4292:
305:
897:. note that trophic levels peaked at 3.4 in 1970 in the northwest and west-central Atlantic, followed by a subsequent decline to 2.9 in 1994. They report a shift away from long-lived, piscivorous, high-trophic-level bottom fishes, such as cod and haddock, to short-lived, planktivorous, low-trophic-level invertebrates (e.g., shrimp) and small, pelagic fish (e.g., herring). This shift from high-trophic-level fishes to low-trophic-level invertebrates and fishes is a response to changes in the relative abundance of the preferred catch. They consider that this is part of the global fishery collapse, which finds an echo in the overfished Mediterranean Sea.
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29:
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pairwise interactions (plant-herbivore plus herbivoreāpredator, for example). Significant interactions can occur between the first trophic level (plant) and the third trophic level (a predator) in determining herbivore population growth, for example. Simple genetic changes may yield morphological variants in plants that then differ in their resistance to herbivores because of the effects of the plant architecture on enemies of the herbivore. Plants can also
5002:
365:
131:
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389:, so energy pyramids can also be viewed as biomass pyramids, picturing the amount of biomass that results at higher levels from biomass consumed at lower levels. However, when primary producers grow rapidly and are consumed rapidly, the biomass at any one moment may be low; for example, phytoplankton (producer) biomass can be low compared to the zooplankton (consumer) biomass in the same area of ocean.
662:
400:). For this reason, food chains rarely extend for more than 5 or 6 levels. At the lowest trophic level (the bottom of the food chain), plants convert about 1% of the sunlight they receive into chemical energy. It follows from this that the total energy originally present in the incident sunlight that is finally embodied in a tertiary consumer is about 0.001%
352:. Decomposers are often left off food webs, but if included, they mark the end of a food chain. Thus food chains start with primary producers and end with decay and decomposers. Since decomposers recycle nutrients, leaving them so they can be reused by primary producers, they are sometimes regarded as occupying their own trophic level.
1228:
One aspect of trophic levels is called tritrophic interaction. Ecologists often restrict their research to two trophic levels as a way of simplifying the analysis; however, this can be misleading if tritrophic interactions (such as plantāherbivoreāpredator) are not easily understood by simply adding
912:
are only about 10%, it follows that the rate of biological production is much greater at lower trophic levels than it is at higher levels. Fisheries catch, at least, to begin with, will tend to increase as the trophic level declines. At this point the fisheries will target species lower in the food
380:
In general, each trophic level relates to the one below it by absorbing some of the energy it consumes, and in this way can be regarded as resting on, or supported by, the next lower trophic level. Food chains can be diagrammed to illustrate the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to
355:
The trophic level of a species may vary if it has a choice of diet. Virtually all plants and phytoplankton are purely phototrophic and are at exactly level 1.0. Many worms are at around 2.1; insects 2.2; jellyfish 3.0; birds 3.6. A 2013 study estimates the average trophic level of human beings
432:
Food webs largely define ecosystems, and the trophic levels define the position of organisms within the webs. But these trophic levels are not always simple integers, because organisms often feed at more than one trophic level. For example, some carnivores also eat plants, and some plants are
1213:
The FiB index is stable (zero) over periods of time when changes in trophic levels are matched by appropriate changes in the catch in the opposite direction. The index increases if catches increase for any reason, e.g. higher fish biomass, or geographic expansion. Such decreases explain the
348:, there is more than one food chain for most organisms, since most organisms eat more than one kind of food or are eaten by more than one type of predator. A diagram that sets out the intricate network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its
893:. However, more recent work finds no relation between economic value and trophic level; and that mean trophic levels in catches, surveys and stock assessments have not in fact declined, suggesting that fishing down the food web is not a global phenomenon. However Pauly
356:
at 2.21, similar to pigs or anchovies. This is only an average, and plainly both modern and ancient human eating habits are complex and vary greatly. For example, a traditional Inuit living on a diet consisting primarily of seals would have a trophic level of nearly 5.
653:. This is because there is a consistent increase in the nitrogen isotopic composition at each trophic level caused by fractionations that occur with the synthesis of biomolecules; the magnitude of this increase in nitrogen isotopic composition is approximately 3ā4ā°.
629:
In the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes a value between 2.0 and 5.0. The upper value, 5.0, is unusual, even for large fish, though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and orcas.
137:
based on material eaten (plant: green shades are live, brown shades are dead; animal: red shades are live, purple shades are dead; or particulate: grey shades) and feeding strategy (gatherer: lighter shade of each color; miner: darker shade of each
448:
sets the values of trophic levels to one in plants and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers), three in secondary consumers, and so on. The definition of the trophic level, TL, for any consumer species is:
71:
is a succession of organisms that eat other organisms and may, in turn, be eaten themselves. The trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the start of the chain. A food web starts at trophic level 1 with
2338:
Price, P. W. Price; Bouton, C. E.; Gross, P.; McPheron, B. A.; Thompson, J. N.; Weis, A. E. (1980). "Interactions Among Three
Trophic Levels: Influence of Plants on Interactions Between Insect Herbivores and Natural Enemies".
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793:
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304:
1931:
Gorlova, E. N.; Krylovich, O. A.; Tiunov, A. V.; Khasanov, B. F.; Vasyukov, D. D.; Savinetsk y, A. B. (March 2015). "Stable-Isotope
Analysis as a Method of Taxonomical Identification of Archaeozoological Material".
