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252:-the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, which remains a world-class establishment into the 21st century. Across the modernizing world, railway construction was a major financial and industrial endeavor, usually led by the British. Investments now poured into building a railway-plus-telegraph system knitting China together, connecting the treaty ports, and other major cities, as well as mining districts and agricultural centers. Chinese entrepreneurs learned their skills in the port cities, and soon applied for and received bank loans for their startups. Chinese merchants headquartered there set up branches across Southeast Asia, including British Singapore and Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and the American Philippines.
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270:(1879–1952) first set up faculties of theology, Western learning, and Chinese languages, then expanded to cover literature, science, medicine, and intense coverage of Western languages eagerly sought by the ambitious Chinese intellectuals and entrepreneurs who had rejected the old Confucian exam system for the Western model of modernity. Engineering schools were established as well, and by 1914 a network of universities, colleges, teacher training schools, and specialized industrial schools was headquartered in the Port cities, and diffusing their alumni across urban China.
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port of entry for all imports and exports - except for opium, which was handled by smugglers in other cities. Foreign entrepreneurs introduce the latest
European manufacturing techniques, providing a model followed sooner or later by all of China. The first establishments focused on shipbuilding, ship repair, railway repair, and factories producing textiles, matches, porcelain, flour, and machinery. Tobacco, cigarettes, textiles, and food products were the specialty in Canton. Financing was handled by branch banks, as well as entirely new operations such as
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281:, which focused its ire not just on Japan, but also on the entire port city system as emblematic of imperialism that should no longer be tolerated. The national government had almost no police power in the port cities, allowing secret societies to flourish in the Chinese community, some of which turned into criminal gangs. Eventually, Shanghai had a strong underground illegal underworld that was ready to employ violence.
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Kong, although a
British colony, not a treaty port was similar. Foreigners were welcomed and had stable safe bases, as did Christian missionaries. Outside the ports, the only foreigners were occasional Christian missionaries, and they often encountered serious difficulties. The other 89 cities that became treaty ports between 1842 and 1914 were of minor importance.
255:
The information industry flourished in the port cities, with printing shops, newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets in
Chinese and European languages. Book publishers often featured Chinese translations of European classics in philosophy, politics, literature, and social issues. According to historian
243:
was created in 1854, with nine members who were elected by three dozen foreign landowners at first, and by about 2,000 electors in the 1920s. Chinese residents comprised 90% of the total population of
Shanghai but complained about taxation without representation. Eventually, the Council admitted five
238:
rapidly developed into one of the world's most modern cities, often compared to Paris, Berlin, and London. It set the standard of modernity for China and all of East Asia. In
Shanghai, the British and American settlements combined in 1863 into an international settlement, with the French settlement
1741:
for citizens of the treaty nations. The system of treaty ports ended in Japan in the year 1899 as a consequence of Japan's rapid transition to a modern nation. Japan had sought treaty revision earnestly, and in 1894, signed a new treaty with
Britain which revised or abrogated the previous "unequal"
230:
Although the great majority of
Chinese lived in traditional rural areas, a handful of booming treaty port cities became vibrant centers that had an enormous long-term impact on the Chinese economy and society. Above all Shanghai became the dominant urban center. Tianjin and Shenyang followed; Hong
247:
The
European community promoted technological and economic innovation, as well as knowledge industries, that proved especially attractive to Chinese entrepreneurs as models for their cities across the growing nation. Port cities combined several leadership roles. First of all, they were the major
265:
Christian missionaries saw all of the
Chinese population as their target audience, but they were headquartered in the port cities. The missionaries had very modest success in the conversion of the Chinese population but discovered they became widely popular for setting up medical and educational
260:
This vast network, with
Shanghai as its center, spurred the transformation of the Chinese urban population. In their thoughts, tastes, and daily activities, the educated and affluent groups of the urban population began to abandon traditional ways of living and started to embrace what they saw as
185:
The bund was a self-governing operation with its own shops, restaurants, recreational facilities, parks, churches, courts, police, and local government. The facilities were generally off-limits to the natives. The British, who by far dominated foreign trade with China, normally were the largest
197:
The treaty port system in China lasted approximately one hundred years. It began when the First Opium War ended in 1842. The major powers involved were the British, the French, and the Americans, although by the end of the 19th century all the major powers were involved.
161:
Foreigners all lived in prestigious sections newly built for them on the edges of existing port cities. They enjoyed legal extraterritoriality, as stipulated in the unequal treaties. Some of these port areas were directly leased by foreign powers such as in the
169:
Western images of the Chinese treaty ports focus on the distinctive geography of the "bund", a long narrow strip of land in a prime location on the waterfront where the businesses, offices, warehouses, and residences of all foreigners were located.
3023:
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operated separately nearby. The foreigners took out long-term leases on the land and set up factories, offices, warehouses, sanitation, police, gardens, restaurants, hotels, banks, and private clubs. The
2481:
The Treaty Ports of China and Japan. A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, Together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao. Forming a Guide Book & Vade Mecum... With 29 Maps and Plans
205:
in 1917, and the Germans were expelled in 1914. The three main treaty powers, the British, the Americans, and the French, continued to hold their concessions and extraterritorial jurisdictions until the
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Chinese sovereignty was only nominal. Officially, the foreign powers were not allowed to station military units in the bund, but in practice, there often was a warship or two in the harbor.
