4303:
316:
908:. note that trophic levels peaked at 3.4 in 1970 in the northwest and west-central Atlantic, followed by a subsequent decline to 2.9 in 1994. They report a shift away from long-lived, piscivorous, high-trophic-level bottom fishes, such as cod and haddock, to short-lived, planktivorous, low-trophic-level invertebrates (e.g., shrimp) and small, pelagic fish (e.g., herring). This shift from high-trophic-level fishes to low-trophic-level invertebrates and fishes is a response to changes in the relative abundance of the preferred catch. They consider that this is part of the global fishery collapse, which finds an echo in the overfished Mediterranean Sea.
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pairwise interactions (plant-herbivore plus herbivoreāpredator, for example). Significant interactions can occur between the first trophic level (plant) and the third trophic level (a predator) in determining herbivore population growth, for example. Simple genetic changes may yield morphological variants in plants that then differ in their resistance to herbivores because of the effects of the plant architecture on enemies of the herbivore. Plants can also
5013:
376:
142:
428:
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400:, so energy pyramids can also be viewed as biomass pyramids, picturing the amount of biomass that results at higher levels from biomass consumed at lower levels. However, when primary producers grow rapidly and are consumed rapidly, the biomass at any one moment may be low; for example, phytoplankton (producer) biomass can be low compared to the zooplankton (consumer) biomass in the same area of ocean.
673:
411:). For this reason, food chains rarely extend for more than 5 or 6 levels. At the lowest trophic level (the bottom of the food chain), plants convert about 1% of the sunlight they receive into chemical energy. It follows from this that the total energy originally present in the incident sunlight that is finally embodied in a tertiary consumer is about 0.001%
363:. Decomposers are often left off food webs, but if included, they mark the end of a food chain. Thus food chains start with primary producers and end with decay and decomposers. Since decomposers recycle nutrients, leaving them so they can be reused by primary producers, they are sometimes regarded as occupying their own trophic level.
1239:
One aspect of trophic levels is called tritrophic interaction. Ecologists often restrict their research to two trophic levels as a way of simplifying the analysis; however, this can be misleading if tritrophic interactions (such as plantāherbivoreāpredator) are not easily understood by simply adding
923:
are only about 10%, it follows that the rate of biological production is much greater at lower trophic levels than it is at higher levels. Fisheries catch, at least, to begin with, will tend to increase as the trophic level declines. At this point the fisheries will target species lower in the food
391:
In general, each trophic level relates to the one below it by absorbing some of the energy it consumes, and in this way can be regarded as resting on, or supported by, the next lower trophic level. Food chains can be diagrammed to illustrate the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to
366:
The trophic level of a species may vary if it has a choice of diet. Virtually all plants and phytoplankton are purely phototrophic and are at exactly level 1.0. Many worms are at around 2.1; insects 2.2; jellyfish 3.0; birds 3.6. A 2013 study estimates the average trophic level of human beings
443:
Food webs largely define ecosystems, and the trophic levels define the position of organisms within the webs. But these trophic levels are not always simple integers, because organisms often feed at more than one trophic level. For example, some carnivores also eat plants, and some plants are
1224:
The FiB index is stable (zero) over periods of time when changes in trophic levels are matched by appropriate changes in the catch in the opposite direction. The index increases if catches increase for any reason, e.g. higher fish biomass, or geographic expansion. Such decreases explain the
359:, there is more than one food chain for most organisms, since most organisms eat more than one kind of food or are eaten by more than one type of predator. A diagram that sets out the intricate network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its
904:. However, more recent work finds no relation between economic value and trophic level; and that mean trophic levels in catches, surveys and stock assessments have not in fact declined, suggesting that fishing down the food web is not a global phenomenon. However Pauly
367:
at 2.21, similar to pigs or anchovies. This is only an average, and plainly both modern and ancient human eating habits are complex and vary greatly. For example, a traditional Inuit living on a diet consisting primarily of seals would have a trophic level of nearly 5.
664:. This is because there is a consistent increase in the nitrogen isotopic composition at each trophic level caused by fractionations that occur with the synthesis of biomolecules; the magnitude of this increase in nitrogen isotopic composition is approximately 3ā4ā°.
640:
In the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes a value between 2.0 and 5.0. The upper value, 5.0, is unusual, even for large fish, though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and orcas.