540:
323:
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carnivores. A large carnivore may eat both smaller carnivores and herbivores; the bobcat eats rabbits, but the mountain lion eats both bobcats and rabbits. Animals can also eat each other; the
222:
Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.
285:
408:
Both the number of trophic levels and the complexity of relationships between them evolve as life diversifies through time, the exception being intermittent mass extinction events.
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illustrates how much energy is needed as it flows upward to support the next trophic level. Only about 10% of the energy transferred between each trophic level is converted to
872:
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1988:
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210:) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such as
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web. In 2000, this led Pauly and others to construct a "Fisheries in
Balance" index, usually called the FiB index. The FiB index is defined, for any year
2044:
2376:
1934:
925:
689:
218:(mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.
88:
at level 4 or 5. The path along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a part of a wider food "web". Ecological communities with higher
2043:
Branch, T.A.; Watson, Reg; Fulton, Elizabeth A.; Jennings, Simon; McGilliard, Carey R.; Pablico, Grace T.; Ricard, Daniel; Tracey, Sean R. (2010).
1322:
4476:
633:
In addition to observational studies of animal behavior, and quantification of animal stomach contents, trophic level can be quantified through
441:
and crayfish eat young bullfrogs. The feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up.
3151:
2404:
3968:
158:. Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using
4316:
3295:
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that cannot manufacture their own food and need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called
4061:
3365:
4291:
2937:
2902:
2293:
Kareiva, Peter; Sahakian, Robert (1990). "Tritrophic effects of a simple architectural mutation in pea plants". Letters to Nature.
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259:
have no predators (with members of their own species a possible exception) and are at the highest numbered level of their food web.
396:. Consumers at each level convert on average only about 10% of the chemical energy in their food to their own organic tissue (the
4466:
4251:
3375:
3103:
457:
1654:
1470:
1442:
1415:
665:
The mean trophic level of the world fisheries catch has steadily declined because many high trophic level fish, such as this
4481:
3380:
1756:; Heald, E. J. (1975) "The detritus-based food web of an estuarine mangrove community". Pages 265ā286 in L. E. Cronin, ed.
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166:. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-sea
1547:
3321:
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2397:
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In fisheries, the mean trophic level for the fisheries catch across an entire area or ecosystem is calculated for year
4471:
2657:
1896:
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3118:
3400:
3113:
2980:
2692:
2115:
Pauly, D.; Christensen, V.; Dalsgaard, J.; Froese, R.; Torres, F.C. Jr. (1998). "Fishing down marine food webs".
1968:
1257:
1230:
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Bonhommeau, S.; Dubroca, L.; le Pape, O.; Barde, J.; Kaplan, D.M.; Chassot, E. & Nieblas, A.E. (2013).
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but they are divided into separate populations that hunt specific prey, such as tuna, small sharks, and seals.
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The efficiency with which energy or biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next is called the
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3263:
4948:
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3620:
2511:
1353:
1214:"backward-bending" plots of trophic level versus catch originally observed by Pauly and others in 1998.
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3129:
2760:
2167:
Fishing Down the
Mediterranean Food Webs? Executive Summary. (2000). Briand, F. and K.I. Stergiou
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at the higher trophic levels. Earlier reports found precipitous declines in mean trophic level of
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1649:. Evolutionary Foundations of Human Behavior (2nd ed.). Transaction Publishers. p. 12.
385:. The energy transferred between levels can also be thought of as approximating to a transfer in
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170:, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture food through a process called
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The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers, and decomposers.
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122:(1926): "producers", "consumers", and "reducers" (modified to "decomposers" by Lindeman).
8:
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Lisowski, M.; Miaoulis, I.; Cyr, M.; Jones, L.C.; Padilla, M.J.; Wellnitz, T.R. (2004).
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Fish at higher trophic levels usually have a higher economic value, which can result in
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1983:
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Humans have a mean trophic level of about 2.21, about the same as a pig or an anchovy.
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2436:
2260:"Ecopath, ecosim, and ecospace as tools for evaluating ecosystem impact of fisheries"
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2025:
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119:
47:. They take nutrients from the soil or the water, and manufacture their own food by
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2179:
2134:
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2015:
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1913:
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1799:
1787:
1726:
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1600:
1590:
1337:
1267:
1187:
the mean trophic level of the catch at the start of the series being analyzed, and
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336:
163:
115:
73:
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2417:
2138:
1644:
1371:
1262:
397:
335:
The fungi on this tree feed on dead matter, converting it back to nutrients that
1984:"Global fishery development patterns are driven by profit but not trophic level"
1770:
Pimm, S. L.; Lawton, J. H. (1978). "On feeding on more than one trophic level".
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1947:
1053:{\displaystyle FiB_{y}=\log {\frac {Y_{y}/(TE)^{TL_{y}}}{Y_{0}/(TE)^{TL_{0}}}}}
788:{\displaystyle TL_{y}={\frac {\sum _{i}(TL_{i}\cdot Y_{iy})}{\sum _{i}Y_{iy}}}}
634:
382:
369:
171:
159:
48:
1917:
1892:) from northern British Columbia: Isotopic and zooarchaeological perspectives"
1646:
Human
Ecology: The story of our place in nature from prehistory to the present
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100:
85:
40:
2225:
2010:
1886:
Szpak, Paul; Orchard, Trevor J.; McKechnie, Iain; Grƶcke, Darren R. (2012).
