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air. Furthermore, if timber is regularly removed from the forest and turned into lasting wood products, those products continue sequestering carbon, while the replacement tree farm trees absorb more carbon dioxide, thus effecting a continuous reduction in greenhouse gas. The fact that managed woodlands tend to be younger and younger trees grow faster and die less contributes to this distinction.
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percent of the total forest area. Globally, 44 percent of plantation forests are composed mainly of introduced species. There are large differences between regions: for example, plantation forests in North and
Central America mostly comprise native species and those in South America consist almost entirely of introduced species.
497:, is carried out in a number of ways; one of the more popular methods is the pick-your-own tree farm, where customers are allowed to roam the farm, select their tree, and cut it down themselves. Other farmers cultivate potted trees, with balled roots, which can be replanted after Christmas and used again the following year.
552:, about 7% of the natural closed forest being lost in the tropics is land being converted to plantations. The remaining 93% of the loss is land being converted to agriculture and other uses. Worldwide, an estimated 15% of plantations in tropical countries are established on closed canopy natural forest.
548:
the forest area provides 99% of the supply of industrial round wood. It has been estimated that the world's demand for fiber could be met by just 5% of the world forest (Sedjo & Botkin 1997). However, in practice, plantations are replacing natural forest, for example in
Indonesia. According to the
547:
Many forestry experts claim that the establishment of plantations will reduce or eliminate the need to exploit natural forest for wood production. In principle this is true because due to the high productivity of plantations less land is needed. Many point to the example of New
Zealand, where 19% of
231:
Around year 10-60 the plantation is now mature and (in economic terms) is falling off the back side of its growth curve. That is to say, it is passing the point of maximum wood growth per hectare per year, and so is ready for the final harvest. All remaining trees are felled, delimbed, and taken to
648:
began to establish high-yield, intensively managed, short rotation plantations. These types of plantations are sometimes called fast-wood plantations or fiber farms and often managed on a short-rotation basis, as little as 5 to 15 years. They are becoming more widespread in South
America, Asia and
524:
A forest sequesters carbon in its trees. The forest removes carbon dioxide from the air as trees grow and returns it to the air as trees die and rot or burn. As long as the forest is experiencing net growth, the forest is reducing the amount of carbon dioxide, the leading greenhouse gas, from the
687:
In South
America, Oceania, and East and Southern Africa, planted forests are dominated by introduced species: 88%, 75% and 65%, respectively. In North America, West and Central Asia, and Europe the proportions of introduced species in plantations are much lower at 1%, 3% and 8% of the total area
156:
The highest share of plantation forest is in South
America, where this forest type represents 99 percent of the total planted-forest area and 2 percent of the total forest area. The lowest share of plantation forest is in Europe, where it represents 6 percent of the planted forest estate and 0.4
136:
Wood production on a tree plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. While forests managed for wood production commonly yield between 1 and 3 cubic meters per hectare per year, plantations of fast-growing species commonly yield between 20 and 30 cubic meters or more per hectare
665:
The replacement of natural forest with tree plantations has also caused social problems. In some countries—again, notably
Indonesia—conversions of natural forest are made with little regard for rights of the local people. Plantations established purely for the production of fiber provide a much
670:
has sought to limit this damage by limiting the amount of land owned by one entity and, as a result, smaller plantations are owned by local farmers who then sell the wood to larger companies. Some large environmental organizations are critical of these high-yield plantations and are running an
455:
was established in 1901, but most consumers continued to obtain their trees from forests until the 1930s and 1940s. Christmas tree farming was once seen only as a viable alternative for low-quality farmland, but that perception has changed within the agriculture industry. For optimum yield and
124:
Industrial plantations are actively managed for the commercial production of forest products. Industrial plantations are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species. These species can be exotic or indigenous. The plants used for the
276:
species. They hoped to grow them in the tropics, but most experimental results failed until breakthroughs in the 1960s-1980s in species selection, silviculture, and breeding programs "unlocked" the potential of eucalypts in the tropics. Prior to then, as Brett
Bennett noted in a 2010 article,
630:
production. Plantations are always young forests in ecological terms. Typically, trees grown in plantations are harvested after 10 to 60 years, rarely up to 120 years. This means that the forests produced by plantations do not contain the type of growth, soil or wildlife typical of
106:
653:, for example, large multi-national pulp companies have harvested large areas of natural forest without regard for regeneration. From 1980 to 2000, about 50% of the 1.4 million hectares of pulpwood plantations in Indonesia have been established on what was formerly natural
183:
After the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed 'pole stage'. When competition becomes too intense (for
125:
plantation are often genetically altered for desired traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and specific traits, for example in the case of timber species, volumic wood production and stem straightness.