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Students poured into the port cities. Many adopted ideas and used the facilities newly opened to them to network with each other, set up organizations and publications, and
2921:
182:), was the first in China, opening in 1844, 20 years before the Shanghai bund. A typical bund contained British, German, French, American, Japanese, and other nationals.
3682:
1782:
followed shortly thereafter. These cities became important centers of mercantile activity for traders from China and Japan until Korea's colonization by Japan in 1910.
222:
in 1943. The international communities that were residues of the treaty port era ended in the late 1940s when the communists took over and nearly all foreigners left.
186:
presence. Businessmen and officials typically brought their own families with them and stayed for years but sent their older children back to England for education.
288:
are located in former treaty ports and therefore have symbolic significance in demonstrating a "reversal of fortunes" in China's dealings with foreigners since the
210:. This ended when the Japanese stormed into their concessions in late 1941. They formally relinquished their treaty rights in a new "equal treaties" agreement with
201:
The system effectively ended when Japan took control of most of the ports in the late 1930s, the Russians relinquished their treaty rights in the wake of the
3016:
2051:
Natascha Vittinghoff, "Readers, publishers and officials in the contest for a public voice and the rise of a modern press in late Qing China (1860-1880)."
3687:
3523:
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1718:
3362:
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Twentieth century impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other treaty ports of China: their history, people, commerce, industries, and resources
1939:
Twentieth century impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other treaty ports of China: their history, people, commerce, industries, and resources
1737:. The treaty with the United States was followed by similar ones with Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, and France. The ports permitted legal
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292:. Researcher Zongyuan Zoe Liu writes that "he success of these cities as 'red' treaty ports represented another step in China's overall
240:
3060:
3167:
3152:
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2854:
1879:
William C. Johnstone, "International Relations: The Status of Foreign Concessions and Settlements in the Treaty Ports of China"
3890:
3229:
2423:
153:(Arrow War) in 1860 and eventually, more than 80 treaty ports were established in China alone, involving many foreign powers.
3921:
3162:
2319:
2235:
1821:
2377:
Nakabayashi, Masaki. "Imposed Efficiency of Treaty Ports: Japanese Industrialization and Western Imperialist Institutions."
3391:
3142:
3055:
2779:
2964:
2794:
3607:
2976:
2849:
2673:
267:
1966:
Robert Bickers, "Shanghailanders: The formation and identity of the British settler community in Shanghai 1843–1937."
3896:
3737:
3612:
2969:
2546:
2152:
1826:
347:
235:
111:
3707:
2296:
Hamashita, Takeshi. "Tribute and treaties: East Asian treaty ports networks in the era of negotiation, 1834–1894."
2212:
Hoisoo Min, "The Establishment of the Superintendent Office (Gamriseo) at the Treaty Ports in Korea, 1883~ 1886."
3962:
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464:
41:
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1836:
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treaty, not only the right to trade and exemptions for their subjects but a truly colonial control over each
277:. Aggressive Japanese moves to dominate China in World War I caused a strong backlash of nationalism in the
138:
and the most favored nation status for the latter country. Subsequent negotiations with the Americans (1844
3601:
3379:
3246:
3112:
3006:
2616:
2606:
2539:
2040:
The Asian Mediterranean: port cities and trading networks in China, Japan and South Asia, 13th-21st century
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1841:
163:
85:
3518:
3501:
3011:
2986:
2949:
2859:
2819:
2571:
17:
2325:
Johnstone, William C. "The status of foreign concessions and settlements in the Treaty Ports of China."
3901:
3347:
2291:
379:
1985:
The Commercial Revolution of Nineteenth-Century China: The Rise of Sino-Western Mercantile Competition
3911:
3630:
3559:
3352:
2884:
2809:
2678:
2596:
3832:
3652:
3386:
3357:
3107:
2415:
Sigel, Louis T. "Foreign Policy Interests and Activities of the Treaty-Port Chinese Community." in
2136:
2458:
Zinda, Yvonne Schulz "Representation and Nostalgic Re-invention of Shanghai in Chinese film." in
1742:
treaty. Other countries signed similar treaties. The new treaties came into force in July 1899.
3428:
2894:
2879:
2713:
2611:
69:
2267:
2099:
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3697:
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2621:
1766:. Chinese merchants also entered Korea in earnest after the Qing army was sent to suppress the
1714:
1465:
289:
215:
31:
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392:
293:
2516:
2399:
William Nelson Lovatt in Late Qing China: War, Maritime Customs, and Treaty Ports, 1860–1904
2083:
Christian encounters with Chinese culture: essays on Anglican and Episcopal history in China
3814:
3781:
3747:
3692:
3572:
3554:
3264:
3194:
3001:
2784:
513:
400:
2444:
Taylor, Jeremy E. "The bund: littoral space of empire in the treaty ports of East Asia."