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2637:
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2564:
1691:
1670:
Behrenfeld, Michael J. (2014). "Climate-mediated dance of the plankton".
1514:"Fishing down marine food webs: It is far more pervasive than we thought"
882:
298:
eat rabbits at the second trophic level, so they are secondary consumers.
181:
2073:
1210:
is the transfer efficiency of biomass or energy between trophic levels.
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203:
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886:
364:
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eat foxes at the third trophic level, so they are tertiary consumers.
279:
eat plants at the first trophic level, so they are primary consumers.
193:
189:
147:
81:
77:
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130:
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438:
349:
247:
Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
211:
197:
64:
60:
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185:
4619:
3989:
196:, and animals that eat both plants and other animals are called
4855:
4181:
2114:
1410:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Delmar Learning. p. 537.
638:
276:
1930:
661:
241:
Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
229:
Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
1815:"Standardized diet compositions and trophic levels of sharks"
1707:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"
626:
of how much different trophic levels contribute to its food.
215:
155:
151:
36:
2199:"Eating up the world's food web and the human trophic level"
1850:
1569:"Eating up the world's food web and the human trophic level"
4351:
1885:
1851:
Pauly, D.; Trites, A.; Capuli, E.; Christensen, V. (1998).
1663:
666:
646:
642:
421:
2204:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA
2180:"Researchers calculate human trophic level for first time"
2042:
1989:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA
1626:"Researchers calculate human trophic level for first time"
1574:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA
4413:
4403:
1465:. Prentice Hall Science Explorer. Pearson Prentice Hall.
535:{\displaystyle TL_{i}=1+\sum _{j}(TL_{j}\cdot DC_{ij})\!}
295:
2257:
1853:"Diet composition and trophic levels of marine mammals"
1711:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1642:
235:
Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
1704:
622:. That is, the consumer trophic level is one plus the
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1505:
1503:
1501:
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1193:
1163:
1136:
1102:
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928:
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84:
at level 3 or higher, and typically finish with
2286:
1217:
1935:Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia
1496:
1202:
1179:
1149:
1118:
1084:
1052:
866:
822:
787:
606:
569:
534:
1981:
1888:"Historical ecology of late Holocene sea otters (
531:
5030:
2258:Pauly, D.; Christensen, V.; Walters, C. (2000).
1698:
1430:
2292:
1456:
1454:
1126:is the mean trophic level of the catch at year
1982:Sethi, S.A.; Branch, T.A.; Watson, R. (2010).
1511:
1320:
359:
114:The concept of trophic level was developed by
4252:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
3962:
3145:
2398:
2110:
2108:
2106:
1846:
1844:
1369:
1451:
830:is the annual catch of the species or group
577:is the fractional trophic level of the prey
411:
381:the next in a food chain. This is called an
192:. Animals that eat other animals are called
4317:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
1437:. Princeton University Press. p. 399.
106:(trophÄ) referring to food or nourishment.
3969:
3955:
3366:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3152:
3138:
2405:
2391:
2103:
1962:Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis
1841:
1769:
1669:
1623:
1566:
1556:. Fish on line. August 2014. vers. 3.
1434:The Ecology of Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents
2277:
2251:
2234:
2224:
2045:"Trophic fingerprint of marine fisheries"
2019:
2009:
1870:
1832:
1730:
1604:
1594:
3264:Predatorāprey (LotkaāVolterra) equations
2903:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
2341:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1224:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
660:
415:
363:
129:
27:
3296:Random generalized LotkaāVolterra model
1323:"The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology"
16:Position of an organism in a food chain
5031:
3976:
3104:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1812:
1705:Sahney, S. & Benton, M.J. (2008).
1484:
1482:
4505:
4504:
3988:
3950:
3133:
2386:
1971:. Island Press. 2005. pp. 32ā33.
656:
35:. The plants in this image, and the
3119:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1490:American Heritage Science Dictionary
1403:
1310:– via www.merriam-webster.com.
118:(1942), based on the terminology of
4580:Oceanic physical-biological process
4442:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
3569:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2353:10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.000353
1760:. Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York.
1512:Pauly, D.; Palomares, M.L. (2005).
1479:
1231:develop defenses against herbivores
637:analysis of animal tissues such as
162:. For this reason, they are called
13:
3322:Ecological effects of biodiversity
2036:
1975:
1954:
1879:
1806:
1374:[The aquatic food cycle].
14:
5060:
2658:Generalist and specialist species
2370:
2186:(Press release). 3 December 2013.
1897:Journal of Archaeological Science
1492:. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005.
1382:: 29ā79 – via Google Books.
1372:"Der Nahrungskreislauf im Wasser"
1218:Tritrophic and other interactions
874:is the trophic level for species
92:form more complex trophic paths.
63:is the position it occupies in a
5013:
5012:
5000:
4986:
4618:
4290:
4107:Colored dissolved organic matter
3381:Occupancyāabundance relationship
1643:Campbell, Bernard Grant (1995).