176:
and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in selective breeding in order to produce fast growing disease- and pest-resistant
227:
As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the thinning process is repeated. Depending on growth rate and species, trees at this age may be large enough for timber milling; if not, they are again used as pulp and
715:
are widely planted far beyond their natural range because of their fast growth rate, tolerance of rich or degraded agricultural land and potential to produce large volumes of raw material for industrial use.
641:
Plantations are usually near- or total monocultures. That is, the same species of tree is planted across a given area, whereas a natural forest would contain a far more diverse range of tree species.
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can yield up to 40 cubic meters per hectare per year. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, it is estimated that they supplied about 35% of the world's roundwood.
1826:
1227:
Why does this forest look like a fingerprint? We set out to solve why a forest in the middle of
Uruguay looked like that — and wound up discovering something much bigger.
1033:
Luyssaert, Sebastiaan; -Detlef
Schulze, E.; Börner, Annett; Knohl, Alexander; Hessenmöller, Dominik; Law, Beverly E.; Ciais, Philippe; Grace, John (11 September 2008).
243:
because their leaf oils and resins are highly flammable. Conversely, an afflicted plantation can in some cases be cleared of pest species cheaply through the use of a
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In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, and may be dusted or sprayed with fertilizers or pesticides until established.
1231:– explores issues surrounding monoculture plantation forestry and its impact upon the economy, previously existing habitats, wildlife, and people.
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of this carbon depends on what is done with the harvested materials. Forests continue to absorb atmospheric carbon for centuries if left undisturbed.
459:
A wide variety of pine and fir species are grown as Christmas trees, although a handful of varieties stand out in popularity. In the United States,
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A variety of analytical tools are used to quantify the carbon sequestration in forest, varying considerably in their detail and intended purpose.
196:, but where topography permits, the most popular is 'row-thinning', where every third or fourth or fifth row of trees is removed, usually with a
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Plantations may include tree species that would not naturally occur in the area. They may include unconventional types such as hybrids, and
359:, endemic to Southeast Asia that is exclusively planted for the purpose of forestry management, for either commercial timber plantations or
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can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities (for example, the
208:, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, and sent to a mill. A typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in
204:, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are
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Payn, T. et al. 2015. Changes in planted forests and future global implications, Forest Ecology and Management 352: 57–67
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other areas. The environmental and social impacts of this type of plantation has caused them to become controversial. In
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1174:"An overview of industrial tree plantation conflicts in the global South. Conflicts, trends, and resistance struggles"
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is less than a third of the tree's total height), it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for
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703:, the types of trees found in plantations are those that are best-suited to industrial applications. For example,
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383:, the cultivation of plantation teak is economically viable in other tropical regions such as Central America.
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785:
Everard, J.E.; Fourt, D.F. (1974). "Monterey Pine and Bishop Pine as plantation trees in southern Britain".
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In the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or
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638:. Most conspicuous is the absence of decaying dead wood, a crucial component of natural forest ecosystems.
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levels (though this idea is being challenged by some groups on the grounds that the sequestered CO
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is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a
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quality, land should be flat or gently rolling and relatively free of debris and undergrowth.
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may be used sometime in the future. Since the primary interest in plantations is to produce
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In contrast to a naturally regenerated forest, plantations are typically grown as even-aged
363:. Although the genus Tectona is native to the tropical regions of Southeast Asia, primarily
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in Britain) and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners (such as
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The potential of Western hemlock, Western red cedar, Grand fir and Noblefir in Britain
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978:"A synthesis of current knowledge on forests and carbon storage in the United States"
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narrower range of services than the original natural forest for the local people.
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explains the pruning and shearing process of cultivation to a government employee.
247:, which kills all lesser plants but does not significantly harm the mature trees.
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890:"In Plantations or Natural Stands: Ponderosa Is Programmed to Partner with Fire"
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1093:"Forest carbon calculators: a review for managers, policymakers, and educators"
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Notable corporations include Greenwood Resources, which is owned by TIAA-CREF.