56:) were the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade mainly by the
8:
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3717:
3657:
3589:
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3122:
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2824:
2703:
2683:
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1942:
1759:
1738:
278:
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135:
131:
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3284:
3224:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3028:
2874:
2693:
2438:
2158:
1730:
306:
China's Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840-1943
202:
115:
2340:
2262:
Bracken, Gregory. "Treaty Ports in China: Their Genesis, Development, and Influence."
296:
plan while legitimizing the leadership of the CPC over the Chinese state and people."
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143:
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49:
2522:
Omniatlas: Map of treaty port system in China in 1907 (earlier dates also available)
30:
This article is about the ports in East Asia. For the Anglo-Irish Treaty ports, see
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2996:
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2708:
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International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Subjection: 1894-1911
2347:
International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Submission: 1861–1893
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1831:
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150:
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3536:
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2814:
2759:
2628:
2510:
2392:
2337:
International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Conflict: 1834-1860
1913:
1622:
1544:
1412:
1407:
1315:
1128:
929:
811:
740:
615:
574:
558:
540:
476:
211:
146:) led to further concessions for these nations on the same terms as the British.
110:
to Great Britain in perpetuity, the treaty also established five treaty ports at
99:
73:
3794:
3667:
3433:
3396:
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2834:
2774:
2521:
2133:
Sovereign Funds: How the Communist Party of China Finances its Global Ambitions
1751:
1521:
1515:
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1351:
1275:
1101:
551:
57:
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3872:
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3259:
2650:
2424:"Urbanization, Modernization, and Identity in Asia: A Historical Perspective"
2312:
Japan's Treaty Ports and Foreign Settlements: The Uninvited Guests, 1858–1899
2229:
1608:
1301:
1288:
1115:
1088:
1015:
916:
903:
623:
527:
373:
61:
2526:
2186:
Japan's treaty ports and foreign settlements: the uninvited guests 1858–1899
3623:
3565:
3254:
3236:
3092:
2562:
1813:
1799:
1767:
1726:
1400:
1364:
1328:
1253:
65:
2162:
1758:
agreed to the opening of three strategic ports and the extension of legal
3862:
3583:
3304:
3299:
2389:
China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Ports
2281:
Confucian Gentlemen and Barbarian Envoys: The Opening of Korea, 1875-1885
1910:
China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Ports
1763:
1004:
3530:
3374:
3324:
3294:
3137:
2144:
2115:
2056:
1884:
90:
2531:
2330:
2027:
1971:
3319:
3309:
1692:
1668:
1627:
1371:
1231:
1192:
779:
774:
639:
426:
219:
149:
The second group of treaty ports was set up following the end of the
107:
94:
Map showing Chinese treaty ports in the 19th and early 20th centuries
2022:
David McLean, "Chinese Railways and the Townley Agreement of 1903."
98:
The British established their first treaty ports in China after the
3804:
3549:
3496:
3438:
3314:
3289:
2228: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
1710:
1557:
1496:
1215:
1187:
1168:
1037:
969:
650:
598:
442:
335:
330:
179:
171:
166:, effectively removing them from the control of local governments.
3789:
2453:
No Dogs and Not Many Chinese: Treaty Port Life in China 1843-1943
1775:
1655:
1615:
1242:
1204:
1180:
1058:
1026:
988:
981:
868:
844:
819:
680:
634:
582:
437:
414:
409:
304:
For encyclopedic details on each treaty port, see Robert Nield's
2096:
The May fourth movement: Intellectual revolution in modern China
2404:
Sewell, Bill. "East Asian Treaty Ports as Zones of Encounter."
1779:
1755:
1581:
1525:
1429:
1424:
1258:
1042:
999:
873:
855:
748:
709:
704:
655:
546:
175:
127:
123:
119:
130:(Amoy). The following year the Chinese and British signed the
3513:
3072:
1771:
1461:
1335:
1226:
1053:
593:
481:
471:
2011:
The History of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
3683:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
3172:
1650:
These are the territories adjoining the original perpetual
249:
1460:
In these territories the foreign powers obtained, under a
2110:
John C. DeKorne, "Sun Yat-Sen and the Secret Societies."
27:
Ports in East Asia opened to trade with Western countries
174:
was the largest and most famous. The North Riverbank in
64:, as well as cities in Korea opened up similarly by the
2507:
Treaty ports and extraterritoriality in China, 1921–22
1926:
Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping
2476:(A&C Black, 2013), Anthology of primary sources.
1789:
3688:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
2474:
Victorians in Japan: In and around the Treaty ports
2369:The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire
2272:Brunero, Donna, and Stephanie Villalta Puig, eds.
1770:in 1882. The first port opened in this manner was
2257:Treaty Ports in Modern China: Law, Land and Power
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1635:
1565:
1066:
881:
827:
788:
757:
717:
687:
663:
490:
450:
351:
192:
3088:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
3508:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
3479:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
2547:
275:plot a revolution against the Qing government
2255:Bickers, Robert, and Isabella Jackson, eds.
