2027:(in Spanish). Archived from
1389:10.1016/j.ecotra.2021.100196
1335:Transit-oriented development
1280:Externalities of automobiles
695:
7:
2843:World Population Foundation
2833:World Population Conference
2746:World population milestones
1376:Economics of Transportation
1252:
628:public–private partnerships
10:
2951:
2715:Population and Environment
1953:See Equity Impacts section
634:Regulation and competition
484:
430:
401:electronic toll collection
357:
270:
2887:
2851:
2776:
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2625:Human population planning
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2536:
2487:
2449:Demographics of the world
2441:
2163:10.1016/j.tra.2005.02.014
1721:"Electronic Road Pricing"
1490:Vickrey, William (1992).
845:In 2011, for a brand new
780:Social effects on poverty
742:New Approach to Appraisal
556:Tradable mobility credits
459:alternative fuel vehicles
379:Congestion pricing is an
2630:Compulsory sterilization
841:Tax rates on acquisition
421:Stockholm congestion tax
413:London congestion charge
2572:Malthusian growth model
1513:Walters, A. A. (1968).
373:Electronic Road Pricing
140:allocation of resources
2699:Zero population growth
2694:Sustainable population
2618:Malthusian catastrophe
2577:Overshoot (population)
2454:Demographic transition
1913:The Transit Metropolis
1600:Cite journal requires
1568:Cite journal requires
673:
593:
504:
442:
376:
293:
226:agglomeration benefits
215:negative externalities
128:
2808:Population Connection
2672:Mere addition paradox
2511:Physiological density
2179:. FrancoAngeli. 2020.
2085:, Rietveld P (1997).
1625:Public Roads Magazine
1330:Sustainable transport
1285:Free public transport
763:specifying objectives
738:cost-benefit analysis
703:cost-benefit analysis
672:
591:
584:Funding and financing
494:
440:
371:
310:, winner of the 1996
280:
126:
60:"Transport economics"
2838:World Population Day
2793:Church of Euthanasia
2682:Non-identity problem
2657:Political demography
2613:Human overpopulation
2397:14 July 2018 at the
2297:BicyclePotential.org
2062:on 19 September 2008
1538:Smeed, R.J. (1964).
1320:Road space rationing
1305:Outline of economics
1270:Economics of car use
615:) or variable (e.g.
578:greenhouse emissions
509:road space rationing
487:Road space rationing
481:Road space rationing
320:New York City Subway
176:passenger-kilometers
138:that deals with the
45:improve this article
2930:Transport economics
2687:Reproductive rights
2518:Population dynamics
2469:Population momentum
2000:on 13 December 2006
1970:on 27 February 2008
1350:Vignette (road tax)
640:economic regulation
445:From 2008 to 2011,
242:community severance
132:Transport economics
16:Branch of economics
2813:Population Matters
2528:Population pyramid
2506:Population density
2501:Population decline
1943:. TDM Encyclopedia
1830:The New York Times
868:Taxation rate (%)
832:to reducing the CO
674:
594:
572:, proposed by the
505:
463:congestion pricing
443:
381:efficiency pricing
377:
360:Congestion pricing
354:Congestion pricing
299:congestion pricing
294:
273:Traffic congestion
267:Traffic congestion
222:emergency services
129:
2917:
2916:
2788:7 Billion Actions
2662:Population ethics
2555:Carrying capacity
2464:Population growth
2239:Sanchez, Thomas.
1889:on 31 August 2020
1673:978-0-415-28515-5
1524:978-0-8018-0653-7
1345:Transport finance
1300:Low-emission zone
1250:
1249:
865:Before tax (in €)
825:) emitting cars.
710:valuation of time
566:emissions trading
540:, La Paz (2003),
433:Pollution pricing
427:Pollution pricing
314:for his work on "
286:Eastshore Freeway
180:private transport
148:supply and demand
121:
120:
113:
95:
2942:
2935:Regional science
2907:
2906:
2895:
2894:
2864:Green Revolution
2645:Two-child policy
2640:One-child policy
2563:
2523:Population model
2479:World population
2428:
2421:
2414:
2405:
2404:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2339:
2330:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2299:. Archived from
2289:
2283:
2276:
2270:
2263:
2257:
2250:
2244:
2237:
2228:
2227:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2157:(7–9): 671–690.