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Zald, Harold S.J; Spies, Thomas A.; Harmon, Mark E.; Twery, Mark J. (2016).
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is the most widely planted type of tree in plantations around the world, in
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Some plantation trees, such as pines and eucalyptus, can be at risk of
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are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia,
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are the basis for genetic alteration. Selected individuals grown in
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559:, there are proposals encouraging the use of plantations to reduce
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In the 20th century, scientists around the world experimented with
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are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material.
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has a growth rate of 34 cubic meters per hectare per year, and
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1972:
1126:"Family Forest Owners: The Critical Link to Forest Resources"
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1140:"Portland's GreenWood Resources nears $ 1B in timber assets"
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2006:
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Type of forest planted for high volume production of wood
483:, the latter being popular throughout Europe. Like all
815:. United Nations Environment Programme. Archived from
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Tree planting § Role in climate change mitigation
235:
The ground is cleared, and the cycle can be restarted.
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plantations have recently replaced the natural forest.
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212:(dbh). Such trees are sometimes not suitable for
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920:"Global Eucalyptus Map 2009... in Buenos Aires!"
912:
744: – Method for land and forest regeneration
487:, Christmas trees are vulnerable to a range of
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784:
600:in the United States are owned by families.
1171:
1035:"Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks"
528:While tree farms absorb large amounts of CO
353:is a tropical hardwood tree from the genus
1257:
1243:
766:
976:McKinley, Duncan C.; et al. (2011).
774:(Report). London: H.M. Stationery Office.
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946:"Managing Forests for Carbon Mitigation"
839:"Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020"
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400:
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104:
25:
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567:is eventually released after harvest).
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943:
865:"How Eucalyptus Trees Stoke Wildfires"
671:anti-plantation campaign, notably the
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887:
862:
813:United Nations System-wide Earthwatch
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216:, but are used as pulp for paper and
508:Carbon sequestration § Forestry
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951:. Dovetail Partners. Archived from
767:Aldhous, J. R.; Low, A. J. (1974).
19:For the act of planting trees, see
13:
1208:American Tree Farm System Timeline
660:
432:occupation which involves growing
40:tree plantation, forest plantation
14:
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1531:Global Forest Information Service
1202:American Tree Farm System History
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502:Role in climate change mitigation
277:eucalypts were something of the "
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596:As of 2019, an estimated 49% of
512:Deforestation and climate change
493:The final stage of cultivation,
393:This section is an excerpt from
335:This section is an excerpt from
261:This section is an excerpt from
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405:A Christmas tree farmer in the
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34:plantation in the United States
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444:trees specifically for use as
1:
1222:, Australia Forest Foundation
863:Wills, Matthew (2018-08-23).
787:Quarterly Journal of Forestry
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574:A tea plantation in Ciwidey,
255:
1264:
1216:, American Forest Foundation
924:GIT Forestry Eucalyptologics
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7:
888:Brown, Marjie (July 2009).
732:Even aged timber management
719:
618:Monoculture § Forestry
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10:
2345:
1642:Growth and yield modelling
944:Bowyer, Jim (2011-10-11).
693:genetically modified trees
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418:Christmas tree cultivation
395:Christmas tree cultivation
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2216:Earth sciences portal
2202:Climate change portal
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1214:American Tree Farm System
673:Rainforest Action Network
633:old-growth natural forest
210:diameter at breast height
88:Sierra Pacific Industries
62:also is used to refer to
1788:Great Green Wall (China)
1361:Close to nature forestry
1210:, Forest History Society
1204:, Forest History Society
250:
149:plantations in southern
127:Forest genetic resources
90:in the United States or
1822:Million Tree Initiative
985:Ecological Applications
688:planted, respectively.
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2244:Environment portal
1676:Sustainable management
1571:Trillion Tree Campaign
1220:Perth Tree Farm System
795:Royal Forestry Society
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361:ecological restoration
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281:" of forestry. Today,
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2169:Wood process engineer
1873:Urban forest inequity
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267:as plantation species
222:oriented strand board
108:
92:Asia Pulp & Paper
29:
1832:Shifting cultivation
1773:Forest fragmentation
1743:Carbon sequestration
1613:Woodland Carbon Code
1578:Forest certification
1486:Even-aged management
1401:Sustainable forestry
1172:Overbeek W. (2012).