2435:Treaty ports in China: A study in diplomacy
2554:
2540:
2288:British Economic Interests in the Far East
2233:
3978:History of the foreign relations of China
3973:History of the foreign relations of Japan
3168:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
1705:Japan opened two ports to foreign trade,
1599:
1292:
1106:
907:
518:
106:in 1842. As well as ceding the island of
3017:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
1700:
1676:
1506:
1437:
1378:
1342:
1266:
1132:
1092:
933:
504:
383:
89:
3624:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
2561:
2283:(University of Washington Press, 1977).
1717:), to the United States. In 1858, the
1535:
1306:
1146:
947:
802:
731:
606:
565:
79:
14:
3945:
2298:European journal of East Asian studies
2126:
2124:
1745:
3922:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
3163:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
2535:
2197:
1864:
1822:Economic history of China before 1912
1490:
1455:
343:Greater Shanghai had three sections:
299:
3143:Ministry of Posts and Communications
2244:. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
286:the country's special economic zones
3891:History of Qing (People's Republic)
2305:The Bund Shanghai: China Faces West
2274:Life in Treaty Port China and Japan
2130:
2121:
2085:(Hong Kong University Press, 2015).
1897:The Bund Shanghai: China Faces West
24:
3608:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
2977:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
2970:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
2850:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
2674:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
2466:
2417:Reform in Nineteenth-Century China
2307:(Odyssey Illustrated Guides, 2007)
2290:(1943); focus on the treaty ports
2276:(Palgrave, 2018), scholarly essays
2249:
2234:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
2214:Journal of Northeast Asian History
2188:(Folkestone: Japan Library, 1994).
1899:(Odyssey Illustrated Guides, 2007)
225:
156:
25:
3989:
3897:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
3738:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
3613:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
2765:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
2500:
2327:American Political Science Review
2200:A New Modern History of East Asia
1881:American Political Science Review
1867:A New Modern History of East Asia
1827:Shanghai International Settlement
348:Shanghai International Settlement
236:Shanghai International Settlement
3708:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
3024:Articles of Favourable Treatment
2780:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
2527:Treaty ports in China, 1557-1999
2223:
1806:
1792:
1678:
1637:
1601:
1567:
1537:
1508:
1439:
1393:
1380:
1357:
1344:
1321:
1308:
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1281:
1268:
1173:
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1148:
1134:
1121:
1108:
1094:
1081:
1068:
974:
962:
949:
935:
922:
909:
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883:
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790:
759:
733:
719:
689:
665:
608:
567:
545:
533:
520:
506:
492:
452:
385:
366:
353:
268:St John's University in Shanghai
3953:History of European colonialism
2755:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
2641:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
2419:(Brill, 1976) pp. 272–281.
2379:Review of Development Economics
2206:
2191:
2178:
2169:
2104:
2098:(Harvard UP. 1960) pp 228-238.
2088:
2075:
2062:
2045:
2032:
2016:
2003:
1990:
1754:of 1876, the Korean kingdom of
216:nationalist government-in-exile
3409:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
2699:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
2460:Port Cities in Asia and Europe
1987:(U of California Press, 1984).
1977:
1960:
1947:
1931:
1918:
1902:
1889:
1873:
1858:
465:British Concession in Jiujiang
45:
13:
1:
3843:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
3618:Islam during the Qing dynasty
3474:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
3158:Provincial military commander
3148:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
3133:Imperial Household Department
2960:Preparative Constitutionalism
2664:Sino-Russian border conflicts
2513: (archived 12 April 2016)
1955:Shanghai: key to modern China
1852:
1837:Chinese concession of Incheon
193:Chinese capitulation treaties
134:, which added provisions for
3602:Researches on Manchu Origins
3007:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
2617:Transition from Ming to Qing
2607:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
1847:List of Chinese treaty ports
1842:Foreign concessions in China
1721:designated four more ports,
1719:Treaty of Amity and Commerce
164:foreign concessions in China
86:List of Chinese treaty ports
7:
3502:Changzhou School of Thought
3012:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
2987:Railway Protection Movement
2965:1909 Parliamentary election
2950:British expedition to Tibet
2860:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
2820:Self-Strengthening Movement
2795:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
2479:Dennys, Nicholas Belfield.
1785:
325:Foreign concession holders
10:
3994:
3902:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
2790:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
2729:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
2719:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
2689:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
2131:Liu, Zongyuan Zoe (2023).
2009:Frank H.H. King, et al.,
241:Shanghai Municipal Council
83:
29:
3912:Names of the Qing dynasty
3855:
3823:
3780:
3773:
3642:
3560:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
3487:
3419:
3340:
3245:
3041:
2932:
2890:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
2885:Gongche Shangshu movement
2830:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
2742:
2679:Chinese Rites controversy
2649:
2579:
2570:
2038:François Gipouloux, ed.