322:
303:
284:
265:
4452:Latin America and the Caribbean
3401:Relative abundance distribution
3114:Plant defense against herbivory
2981:Competitive exclusion principle
2693:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2331:
2190:
2172:
2161:
1969:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
1924:
1763:
1747:
1636:
1560:
1550:. Biodiversity and Morphology.
1258:Mesopredator release hypothesis
4934:Ecological values of mangroves
4477:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
2986:Consumerāresource interactions
2265:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1858:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1820:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1624:Yirka, Bob (3 December 2013).
1567:Yirka, Bob (3 December 2013).
1540:
1431:van Dover, Cindy (2000).
1424:
1397:
1363:
1314:
1289:
1028:
1018:
982:
972:
754:
722:
528:
493:
1:
3832:Biological data visualization
3659:Environmental niche modelling
3386:Population viability analysis
2379:BBC. Last updated March 2004.
1283:
889:catch, in a process known as
255:By definition, healthy adult
4954:Marine conservation activism
4939:Fisheries and climate change
3317:Density-dependent inhibition
2139:10.1126/science.279.5352.860
1529:(2): 197ā211. Archived from
903:
403:
76:such as plants, can move to
51:, using energy from the sun.
7:
4949:Human impact on marine life
4826:Davidson Seamount Ā§ Ecology
4062:Aquatic population dynamics
3786:Liebig's law of the minimum
3621:Resource selection function
2512:Metabolic theory of ecology
1236:
1233:such as chemical defenses.
614:represents the fraction of
360:Biomass transfer efficiency
125:
10:
5065:
3686:Niche apportionment models
3406:Relative species abundance
2610:Primary nutritional groups
2507:List of feeding behaviours
1948:10.1016/j.aeae.2015.07.013
1522:Bulletin of Marine Science
1301:Merriam-Webster Dictionary
1221:
867:{\displaystyle \ TL_{i}\ }
109:
18:
4980:
4919:
4791:
4727:
4689:
4636:
4627:
4616:
4565:Marine primary production
4517:
4513:
4500:
4459:List of marine ecoregions
4434:
4299:
4288:
4002:
3998:
3984:
3935:
3867:Ecosystem based fisheries
3809:
3709:
3634:
3507:
3479:Interspecific competition
3444:
3371:Minimum viable population
3304:
3229:Maximum sustainable yield
3214:Intraspecific competition
3209:Effective population size
3172:
3089:Anti-predator adaptations
3074:
2953:
2880:
2837:
2759:
2726:
2623:
2600:Photosynthetic efficiency
2535:
2429:
1918:10.1016/j.jas.2011.12.006
1659:– via Google Books.
1447:– via Google Books.
1404:Butz, Stephen D. (2004).
1376:Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Ges.
891:fishing down the food web
412:Fractional trophic levels
4811:Coastal biogeomorphology
4806:Marine coastal ecosystem
3857:Ecological stoichiometry
3822:Alternative stable state
1407:Science of Earth Systems
444:The fisheries scientist
67:. Within a food web, a
19:Not to be confused with
4719:Paradox of the plankton
4530:Diel vertical migration
4424:Freshwater swamp forest
4142:GIS and aquatic science
3990:General components and
3701:Ontogenetic niche shift
3564:Ideal free distribution
3474:Ecological facilitation
3224:Malthusian growth model
3194:Consumer-resource model
3051:Paradox of the plankton
3016:Energy systems language
2736:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2703:Optimal foraging theory
2678:Heterotrophic nutrition
2226:10.1073/pnas.1305827110
2011:10.1073/pnas.1003236107
1596:10.1073/pnas.1305827110
1321:Lindeman, R.L. (1942).
607:{\displaystyle DC_{ij}}
168:hydrothermal ecosystems
4545:Large marine ecosystem
4237:Shoaling and schooling
3847:Ecological forecasting
3791:Marginal value theorem
3589:Landscape epidemiology
3524:Cross-boundary subsidy
3459:Biological interaction
2809:Microbial intelligence
2497:Green world hypothesis
2279:10.1006/jmsc.2000.0726
1872:10.1006/jmsc.1997.0280
1834:10.1006/jmsc.1999.0489
1723:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370
1370:Heinemann, A. (1926).
1204:
1181:
1180:{\displaystyle TL_{0}}
1151:
1120:
1119:{\displaystyle TL_{y}}
1086:
1054:
868:
824:
823:{\displaystyle Y_{iy}}
789:
674:
608:
571:
570:{\displaystyle TL_{j}}
536:
429:
377:
139:
52:
4964:Marine protected area
4891:Salt pannes and pools
4666:Marine larval ecology
4641:Census of Marine Life
4525:Deep scattering layer
4482:San Francisco Estuary
4447:Africa and Madagascar
4272:Underwater camouflage
4052:Aquatic biomonitoring
3992:freshwater ecosystems
3852:Ecological humanities
3751:Ecological energetics
3696:Niche differentiation
3559:Habitat fragmentation
3327:Ecological extinction
3274:Small population size
3026:Feed conversion ratio
3006:Ecological succession
2938:San Francisco Estuary
2852:Ecological efficiency
2794:Microbial cooperation
1672:Nature Climate Change
1463:Environmental Science
1385:"Also available in".