451:The first Christmas
388:Christmas tree farms
347:Teak tree plantation
68:Christmas tree farms
2329:Domesticated plants
1637:Formally designated
1481:Ecological thinning
1391:Plantation forestry
1299:Research institutes
1144:www.bizjournals.com
1100:Journal of Forestry
1062:10.1038/nature07276
1054:2008Natur.455..213L
997:2011EcoAp..21.1902M
543:Natural forest loss
220:, and as chips for
76:Forestry Commission
72:Plantation forestry
2230:Ecology portal
1763:Forest degradation
1758:Ecosystem services
1366:Community forestry
1112:10.5849/jof.15-019
897:Fire Science Brief
819:on January 6, 2010
683:Introduced species
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56:monoculture forest
36:
2319:Forest management
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2258:Plants portal
2044:green woodworking
1048:(7210): 213–215.
1005:10.1890/10-0697.1
479:sell well in the
200:. Many trees are
48:timber plantation
44:plantation forest
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684:
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662:
659:
644:In the 1970s,
613:
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590:Main article:
587:
584:
564:
561:carbon dioxide
557:Kyoto Protocol
544:
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325:and many more.
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141:plantation in
64:tree nurseries
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1729:Environmental
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958:on 2012-04-03
954:
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809:"Forest loss"
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749:
748:Wood industry
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726:Afforestation
724:
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592:Wood industry
581:
577:
572:
568:
562:
558:
553:
551:
540:
537:
535:
534:sequestration
526:
521:
517:
516:Reforestation
513:
509:
496:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
477:Norway spruce
474:
470:
466:
462:
457:
454:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
430:horticultural
427:
423:
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412:
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396:
382:
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357:
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345:
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324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
287:South America
284:
280:
275:
268:
266:
263:Eucalyptus §
248:
246:
242:
234:
232:be processed.
230:
226:
223:
219:
218:particleboard
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
182:
179:
175:
171:
170:
168:
158:
154:
152:
148:
147:Monterey Pine
144:
140:
134:
132:
131:seed orchards
128:
120:
116:
112:
107:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
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81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
33:
28:
22:
21:Tree planting
2263:
2249:
2235:
2221:
2207:
2193:
2186:
2164:Tree planter
2144:Resin tapper
2124:Truck driver
2119:River driver
1868:Tree hugging
1853:
1836:
1803:timber mafia
1793:High grading
1778:Ghost forest
1748:Clearcutting
1671:Silviculture
1647:Horticulture
1491:Fire ecology
1406:Urban forest
1390:
1381:Mycoforestry
1341:
1337:Agroforestry
1318:
1311:
1304:
1297:
1290:
1285:Forest areas
1283:
1276:
1226:
1184:
1180:
1167:
1158:
1147:. Retrieved
1143:
1134:
1120:
1103:
1099:
1086:
1045:
1041:
1028:
1016:. Retrieved
988:
984:
971:
960:. Retrieved
953:the original
939:
927:. Retrieved
923:
914:
905:
896:
883:
872:. Retrieved
868:
858:
848:20 September
846:. Retrieved
842:
833:
821:. Retrieved
817:the original
812:
803:
790:
786:
780:
762:
690:
686:
664:
643:
640:
624:monocultures
621:
612:Monocultures
602:
595:
554:
546:
538:
527:
523:
473:Nordmann fir
458:
450:
422:agricultural
416:
354:
307:South Africa
282:
273:
264:
238:
167:Silviculture
161:Growth cycle
155:
137:annually; a
135:
123:
80:Weyerhaeuser
71:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
37:
2314:Plantations
2188:WikiProject
2112:smokejumper
2092:Firefighter
2055:Occupations
2039:Woodworking
1620:Forestation
1551:restoration
1506:informatics
1371:Ecoforestry
929:22 November
869:JSTOR Daily
843:www.fao.org
823:October 27,
655:forest land
461:Douglas-fir
289:(mainly in
241:fire damage
174:cultivation
111:Douglas-fir
58:. The term
2308:Categories
2134:Lumberjack
2129:Log scaler
2012:engineered
1963:non-timber
1936:sawmilling
1888:Industries
1855:svedjebruk
1566:transition
1546:protection
1536:old-growth
1521:governance
1476:Dendrology
1426:management
1292:Ministries
1229: Vox
1149:2019-09-02
962:2024-02-10
874:2022-04-23
797:: 111–125.