1662:
1621:
1587:
1551:
1495:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1428:
1411:
1370:
1334:
1257:
1252:
1241:
1230:
1225:
1214:
1203:
1191:
1186:
1057:
1041:
1025:
1014:
1003:
998:
987:
872:
867:
854:
843:
818:
778:
773:
747:
708:
703:
679:
654:
649:
638:
622:
597:
592:
581:
557:
475:
470:
441:
425:
413:
408:
334:
284:In modern China, most of
266:facilities. For example,
244:Chinese representatives.
53:
3833:Great Qing Treasure Note
3653:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
3363:Administrative divisions
3180:Administrative divisions
3108:Flag of the Qing dynasty
2408:45#6 (2019): 1315-1325
2406:Journal of Urban History
2401:(Lexington Books, 2019).
2314:(RoutledgeCurzon, 1995)
2264:Journal of Urban History
2198:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017).
2137:Harvard University Press
1883:(1937) 31#5 pp. 942-948
1865:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017).
3429:Chengde Mountain Resort
3230:Three Eastern Provinces
2880:First Sino-Japanese War
2855:Northern Chinese Famine
2714:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
2612:Qing invasion of Joseon
2430:4#4 (1978) pp 461–490.
2266:45#1 (2019): 168–176.
2135:. The Belknap Press of
2081:Philip L. Wickeri, ed.
1468:, de facto annexation:
178:(nowadays known as the
142:) and the French (1844
70:First Sino-Japanese War
3963:Free trade imperialism
3810:Great Qing Copper Coin
3698:Convention of Tientsin
3631:Annotated Bibliography
3579:Qing official headwear
2622:Battle of Shanhai Pass
2381:18.2 (2014): 254–271.
2329:31.5 (1937): 942–948.
1970:159.1 (1998): 161–211
1715:Convention of Kanagawa
1632:1842; 1860; 1898–1997
290:century of humiliation
95:
32:Treaty Ports (Ireland)
3968:19th century in Japan
3884:Draft History of Qing
3743:Treaty of Shimonoseki
3524:performance criticism
3128:Imperial Commissioner
3118:Great Qing Legal Code
2917:Eight-Nation Alliance
2900:Third plague pandemic
2810:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
2734:White Lotus Rebellion
2517:WorldStatesmen: China
2448:27.2 (2002): 125-142.
2367:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2355:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2345:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2335:Morse, Hosea Ballou.
2241:Catholic Encyclopedia
2055:87.4 (2001): 393-455
2013:(Cambridge UP, 1991).
1701:Japanese treaty ports
294:reform and opening-up
93:
68:of China (before the
3958:Concessions in China
3815:Great Qing Gold Coin
3748:Treaty of Tarbagatai
3693:Convention of Peking
3573:Pentaglot Dictionary
3555:Literary inquisition
3265:Ever Victorious Army
3098:Deliberative Council
3002:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
2955:1905 Batang uprising
2895:Hundred Days' Reform
2785:Small Swords Society
2472:Cortazzi, Hugh, ed.
2437:(Columbia UP, 1918)
2114:7.4 (1934): 425-433
2026:7.2 (1973): 145-164
2024:Modern Asian Studies
1652:Hong Kong concession
1466:concession territory
401:Old City of Shanghai
80:Chinese treaty ports
60:forced upon them by
3868:Anti-Qing sentiment
3718:Treaty of the Bogue
3658:Treaty of Nerchinsk
3590:Complete Tang Poems
3270:Green Standard Army
3153:Provincial governor
3123:Imperial Clan Court
3103:Diplomatic missions
3078:Consultative Bureau
2825:Tongzhi Restoration
2704:Afaqi Khoja revolts
2684:Ten Great Campaigns
2592:Jurchen unification
2216:36 (2012): 139-186.
2070:Making China Modern
1998:Making China Modern
1957:(Harvard UP, 2013).
1760:extraterritoriality
1746:Korean treaty ports
1739:extraterritoriality
380:Shanghai Concession
279:May Fourth Movement
136:extraterritoriality
132:Treaty of the Bogue
3753:Treaty of Tientsin
3464:Western Qing tombs
3459:Eastern Qing tombs
3285:Peking Field Force
3029:Manchu Restoration
2922:Declaration of war
2875:Jindandao incident
2694:Lhasa riot of 1750
2397:Patterson, Wayne.
2300:1.1 (2002): 59–87.
2279:Deuchler, Martina.
2259:(Routledge, 2016).
2145:10.2307/jj.2915805
1968:Past & Present
1928:(2020) pp 107-119.
1762:to merchants from
1456:Leased territories
300:Major treaty ports
261:modern lifestyles.