1248:Energy flow (ecology)
1222:Further information:
1205:
1182:
1152:
1150:{\displaystyle Y_{0}}
1121:
1092:is the catch at year
1087:
1085:{\displaystyle Y_{y}}
1055:
910:transfer efficiencies
869:
825:
790:
664:
609:
572:
537:
419:
394:ecological efficiency
367:
133:
31:
4699:Marine bacteriophage
4661:Marine invertebrates
3877:Evolutionary ecology
3842:Ecological footprint
3837:Ecological economics
3761:Ecological threshold
3756:Ecological indicator
3626:Sourceāsink dynamics
3579:Land change modeling
3574:Insular biogeography
3426:Species distribution
3165:Modelling ecosystems
2824:Microbial metabolism
2663:Intraguild predation
2452:Biogeochemical cycle
2418:Modelling ecosystems
1692:10.1038/nclimate2349
1253:Marine trophic level
1191:
1161:
1134:
1100:
1069:
926:
842:
804:
690:
585:
551:
458:
311:Fourth trophic level
273:Second trophic level
4575:Ocean fertilization
4384:Trophic state index
4342:Lake stratification
4072:Aquatic respiration
3927:Theoretical ecology
3902:Natural environment
3766:Ecosystem diversity
3736:Ecological collapse
3726:Bateman's principle
3681:Limiting similarity
3594:Landscape limnology
3416:Species homogeneity
3254:Population modeling
3249:Population dynamics
3066:Trophic state index
2309:1990Natur.345..433K
2217:2013PNAS..11020617B
2211:(51): 20617ā20620.
2131:1998Sci...279..860P
2099:on 9 February 2014.
2074:10.1038/nature09528
2066:2010Natur.468..431B
2002:2010PNAS..10712163S
1996:(27): 12163ā12167.
1910:2012JArSc..39.1553S
1813:CortƩs, E. (1999).
1784:1978Natur.275..542P
1684:2014NatCC...4..880B
1587:2013PNAS..11020617B
1581:(51): 20617ā20620.
1277:Trophic state index
292:Third trophic level
135:Consumer categories
33:First trophic level
21:Trophic level index
4841:Intertidal wetland
4836:Intertidal ecology
4704:Marine prokaryotes
4646:Deep-sea community
4540:Iron fertilization
4463:Specific examples
4389:Upland and lowland
4307:Freshwater biology
4172:Microbial food web
4082:Aquatic toxicology
4025:Aquatic adaptation
3978:Aquatic ecosystems
3938:Outline of ecology
3887:Industrial ecology
3882:Functional ecology
3746:Ecological deficit
3691:Niche construction
3654:Ecosystem engineer
3431:Speciesāarea curve
3352:Introduced species
3167:: Other components
3099:Deimatic behaviour
3001:Ecological network
2933:North Pacific Gyre
2918:hydrothermal vents
2857:Ecological pyramid
2804:Microbial food web
2615:Primary production
2560:Foundation species
1758:Estuarine research
1279:ā applied to lakes
1203:{\displaystyle TE}
1200:
1177:
1147:
1116:
1082:
1050:
878:as defined above.
864:
820:
785:
768:
721:
675:
657:Mean trophic level
604:
567:
532:
492:
430:
378:
140:
53:
5039:Fisheries science
5026:
5025:
5007:Oceans portal
4976:
4975:
4972:
4971:
4851:Hydrothermal vent
4787:
4786:
4676:Seashore wildlife
4507:Marine ecosystems
4496:
4495:
4492:
4491:
4262:Thermal pollution
4227:Ramsar Convention
4167:Microbial ecology
4127:Fisheries science
4067:Aquatic predation
3944:
3943:
3827:Balance of nature
3584:Landscape ecology
3469:Community ecology
3411:Species diversity
3347:Indicator species
3342:Gradient analysis
3219:Logistic function
3127:
3126:
3084:Animal coloration
3061:Trophic mutualism
2799:Microbial ecology
2590:Photoheterotrophs
2575:Myco-heterotrophy
2487:Ecosystem ecology
2472:Carrying capacity
2437:Abiotic component
2303:(6274): 433ā434.
2125:(5352): 860ā863.
2060:(7322): 431ā435.
1778:(5680): 542ā544.
1656:978-0-202-36660-9
1472:978-0-13-115090-4
1444:978-0-691-04929-8
1417:978-0-7668-3391-3
1387:Zool. Anz. Suppl.
1359:on 29 March 2017.
1048:
863:
847:
783:
759:
712:
483:
337:primary producers
164:primary producers
120:August Thienemann
99:derives from the
80:at level 2,
74:primary producers
45:primary producers
43:in the lake, are
5056:
5016:
5015:
5009:
5005:
5004:
4995:
4993:Lakes portal
4991:
4990:
4989:
4959:Marine pollution
4651:Deep-water coral
4634:
4633:
4622:
4555:Marine chemistry
4515:
4514:
4502:
4501:
4419:Freshwater marsh
4312:Freshwater biome
4294:
4010:Acoustic ecology
4000:
3999:
3986:
3985:
3971:
3964:
3957:
3948:
3947:
3644:Ecological niche
3616:selection theory
3436:Umbrella species
3421:Species richness
3357:Invasive species
3337:Flagship species
3244:Population cycle
3239:Overexploitation
3204:Ecological yield
3154:
3147:
3140:
3131:
3130:
3036:Mesotrophic soil
2976:Climax community
2908:Marine food webs
2847:Biomagnification
2648:Chemoorganotroph
2502:Keystone species
2462:Biotic component
2407:
2400:
2393:
2384:
2383:
2365:
2364:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2317:10.1038/345433a0
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2238:
2228:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2176:
2170:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2112:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2092:. Archived from
2049:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2023:
2013:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1966:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1904:(5): 1553ā1571.