754:References
713:eucalyptus
677:Greenpeace
636:ecosystems
616:See also:
506:See also:
495:harvesting
469:Fraser fir
465:Scots pine
407:U.S. state
377:Bangladesh
283:Eucalyptus
274:Eucalyptus
265:Eucalyptus
256:Eucalyptus
190:live crown
115:Washington
2082:Ecologist
1995:Tree farm
1896:Coppicing
1838:chitemene
1738:Acid rain
1686:allometry
1608:SmartWood
1556:secondary
1541:pathology
1516:inventory
1454:driftwood
1320:Arbor Day
651:Indonesia
586:Ownership
580:Indonesia
453:tree farm
365:Indonesia
311:Australia
295:Argentina
279:El Dorado
198:harvester
151:Australia
139:Grand Fir
60:tree farm
52:tree farm
2283:Category
2097:handcrew
2067:Arborist
2062:Forester
2022:mahogany
1968:palm oil
1958:charcoal
1943:Products
1878:Wildfire
1691:breeding
1652:GM trees
1501:dynamics
1313:Journals
1306:Colleges
1266:Forestry
1070:18784722
1013:21939033
720:See also
607:Problems
485:conifers
426:forestry
381:Thailand
323:Portugal
299:Paraguay
206:delimbed
194:thinning
177:strains.
143:Scotland
84:Rayonier
2293:Outline
2107:lookout
2102:hotshot
1983:tanbark
1953:biomass
1948:biochar
1926:plywood
1911:Logging
1815:wilding
1464:log jam
1421:Ecology
1078:4424430
1050:Bibcode
1018:9 March
993:Bibcode
598:forests
576:Bandung
555:In the
411:Florida
369:Myanmar
356:Tectona
319:Galicia
303:Uruguay
202:removed
2139:Ranger
2087:Feller
2072:Bucker
1978:rubber
1921:lumber
1731:topics
1718:volume
1713:height
1659:i-Tree
1496:Forest
1449:coarse
1444:Debris
1343:dehesa
1076:
1068:
1042:Nature
1011:
709:spruce
646:Brazil
628:timber
518:, and
440:, and
438:spruce
428:, and
420:is an
291:Brazil
228:chips.
214:timber
1973:rayon
1708:girth
1703:crown
1664:urban
1561:stand
1469:slash
1459:large
1330:Types
1278:Index
1187:: 84.
1181:EJOLT
1177:(PDF)
1096:(PDF)
1074:S2CID
1038:(PDF)
981:(PDF)
956:(PDF)
949:(PDF)
899:(56).
893:(PDF)
793:(2).
772:(PDF)
668:India
489:pests
373:India
315:India
251:Types
2032:teak
2017:fuel
2007:Wood
1827:REDD
1681:Tree
1598:PEFC
1583:ATFS
1066:PMID
1020:2013
1009:PMID
931:2013
850:2020
825:2011
711:and
705:pine
701:pulp
697:wood
675:and
475:and
467:and
434:pine
379:and
330:Teak
301:and
186:pine
119:U.S.
100:teak
86:and
66:and
32:pine
1603:SFI
1593:FSC
1588:CFS
1526:law
1511:IPM
1423:and
1108:doi
1104:114
1058:doi
1046:455
1001:doi
699:or
578:in
550:FAO
442:fir
409:of
305:),
113:in
50:or
2310::
1183:.
1179:.
1142:.
1102:.
1098:.
1072:.
1064:.
1056:.
1044:.
1040:.
1007:.
999:.
989:21
987:.
983:.
922:.
895:.
867:.
841:.
811:.
791:68
789:.
707:,
679:.
657:.
514:,
510:,
491:.
463:,
448:.
436:,
424:,
375:,
371:,
367:,
321:,
317:,
313:,
309:,
297:,
293:,
117:,
82:,
70:.
46:,
42:,
38:A
30:A
1258:e
1251:t
1244:v
1185:3
1152:.
1128:.
1114:.
1110::
1080:.
1060::
1052::
1022:.
1003::
995::
965:.
933:.
877:.
852:.
827:.
565:2
530:2
397:.
339:.
269:.
224:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