2146:
2140:
2139:
2124:Transport Policy
2119:
2113:
2112:
2106:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1960:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1885:. Archived from
1883:The New York Sun
1874:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1753:on 11 April 2008
1743:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1727:on 10 April 2008
1717:
1711:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1701:on 10 April 2008
1700:
1693:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1661:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1635:on 17 March 2008
1616:
1610:
1609:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1571:
1566:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1470:
1463:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1427:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1406:. Archived from
1400:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1367:
1340:Transport divide
862:After tax (in €)
856:
855:
188:generalised cost
116:
109:
105:
102:
96:
94:
53:
29:
21:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2883:
2847:
2781:
2779:
2772:
2724:
2703:
2652:Overconsumption
2635:Family planning
2592:
2586:
2559:
2543:
2540:
2532:
2494:
2491:
2483:
2437:
2432:
2399:Wayback Machine
2388:
2383:
2382:
2372:
2370:
2360:
2337:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2316:
2306:
2304:
2303:on 25 June 2011
2291:
2290:
2286:
2277:
2273:
2264:
2260:
2252:Rose, Spencer.
2251:
2247:
2238:
2231:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2188:
2184:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2147:
2143:
2120:
2116:
2100:
2099:
2092:
2090:
2079:
2075:
2065:
2063:
2048:
2044:
2034:
2032:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1946:
1944:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1909:Cervero, Robert
1906:
1902:
1892:
1890:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1859:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1834:
1832:
1822:
1818:
1808:
1806:
1805:on 2 March 2007
1797:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1780:
1779:on 9 March 2008
1771:
1770:
1766:
1756:
1754:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1730:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1636:
1617:
1613:
1601:
1599:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1569:
1567:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1536:
1532:
1525:
1511:
1507:
1497:
1495:
1488:
1484:
1474:
1472:
1471:on 29 June 2019
1468:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1441:
1437:
1421:
1420:
1413:
1411:
1410:on 14 July 2018
1404:"Archived copy"
1402:
1401:
1397:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1255:
843:
835:
824:
815:
782:
750:
698:
667:
636:
607:), local (e.g.
586:
558:
489:
483:
435:
429:
387:(as opposed to
366:
358:Main articles:
356:
308:William Vickrey
275:
269:
234:light pollution
230:noise pollution
207:
165:Daniel McFadden
157:discrete choice
152:network effects
117:
106:
100:
97:
54:
52:
42:
30:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2948:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2901:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2879:Sustainability
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2855:
2853:
2852:Related topics
2849:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2743:
2741:Largest cities
2738:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2717:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2696:
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2684:
2679:
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2654:
2649:
2648:
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2642:
2637:
2632:
2622:
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2610:
2602:
2596:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2561:I = P × A × T
2557:
2552:
2546:
2544:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2503:
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2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
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2456:
2451:
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2443:
2439:
2438:
2431:
2430:
2423:
2416:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2387:
2386:External links
2384:
2381:
2380:
2358:
2325:
2314:
2284:
2271:
2258:
2245:
2229:
2215:
2182:
2168:
2141:
2130:(4): 289–294.
2114:
2073:
2042:
2031:on 15 May 2016
2011:
1981:
1955:
1928:
1921:
1900:
1869:
1858:. 2 March 2008
1842:
1816:
1790:
1764:
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1712:
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1672:
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1611:
1602:|journal=
1579:
1570:|journal=
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1315:Rail subsidies
1312:
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1290:Infrastructure
1287:
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1277:
1272:
1267:
1265:Car dependency
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1111:United Kingdom
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894:
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884:
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880:
877:
874:
870:
869:
866:
863:
860:
849:Trendline (80
842:
839:
833:
822:
819:carbon dioxide
814:
811:
781:
778:
777:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
749:
746:
718:induced demand
697:
694:
666:
663:
635:
632:
613:land value tax
585:
582:
574:Kyoto Protocol
570:carbon credits
557:
554:
485:Main article:
482:
479:
475:Robert Cervero
431:Main article:
428:
425:
355:
352:
324:Maurice Allais
304:induced demand
271:Main article:
268:
265:
250:climate change
238:safety hazards
206:
203:
195:induced demand
170:In transport,
119:
118:
33:
31:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2890:
2889:
2886:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2859:Bennett's law
2857:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
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2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
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2780:organizations
2775:
2769:
2766:
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2759:
2757:
2754:
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2734:
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2700:
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2665:
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2638:
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2601:
2598:
2597:
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2589:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:Kaya identity
2565:
2562:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2535:
2529:
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2516:
2512:
2509:
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2507:
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2472:
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2410:
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2406:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2359:9789279201363
2355:
2351:
2350:10.2763/50581
2347:
2343:
2336:
2329:
2323:
2318:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2281:
2275:
2268:
2265:Colby, Greg.