148:
based on material eaten (plant: green shades are live, brown shades are dead; animal: red shades are live, purple shades are dead; or particulate: grey shades) and feeding strategy (gatherer: lighter shade of each color; miner: darker shade of each
459:
sets the values of trophic levels to one in plants and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers), three in secondary consumers, and so on. The definition of the trophic level, TL, for any consumer species is:
82:
is a succession of organisms that eat other organisms and may, in turn, be eaten themselves. The trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the start of the chain. A food web starts at trophic level 1 with
2349:
Price, P. W. Price; Bouton, C. E.; Gross, P.; McPheron, B. A.; Thompson, J. N.; Weis, A. E. (1980). "Interactions Among Three
Trophic Levels: Influence of Plants on Interactions Between Insect Herbivores and Natural Enemies".
1069:
804:
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315:
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Gorlova, E. N.; Krylovich, O. A.; Tiunov, A. V.; Khasanov, B. F.; Vasyukov, D. D.; Savinetsk y, A. B. (March 2015). "Stable-Isotope
Analysis as a Method of Taxonomical Identification of Archaeozoological Material".
551:
334:
444:
carnivores. A large carnivore may eat both smaller carnivores and herbivores; the bobcat eats rabbits, but the mountain lion eats both bobcats and rabbits. Animals can also eat each other; the
233:
Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.
296:
419:
Both the number of trophic levels and the complexity of relationships between them evolve as life diversifies through time, the exception being intermittent mass extinction events.
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277:
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383:
illustrates how much energy is needed as it flows upward to support the next trophic level. Only about 10% of the energy transferred between each trophic level is converted to
883:
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1999:
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623:
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839:
586:
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1101:
1219:
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221:) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such as
924:
web. In 2000, this led Pauly and others to construct a "Fisheries in
Balance" index, usually called the FiB index. The FiB index is defined, for any year
2055:
2387:
1945:
936:
700:
229:(mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.
99:
at level 4 or 5. The path along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a part of a wider food "web". Ecological communities with higher
2054:
Branch, T.A.; Watson, Reg; Fulton, Elizabeth A.; Jennings, Simon; McGilliard, Carey R.; Pablico, Grace T.; Ricard, Daniel; Tracey, Sean R. (2010).
1333:
4487:
644:
In addition to observational studies of animal behavior, and quantification of animal stomach contents, trophic level can be quantified through
452:
and crayfish eat young bullfrogs. The feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up.
3162:
2415:
3979:
169:. Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using
4327:
3306:
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that cannot manufacture their own food and need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called
4072:
3376:
4302:
2948:
2913:
2304:
Kareiva, Peter; Sahakian, Robert (1990). "Tritrophic effects of a simple architectural mutation in pea plants". Letters to Nature.
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have no predators (with members of their own species a possible exception) and are at the highest numbered level of their food web.
407:. Consumers at each level convert on average only about 10% of the chemical energy in their food to their own organic tissue (the
4477:
4262:
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3114:
468:
1665:
1481:
1453:
1426:
676:
The mean trophic level of the world fisheries catch has steadily declined because many high trophic level fish, such as this
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3391:
1767:; Heald, E. J. (1975) "The detritus-based food web of an estuarine mangrove community". Pages 265ā286 in L. E. Cronin, ed.
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177:. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-sea
1558:
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2408:
688:
In fisheries, the mean trophic level for the fisheries catch across an entire area or ecosystem is calculated for year
4482:
2668:
1907:
4117:
3972:
3129:
3411:
3124:
2991:
2703:
2126:
Pauly, D.; Christensen, V.; Dalsgaard, J.; Froese, R.; Torres, F.C. Jr. (1998). "Fishing down marine food webs".
1979:
1268:
1241:
2208:
Bonhommeau, S.; Dubroca, L.; le Pape, O.; Barde, J.; Kaplan, D.M.; Chassot, E. & Nieblas, A.E. (2013).
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17:
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but they are divided into separate populations that hunt specific prey, such as tuna, small sharks, and seals.
3842:
3441:
3396:
3148:
2401:
2928:
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The efficiency with which energy or biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next is called the
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4949:
3274:
4959:
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3631:
2522:
1364:
1225:"backward-bending" plots of trophic level versus catch originally observed by Pauly and others in 1998.