203:Russian Revolution
96:
3940:
3939:
3851:
3850:
3763:Treaty of Whampoa
3758:Treaty of Wanghia
3733:Treaty of Nanking
3703:Li–Lobanov Treaty
3678:Chefoo Convention
3673:Burlingame Treaty
3544:Kangxi Dictionary
3449:Old Summer Palace
3280:Firearm Battalion
3083:Cup of Solid Gold
3037:
3036:
2982:Manchurian plague
2945:Late Qing reforms
2936:(1901–1912)
2870:Sikkim expedition
2800:Panthay Rebellion
2770:Taiping Rebellion
2746:(1801–1900)
2724:Sino-Nepalese War
2669:Dzungar–Qing Wars
2655:(1683–1799)
2583:(1616–1683)
2320:978-1-873410-26-4
2175:Nakabayashi, 2014
1698:
1697:
1524:(1898–1905); now
1453:
1452:
172:The Shanghai Bund
144:Treaty of Whampoa
140:Treaty of Wanghia
104:Treaty of Nanking
16:(Redirected from
3985:
3917:New Qing History
3800:Qianlong Tongbao
3778:
3777:
3723:Treaty of Canton
3663:Unequal treaties
3469:Fuling Mausoleum
3068:Advisory Council
2997:Wuchang Uprising
2937:
2840:Tianjin Massacre
2805:Second Opium War
2747:
2709:Sino-Burmese War
2656:
2634:Battle of Penghu
2602:Seven Grievances
2584:
2577:
2576:
2556:
2549:
2542:
2533:
2532:
2489:Wright, Arnold.
2422:Sigel, Louis T.
2387:Nield, Robert.
2245:
2227:
2226:
2217:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2195:
2189:
2182:
2176:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2128:
2119:
2108:
2102:
2094:Chow Tse-Tsung,
2092:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2066:
2060:
2049:
2043:
2036:
2030:
2020:
2014:
2007:
2001:
1994:
1988:
1983:Yen-p'ing Hao,
1981:
1975:
1964:
1958:
1953:Rhoads Murphey,
1951:
1945:
1935:
1929:
1924:Klaus Mühlhahn,
1922:
1916:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1887:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1862:
1832:Unequal treaties
1816:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1802:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1688:
1684:
1682:
1681:
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1577:
1573:
1571:
1570:
1547:
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1540:
1518:
1514:
1512:
1511:
1477:Modern Province
1471:
1470:
1449:
1445:
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1442:
1399:
1397:
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1390:
1386:
1384:
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316:or municipality
314:Current province
311:
310:
256:Klaus Mühlhahn:
208:Second World War
151:Second Opium War
58:unequal treaties
55:
47:
21:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3982:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3932:Willow Palisade
3878:Chuang Guandong
3847:
3819:
3769:
3728:Treaty of Kulja
3713:Treaty of Aigun
3646:
3638:
3537:History of Ming
3489:
3483:
3421:
3415:
3341:Special regions
3336:
3275:Imperial Guards
3241:
3033:
2992:1911 Revolution
2938:
2935:
2928:
2905:Boxer Rebellion
2865:Sino-French War
2815:Amur Annexation
2760:First Opium War
2748:
2745:
2738:
2657:
2654:
2645:
2629:Great Clearance
2585:
2582:
2566:
2560:
2511:Wayback Machine
2503:
2469:
2467:Primary sources
2451:Wood, Frances.
2303:Hibbard, Peter
2252:
2250:Further reading
2224:
2220:
2211:
2207:
2196:
2192:
2183:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2155:
2129:
2122:
2112:Pacific Affairs
2109:
2105:
2093:
2089:
2080:
2076:
2067:
2063:
2050:
2046:
2037:
2033:
2021:
2017:
2008:
2004:
1995:
1991:
1982:
1978:
1965:
1961:
1952:
1948:
1937:Arnold Wright,
1936:
1932:
1923:
1919:
1907:
1903:
1895:Peter Hibbard,
1894:
1890:
1878:
1874:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1748:
1703:
1679:
1677:
1638:
1636:
1623:New Territories
1602:
1600:
1568:
1566:
1538:
1536:
1509:
1507:
1458:
1440:
1438:
1408:New Taipei City
1394:
1392:
1381:
1379:
1358:
1356:
1345:
1343:
1322:
1320:
1309:
1307:
1295:
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1282:
1280:
1269:
1267:
1174:
1172:
1162:
1160:
1149:
1147:
1135:
1133:
1129:Austria-Hungary
1122:
1120:
1109:
1107:
1095:
1093:
1082:
1080:
1069:
1067:
975:
973:
963:
961:
950:
948:
936:
934:
930:Austria-Hungary
923:
921:
910:
908:
897:
895:
884:
882:
830:
828:
805:
803:
791:
789:
760:
758:
734:
732:
720:
718:
690:
688:
666:
664:
609:
607:
568:
566:
544:
541:Empire of Japan
534:
532:
521:
519:
507:
505:
493:
491:
479:
453:
451:
386:
384:
367:
365:
354:
352:
315:
302:
228:
226:Impact on China
212:Chiang Kai-shek
195:
159:
157:Characteristics
100:First Opium War
88:
82:
74:Empire of Japan
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3991:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3938:
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3934:
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3909:
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3829:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3795:Kangxi Tongbao
3792:
3786:
3784:
3775:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3668:Boxer Protocol
3660:
3655:
3649:
3647:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3620:
3615:
3610:
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3593:
3586:
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3576:
3569:
3562:
3557:
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3511:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3491:
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3482:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3434:Forbidden City
3431:
3425:
3423:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3397:General of Ili
3394:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3380:List of ambans
3377:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3355:
3350:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3317:
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3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
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3251:
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3243:
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3234:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
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3197:
3192:
3182:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3165:
3160:
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3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3047:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2967:
2957:
2952:
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2929:
2927:
2926:
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2924:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2845:Margary Affair
2842:
2837:
2835:Mudan incident
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2775:Nian Rebellion
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2751:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
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2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2660:
2658:
2653:
2647:
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2638:
2637:
2636:
2626:
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2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2588:
2586:
2581:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2559:
2558:
2551:
2544:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2502:
2501:External links
2499:
2498:
2497:
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2477:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2456:
2449:
2446:Social History
2442:
2431:
2420:
2413:
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2375:
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2277:
2270:
2260:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2219:
2218:
2205:
2202:. p. 145.