1883:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1848:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1792:10.1038/275542a0
1767:
1761:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1734:
1717:(1636): 759ā65.
1702:
1696:
1695:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1632:(Press release).
1618:
1608:
1598:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1548:"Table 3.5"
1544:
1538:
1537:
1535:
1518:
1509:
1494:
1493:
1486:
1477:
1476:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1383:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1352:. Archived from
1327:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1293:
1268:Trophic dynamics
1209:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1145:
1125:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1091:
1089:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1080:
1059:
1057:
1056:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1001:
1000:
999:
998:
997:
971:
966:
965:
955:
944:
943:
877:
873:
871:
870:
865:
861:
860:
859:
845:
837:
833:
829:
827:
826:
821:
819:
818:
794:
792:
791:
786:
784:
782:
781:
780:
767:
757:
753:
752:
737:
736:
720:
710:
705:
704:
680:
624:weighted average
613:
611:
610:
605:
603:
602:
576:
574:
573:
568:
566:
565:
541:
539:
538:
533:
527:
526:
508:
507:
491:
473:
472:
398:ten-per cent law
326:
307:
288:
269:
150:) are typically
116:Raymond Lindeman
5064:
5063:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5054:
5053:
5029:
5028:
5027:
5022:
4999:
4998:
4987:
4985:
4984:
4968:
4929:Coral bleaching
4915:
4896:Seagrass meadow
4793:Marine habitats
4783:
4757:Coral reef fish
4723:
4709:Marine protists
4685:
4623:
4614:
4585:Ocean turbidity
4560:Marine food web
4509:
4488:
4430:
4369:River ecosystem
4322:Freshwater fish
4295:
4286:
4092:Bioluminescence
4077:Aquatic science
3994:
3980:
3975:
3945:
3940:
3931:
3917:Systems ecology
3805:
3776:Extinction debt
3741:Ecological debt
3731:Bioluminescence
3712:
3705:
3674:marine habitats
3649:Ecological trap
3630:
3510:
3503:
3446:
3440:
3396:Rapoport's rule
3391:Priority effect
3332:Endemic species
3300:
3259:Population size
3175:
3168:
3158:
3128:
3123:
3076:
3070:
3056:Trophic cascade
2966:Bioaccumulation
2949:
2876:
2833:
2755:
2722:
2619:
2531:
2492:Ecosystem model
2425:
2411:
2373:
2368:
2336:
2332:
2291:
2287:
2256:
2252:
2195:
2191:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2162:
2113:
2104:
2096:
2047:
2041:
2037:
1980:
1976:
1964:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1929:
1925:
1884:
1880:
1849:
1842:
1811:
1807:
1768:
1764:
1752:
1748:
1703:
1699:
1678:(10): 880ā887.
1668:
1664:
1657:
1641:
1637:
1565:
1561:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1536:on 14 May 2013.
1533:
1516:
1510:
1497:
1488:
1487:
1480:
1473:
1459:
1452:
1445:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1402:
1398:
1384:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1342:10.2307/1930126
1325:
1319:
1315:
1305:
1303:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1263:Trophic cascade
1239:
1226:
1220:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1141:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1076:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1013:
1007:
1003:
1002:
993:
989:
985:
981:
967:
961:
957:
956:
954:
939:
935:
927:
924:
923:
906:
875:
855:
851:
843:
840:
839:
835:
831:
811:
807:
805:
802:
801:
773:
769:
763:
758:
745:
741:
732:
728:
716:
711:
709:
700:
696:
691:
688:
687:
678:
659:
618:in the diet of
595:
591:
586:
583:
582:
561:
557:
552:
549:
548:
519:
515:
503:
499:
487:
468:
464:
459:
456:
455:
420:Killer whales (
414:
406:
362:
340:
334:
327:
318:
313:
308:
299:
294:
289:
280:
275:
270:
128:
112:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5062:
5052:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5024:
5023:
5021:
5020:
5010:
4996:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4970:
4969:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4925:
4923:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4797:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4775:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4747:Saltwater fish
4744:
4742:Marine reptile
4739:
4733:
4731:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4721:
4716:
4714:Marine viruses
4711:
4706:
4701:
4695:
4693:
4691:Microorganisms
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4681:Wild fisheries
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4637:
4631:
4625:
4624:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4595:Thorson's rule
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4550:Marine biology
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4521:
4519:
4511:
4510:
4498:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4486:
4485:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4461:
4456:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4438:
4436:
4432:
4431:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4409:Brackish marsh
4406:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4360:
4359:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4337:Lake ecosystem
4334:
4329:
4327:Hyporheic zone
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4303:
4301:
4297:
4296:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4177:Microbial loop
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4122:Eutrophication
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4102:Cascade effect
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4030:Aquatic animal
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4006:
4004:
3996:
3995:
3982:
3981:
3974:
3973:
3966:
3959:
3951:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3930:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3897:Microecosystem
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3803:
3798:
3796:Thorson's rule
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3721:Assembly rules
3717:
3715:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3677:
3676:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3606:
3604:Patch dynamics
3601:
3599:Metapopulation
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3515:
3513:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3501:
3496:
3494:Storage effect
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3450:
3448:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3376:Neutral theory
3373:
3368:
3363:
3361:Native species
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3308:
3306:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3286:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3234:Overpopulation
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3180:
3178:
3170:
3169:
3157:
3156:
3149:
3142:
3134:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3080:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3041:Nutrient cycle
3038:
3033:
3031:Feeding frenzy
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3011:Energy quality
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2971:Cascade effect
2968:
2963:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2843:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2814:Microbial loop
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2779:Lithoautotroph
2776:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2761:Microorganisms
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2732:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2718:Prey switching
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2595:Photosynthesis
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2550:Chemosynthesis
2547:
2541:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2442:Abiotic stress
2439:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2410:
2409:
2402:
2395:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2377:Trophic levels
2372:
2371:External links
2369:
2367:
2366:
2330:
2285:
2272:(3): 697ā706.