2262:
2255:
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2236:
2234:
2225:
2219:
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2160:
2156:
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2110:
2104:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1924:
1922:1-55963-591-6
1918:
1914:
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2708:Publications
2667:Antinatalism
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2582:World3 model
2442:Major topics
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336:Reuben Smeed
328:Gabriel Roth
316:moral hazard
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161:econometrics
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43:Please help
38:verification
35:
18:
2591:Society and
2550:Biocapacity
2373:15 December
2081:Verhoef E,
1639:28 February
1498:26 February
1475:28 February
901:Netherlands
652:franchising
518:México City
389:supply side
385:demand side
312:Nobel Prize
261:public good
257:externality
2924:Categories
2778:Events and
2593:population
2539:Population
2490:Population
2435:Population
1893:17 January
1862:17 January
1835:27 January
1382:: 100196.
1357:References
1167:Luxembourg
1083:Czech Rep.
787:ghetto tax
772:evaluation
748:Evaluation
722:land value
682:evaluation
605:income tax
550:Costa Rica
332:World Bank
246:congestion
71:newspapers
2874:Migration
2751:6 billion
2368:1725-9991
2083:Nijkamp P
2056:La Nación
2025:La Nación
1994:La Prensa
1260:Car costs
971:Lithuania
766:appraisal
696:Appraisal
678:appraisal
609:sales tax
601:user fees
562:rationing
522:São Paulo
497:São Paulo
417:Stockholm
393:Singapore
2909:Category
2677:Natalism
2600:Eugenics
2395:Archived
2103:cite web
2093:11 April
1911:(1998).
1856:BBC News
1809:16 April
1783:16 April
1757:16 April
1731:16 April
1705:16 April
1424:cite web
1325:Road tax
1310:Peak car
1253:See also
1223:Slovakia
1209:Portugal
1125:Slovenia
1097:Bulgaria
617:fuel tax
576:to curb
548:(2005),
546:San José
538:Colombia
526:Santiago
524:(1997),
520:(1989),
516:(1982),
465:scheme,
290:Berkeley
211:positive
201:below).
101:May 2007
2898:Commons
2541:ecology
2492:biology
2307:30 June
2066:8 April
2035:8 April
2004:9 April
1974:9 April
1947:9 April
1544:. HMSO.
1414:6 April
1237:Estonia
1153:Germany
1069:Belgium
1041:Hungary
985:Romania
957:Austria
915:Ireland
887:Finland
882:143.07
873:Denmark
859:Country
847:VW Golf
690:ex post
686:ex ante
542:Bolivia
455:Euro IV
451:Ecopass
85:scholar
2608:genics
2366:
2356:
1919:
1670:
1521:
1181:Greece
1176:14.99
1139:France
1134:19.99
1092:20.01
1055:Cyprus
1050:22.68
1036:22.75
999:Poland
980:24.19
966:26.71
943:Latvia
938:29.91
929:Sweden
924:41.88
910:48.15
896:52.61
648:market
544:, and
534:Bogotá
514:Athens
501:Brazil
467:Area C
184:Supply
172:demand
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2729:Lists
2338:(PDF)
2256:2010.
2202:(4).
1699:(PDF)
1692:(PDF)
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1170:15300
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1148:19.6
1145:12942
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1103:11956
1100:14347
1089:11715
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1072:17754
1064:21.5
1061:12586
1058:15292
1047:13790
1044:16918
1033:14187
1030:17415
1027:Spain
1022:22.9
1019:14141
1016:17379
1013:Italy
1005:11557
1002:14215
991:11628
988:14419
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952:27.1
949:11292
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907:13191
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893:11795
890:18000
879:11629
876:28267
624:bonds
530:Chile
447:Milan
92:JSTOR
78:books
2375:2013
2364:ISSN
2354:ISBN
2309:2022
2109:link
2095:2008
2068:2008
2037:2008
2006:2008
1976:2008
1949:2008
1917:ISBN
1895:2008
1864:2008
1837:2008
1811:2008
1785:2008
1759:2008
1733:2008
1707:2008
1668:ISBN
1641:2008
1606:help
1574:help
1519:ISBN
1500:2008
1477:2008
1430:link
1416:2018
1246:N/A
1232:N/A
1218:N/A
1204:N/A
1190:N/A
680:and
409:Rome
362:and
283:I-80
244:and
213:and
64:news
2606:Dys
2346:doi
2204:doi
2159:doi
2132:doi
1664:148
1384:doi
1243:N/A
1240:N/A
1229:N/A
1226:N/A
1215:N/A
1212:N/A
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