2190:
2177:
2168:
2153:
2120:
2103:
2087:
2074:
2061:
2044:
2042:(Elgar, 2011).
2031:
2015:
2002:
1989:
1976:
1959:
1946:
1930:
1917:
1908:Robert Nield,
1901:
1888:
1872:
1869:. p. 146.
1856:
1854:
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1844:
1839:
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1829:
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1818:
1817:
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1787:
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1752:Ganghwa Treaty
1750:Following the
1747:
1744:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1695:
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1645:United Kingdom
1633:
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1594:
1591:
1589:Kiautschou Bay
1585:
1584:
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1575:United Kingdom
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1522:Russian Dalian
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361:United Kingdom
341:
338:
333:
327:
326:
323:
320:
317:
301:
298:
263:
262:
227:
224:
194:
191:
158:
155:
84:Main article:
81:
78:
62:Western powers
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3990:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
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3954:
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3933:
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3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3907:Manchu people
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3873:Canton System
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3854:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3838:Hubu Guanpiao
3836:
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3808:
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3510:
3509:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3488:Society &
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3454:Summer Palace
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3444:Mukden Palace
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3420:Palaces &
3418:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3389:
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3286:
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3273:
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3268:
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3263:
3261:
3260:Eight Banners
3258:
3256:
3253:
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3250:
3248:
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3226:
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3141:
3139:
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3126:
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3119:
3116:
3114:
3113:Grand Council
3111:
3109:
3106:
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2962:
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2933:20th century
2931:
2923:
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2908:
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2743:19th century
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2462:(2008): 159+.
2461:
2457:
2454:
2450:
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2443:
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2436:
2433:Tai, En-Sai.
2432:
2429:
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2237:
2231:
2230:public domain
2222:
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2154:9780674271913
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2019:
2012:
2006:
1999:
1993:
1986:
1980:
1973:
1969:
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1950:
1944:
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1911:
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1654:and its 1860
1653:
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1483:Lease holder
1472:
1469:
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1289:United States
1277:
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1199:
1196:
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1117:
1103:
1090:
1089:United States
1077:
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904:United States
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529:
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489:
486:
483:
480:(now part of
478:
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374:United States
362:
349:
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344:
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339:
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329:
328:
324:
321:
318:
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92:
87:
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75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
51:
43:
39:
33:
19:
3927:Treaty ports
3926:
3889:
3882:
3856:Other topics
3629:
3622:
3600:
3588:
3571:
3566:Peiwen Yunfu
3564:
3542:
3535:
3506:
3255:Beiyang Army
3237:Zongli Yamen
3093:Da-Qing Bank
2910:Red Lanterns
2563:Qing dynasty
2490:
2480:
2473:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2434:
2428:Modern China
2427:
2416:
2405:
2398:
2388:
2378:
2368:
2356:
2346:
2336:
2326:
2311:
2310:Hoare. J.E.
2304:
2297:
2287:
2280:
2273:
2263:
2256:
2239:
2213:
2208:
2199:
2193:
2185:
2184:J.E. Hoare,
2180:
2171:
2132:
2111:
2106:
2095:
2090:
2082:
2077:
2069:
2064:
2052:
2047:
2039:
2034:
2023:
2018:
2010:
2005:
1997:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1967:
1962:
1954:
1949:
1938:
1933:
1925:
1920:
1909:
1904:
1896:
1891:
1880:
1875:
1866:
1860:
1814:Japan portal
1800:China portal
1768:Imo Incident
1749:
1704:
1664:Guangzhouwan
1459:
1401:Soviet Union
1365:Soviet Union
1329:Soviet Union
1254:Heilongjiang
878:1876–1940s?
858:(Qiongshan)
305:
303:
283:
272:
264:
254:
246:
233:
229:
200:
196:
188:
184:
168:
160:
148:
97:
66:Qing dynasty
38:Treaty ports
37:
36:
3863:Aisin Gioro
3825:Paper money
3584:Qing poetry
3305:Wuwei Corps
3300:Shuishiying
3061:Family tree
2286:Gull E. M.