2250:
2189:
2171:
2160:
2102:
2035:
1974:
1953:
1942:(1): 110ā121.
1923:
1890:Enhydra lutris
1878:
1865:(3): 467ā481.
1840:
1827:(5): 707ā717.
1805:
1762:
1746:
1697:
1662:
1655:
1635:
1622:
1621:
1559:
1539:
1495:
1478:
1471:
1450:
1443:
1423:
1416:
1396:
1362:
1336:(4): 399ā418.
1313:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1274:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1243:Cascade effect
1238:
1235:
1219:
1216:
1199:
1196:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1157:is the catch,
1144:
1140:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1079:
1075:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1010:
1006:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
977:
974:
970:
964:
960:
953:
950:
947:
942:
938:
934:
931:
908:Since biomass
905:
902:
858:
854:
850:
817:
814:
810:
798:
797:
796:
795:
779:
776:
772:
766:
762:
756:
751:
748:
744:
740:
735:
731:
727:
724:
719:
715:
708:
703:
699:
695:
658:
655:
635:stable isotope
601:
598:
594:
590:
564:
560:
556:
545:
544:
543:
542:
530:
525:
522:
518:
514:
511:
506:
502:
498:
495:
490:
486:
482:
479:
476:
471:
467:
463:
426:apex predators
413:
410:
405:
402:
383:energy pyramid
370:energy pyramid
361:
358:
344:In real-world
342:
341:
328:
321:
319:
309:
302:
300:
290:
283:
281:
271:
264:
261:
260:
257:apex predators
253:
248:
245:
242:
239:
236:
233:
230:
227:
220:
219:
201:
175:
172:chemosynthesis
160:photosynthesis
127:
124:
111:
108:
86:apex predators
49:photosynthesis
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5061:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5019:
5011:
5008:
5003:
4997:
4994:
4983:
4982:
4979:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4926:
4924:
4922:
4918:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4901:Sponge ground
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4866:Marine biomes
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4780:
4777:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4767:Demersal fish
4765:
4763:
4762:Deep-sea fish
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4737:Marine mammal
4735:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4726:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4621:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4503:
4499:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4443:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4401:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4358:
4355:
4354:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4293:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4267:Trophic level
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4232:Sediment trap
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4207:Phytoplankton
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4057:Aquatic plant
4055:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4020:Anoxic waters
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3972:
3967:
3965:
3960:
3958:
3953:
3952:
3949:
3939:
3934:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3922:Urban ecology
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3808:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3781:Kleiber's law
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3675:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3554:Foster's rule
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3512:
3506:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3303:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3171:
3166:
3162:
3155:
3150:
3148:
3143:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3073:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2873:
2872:Trophic level
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2830:
2829:Phage ecology
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2819:Microbial mat
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2774:Bacteriophage
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2741:Decomposition
2739:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2688:Mesopredators
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2633:Apex predator
2631:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2467:Biotic stress
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2403:
2401:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2289:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2261:
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251:Apex predator
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57:trophic level
50:
46:
42:
41:phytoplankton
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
4921:Conservation
4772:Pelagic fish
4752:Coastal fish
4656:Marine fungi
4394:Water garden
4277:Water column
4266:
4222:Productivity
4197:Pelagic zone
4157:Macrobenthos
4147:Hydrobiology
4117:Ecohydrology
3907:Regime shift
3892:Macroecology
3613:
3609:
3549:Edge effects
3519:Biogeography
3464:Commensalism
3312:Biodiversity
3189:Allee effect
2928:kelp forests
2881:Example webs
2871:
2746:Detritivores
2585:Organotrophs
2565:Kinetotrophs
2517:Productivity
2421:
2347:(1): 41ā65.
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2094:the original
2057:
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1531:the original
1526:
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1354:the original
1333:
1329:
1316:
1304:. Retrieved
1300:
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1227:
1212:
1127:
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632:
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446:Daniel Pauly
443:
431:
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391:
379:
354:
343:
329:
310:
291:
272:
256:
244:Level 4
238:Level 3
232:Level 2
226:Level 1
221:
208:detritivores
182:heterotrophs
141:
113:
96:
94:
90:biodiversity
56:
54:
32:
25:
5044:Food chains
4906:Sponge reef
4881:Rocky shore
4876:Oyster reef
4846:Kelp forest
4729:Vertebrates
4629:Marine life
4605:Viral shunt
4570:Marine snow
4472:Maharashtra
4379:Stream pool
4282:Zooplankton
4202:Photic zone
4162:Meiobenthos
4015:Algal bloom
3544:Disturbance
3447:interaction
3269:Recruitment
3199:Depensation
2991:Copiotrophs
2862:Energy flow
2784:Lithotrophy
2728:Decomposers
2708:Planktivore
2683:Insectivore
2673:Heterotroph
2638:Bacterivore
2605:Phototrophs
2555:Chemotrophs
2527:Restoration
2477:Competition
1754:Odum, W. E.
883:overfishing
331:Decomposers
204:Decomposers
146:Producers (
5033:Categories
4886:Salt marsh
4821:Coral reef
4610:Whale fall
4590:Photophore
4467:Everglades
4435:Ecoregions
4374:Stream bed
4347:Macrophyte
4300:Freshwater
4132:Food chain
4045:Water bird
3912:Sexecology
3489:Parasitism
3454:Antibiosis
3289:Resistance
3284:Resilience
3174:Population
3094:Camouflage
3046:Oligotroph
2961:Ascendency
2923:intertidal
2913:cold seeps
2867:Food chain
2668:Herbivores
2643:Carnivores
2570:Mixotrophs
2545:Autotrophs
2424:components
1967:(Report).
1284:References
671:overfished
346:ecosystems
194:carnivores
190:herbivores
148:autotrophs
82:carnivores
78:herbivores
69:food chain
4911:Tide pool
4816:Cold seep
4600:Upwelling
4364:Rheotaxis
4357:Fish pond
4332:Limnology
4257:Substrate
4242:Siltation
4112:Dead zone
3817:Allometry
3771:Emergence
3499:Symbiosis
3484:Mutualism
3279:Stability
3184:Abundance
2996:Dominance
2954:Processes
2943:tide pool
2839:Food webs
2713:Predation
2698:Omnivores
2625:Consumers
2580:Mycotroph
2537:Producers
2482:Ecosystem
2447:Behaviour
1297:"Trophic"
952:
904:FiB index
887:fisheries
761:∑
739:⋅
714:∑
510:⋅
485:∑
404:Evolution
198:omnivores
178:Consumers
95:The word
5018:Category
4944:HERMIONE
4861:Mangrove
4671:Seagrass
4217:Pleuston
4212:Plankton
4192:Particle
4137:Food web
3872:Endolith
3801:Xerosere
3713:networks
3529:Ecocline
3075:Defense,
2751:Detritus
2653:Foraging
2522:Resource
2361:53137184
2325:40207145
2245:24297882
2184:Phys.org
2082:21085178
2030:20566867
1741:18198148
1630:Phys.org
1615:24297882
1553:FishBase
1393:: 29ā79.
1306:16 April
1272:Food web
1237:See also
834:in year
651:collagen
439:crayfish
435:bullfrog
350:food web
339:can use.
212:bacteria
126:Overview
65:food web
61:organism
5049:Ecology
4871:Mudflat
4831:Estuary
4801:Bay mud
4779:Seabird
4535:f-ratio
4518:General
4399:Wetland
4187:Neuston
4152:Hypoxia
4097:Biomass
4087:Benthos
4003:General
3862:Ecopath
3669:Habitat
3539:Ecotype
3534:Ecotone
3511:ecology
3509:Spatial
3445:Species
3305:Species
3176:ecology
3161:Ecology
3109:Mimicry
3077:counter
3021:f-ratio
2769:Archaea
2457:Biomass
2430:General
2422:Trophic
2414:Ecology
2305:Bibcode
2236:3870703
2213:Bibcode
2147:9452385
2127:Bibcode
2118:Science
2090:4403636
2062:Bibcode
2021:2901455
1998:Bibcode
1906:Bibcode
1800:4161183
1780:Bibcode
1732:2596898
1680:Bibcode
1606:3870703
1583:Bibcode
1350:1930126
1330:Ecology
649:, bone
387:biomass
374:biomass
277:Rabbits
186:species
110:History
97:trophic
4856:Lagoon
4182:Nekton
4040:Mammal
4035:Insect
2893:Rivers
2789:Marine
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152:plants
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4247:Spawn
3810:Other
3711:Other
3664:Guild
3636:Niche
2888:Lakes
2357:S2CID
2321:S2CID
2151:S2CID
2097:(PDF)
2086:S2CID
2048:(PDF)
1965:(PDF)
1796:S2CID
1534:(PDF)
1517:(PDF)
1357:(PDF)
1346:JSTOR
1326:(PDF)
917:, by
895:et al
437:eats
296:Foxes
216:fungi
156:algae
104:ĻĻĪæĻĪ®
101:Greek
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2898:Soil
2241:PMID
2143:PMID
2078:PMID
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1651:ISBN
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1467:ISBN
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1412:ISBN
1308:2017
681:as:
667:tuna
647:hair
643:skin
422:orca
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