1764:Meiji Japan
1713:, in 1854 (
18:Treaty port
3947:Categories
3531:Four Wangs
3422:mausoleums
3375:Golden Urn
3348:Inner Asia
3325:Xiang Army
3295:Hushenying
3220:Liangguang
3200:Liangjiang
3138:Lifan Yuan
3043:Government
2163:jj.2915805
2068:Mühlhahn,
2053:T'oung Pao
1996:Mühlhahn,
1853:References
1673:1911–1946
1658:extension
1596:1897–1922
1562:1898–1930
1532:1905–1945
1503:1898–1905
1474:Territory
1263:1898–1946
1063:1860–1902
785:1842–WWII
754:1842–1912
714:1842–1945
660:1841–1842
603:1937–1945
487:1858–1945
447:1861–1929
340:1842–1946
118:(Canton),
72:) and the
3353:Manchuria
3320:Huai Army
3310:Yong Ying
3195:Shaan-Gan
2651:High Qing
2597:Later Jin
2349:. (1918)
2339:. (1910)
2072:, p. 115.
1693:Zhanjiang
1669:Guangdong
1628:Hong Kong
1593:Shandong
1553:Weihaiwei
1372:Manzhouli
1232:Changchun
1193:Niuzhuang
782:(Canton)
780:Guangzhou
775:Guangdong
640:Chongqing
427:Zhenjiang
220:Chongqing
116:Guangzhou
108:Hong Kong
3805:Hongqian
3774:Currency
3644:Treaties
3550:Kaozheng
3497:Booi Aha
3439:Hetu Ala
3392:Timeline
3387:Xinjiang
3358:Mongolia
3315:Chu Army
3290:New Army
3247:Military
3185:Viceroys
2483:(1867).
2000:110–114.
1786:See also
1774:, while
1731:Nagasaki
1723:Kanagawa
1711:Hakodate
1558:Shandong
1497:Liaoning
1492:Kwantung
1319:and the
1305:; later
1216:Shenyang
1188:Liaoning
1169:Portugal
1038:Shandong
970:Portugal
651:Zhejiang
599:Changsha
503:; later
443:Jiujiang
364:and the
336:Shanghai
331:Shanghai
308:(2015).
180:Old Bund
112:Shanghai
50:Japanese
3790:Zhiqian
3782:Coinage
3519:Economy
3490:culture
3225:Yun-Gui
3215:Min-Zhe
3210:Sichuan
3205:Huguang
3051:Emperor
2572:History
2509:at the
2493:(1908)
2391:(2015)
2371:(1908)
2359:(1918)
2232::
1941:(1908)
1914:Online.
1912:(2015)
1776:Incheon
1735:Niigata
1707:Shimoda
1656:Kowloon
1616:Qingdao
1609:Germany
1302:Germany
1243:Hunchun
1205:Yingkou
1181:Belgium
1116:Germany
1059:Tianjin
1027:Dengyue
989:Nanning
982:Belgium
917:Germany
869:Guangxi
845:Sanshui
820:Shantou
801:; then
751:(Amoy)
730:, then
681:Wenzhou
635:Sichuan
583:Yichang
528:Germany
438:Jiangxi
415:Nanjing
410:Jiangsu
350:of the
102:by the
42:Chinese
3404:Taiwan
2580:Early
2565:topics
2495:online
2485:online
2455:(1998)
2439:online
2410:online
2393:Online
2383:Online
2373:online
2361:online
2351:online
2341:online
2331:Online
2318:
2292:online
2268:online
2161:
2151:
2116:online
2100:online
2057:online
2028:online
1972:online
1943:online
1885:online
1780:Wonsan
1756:Joseon
1733:, and
1686:France
1683:
1642:
1606:
1582:Weihai
1572:
1542:
1526:Dalian
1516:Russia
1513:
1486:Notes
1447:France
1444:
1430:Tainan
1425:Tainan
1413:Tamsui
1398:
1388:Russia
1385:
1362:
1352:Russia
1349:
1326:
1313:
1299:
1286:
1276:Russia
1273:
1259:Harbin
1178:
1166:
1153:
1142:France
1139:
1126:
1113:
1102:Russia
1099:
1086:
1073:
1043:Yantai
1005:Mengzi
1000:Yunnan
979:
967:
954:
943:France
940:
927:
914:
901:
888:
874:Beihai
856:Haikou
834:
809:
795:
764:
749:Xiamen
738:
724:
710:Fuzhou
705:Fujian
694:
670:
656:Ningbo
624:Yuzhou
613:
572:
559:Shashi
552:Russia
538:
525:
514:France
511:
497:
477:Hankou
457:
393:France
390:
371:
358:
176:Ningbo
128:Xiamen
126:, and
124:Fuzhou
120:Ningbo
44::
3596:Queue
3514:Dibao
3370:Tibet
3190:Zhili
3073:Amban
2236:China
2159:JSTOR
1772:Busan
1727:Hyogo
1545:Japan
1480:Date
1462:lease
1434:1858
1417:1862
1336:Aihun
1316:Japan
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824:1858
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419:1858
322:Date
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3056:List
2316:ISBN
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