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1972:
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901:
145:
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1253:
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2771:
2178:
Fishing Down the
Mediterranean Food Webs? Executive Summary. (2000). Briand, F. and K.I. Stergiou
896:
at the higher trophic levels. Earlier reports found precipitous declines in mean trophic level of
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1660:. Evolutionary Foundations of Human Behavior (2nd ed.). Transaction Publishers. p. 12.
396:. The energy transferred between levels can also be thought of as approximating to a transfer in
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181:, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture food through a process called
153:
The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers, and decomposers.
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133:(1926): "producers", "consumers", and "reducers" (modified to "decomposers" by Lindeman).
8:
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Lisowski, M.; Miaoulis, I.; Cyr, M.; Jones, L.C.; Padilla, M.J.; Wellnitz, T.R. (2004).
1201:
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Fish at higher trophic levels usually have a higher economic value, which can result in
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Humans have a mean trophic level of about 2.21, about the same as a pig or an anchovy.
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2271:"Ecopath, ecosim, and ecospace as tools for evaluating ecosystem impact of fisheries"
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58:. They take nutrients from the soil or the water, and manufacture their own food by
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2016:
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1810:
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the mean trophic level of the catch at the start of the series being analyzed, and
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126:
84:
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The fungi on this tree feed on dead matter, converting it back to nutrients that
1995:"Global fishery development patterns are driven by profit but not trophic level"
1781:
Pimm, S. L.; Lawton, J. H. (1978). "On feeding on more than one trophic level".
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1958:
1064:{\displaystyle FiB_{y}=\log {\frac {Y_{y}/(TE)^{TL_{y}}}{Y_{0}/(TE)^{TL_{0}}}}}
799:{\displaystyle TL_{y}={\frac {\sum _{i}(TL_{i}\cdot Y_{iy})}{\sum _{i}Y_{iy}}}}
645:
393:
380:
182:
170:
59:
1928:
1903:) from northern British Columbia: Isotopic and zooarchaeological perspectives"
1657:
Human
Ecology: The story of our place in nature from prehistory to the present
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111:
96:
51:
2236:
2021:
1897:
Szpak, Paul; Orchard, Trevor J.; McKechnie, Iain; Grƶcke, Darren R. (2012).
1606:
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1702:
1681:
Behrenfeld, Michael J. (2014). "Climate-mediated dance of the plankton".
1525:"Fishing down marine food webs: It is far more pervasive than we thought"
893:
309:
eat rabbits at the second trophic level, so they are secondary consumers.
192:
2084:
1221:
is the transfer efficiency of biomass or energy between trophic levels.
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375:
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eat foxes at the third trophic level, so they are tertiary consumers.
290:
eat plants at the first trophic level, so they are primary consumers.
204:
200:
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92:
88:
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Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
222:
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75:
71:
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4000:
207:, and animals that eat both plants and other animals are called
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4192:
2125:
1421:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Delmar Learning. p. 537.
649:
287:
1941:
672:
252:
Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
240:
Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
1826:"Standardized diet compositions and trophic levels of sharks"
1718:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"
637:
of how much different trophic levels contribute to its food.
226:
166:
162:
47:
2210:"Eating up the world's food web and the human trophic level"
1861:
1580:"Eating up the world's food web and the human trophic level"
4362:
1896:
1862:
Pauly, D.; Trites, A.; Capuli, E.; Christensen, V. (1998).
1674:
677:
657:
653:
432:
2215:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA
2191:"Researchers calculate human trophic level for first time"
2053:
2000:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA
1637:"Researchers calculate human trophic level for first time"
1585:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA
4424:
4414:
1476:. Prentice Hall Science Explorer. Pearson Prentice Hall.
546:{\displaystyle TL_{i}=1+\sum _{j}(TL_{j}\cdot DC_{ij})\!}
306:
2268:
1864:"Diet composition and trophic levels of marine mammals"
1722:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1653:
246:
Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
1715:
633:. That is, the consumer trophic level is one plus the
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1174:
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95:
at level 3 or higher, and typically finish with
2297:
1228:
1946:Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia
1507:
1213:
1190:
1160:
1129:
1095:
1063:
877:
833:
798:
617:
580:
545:
1992:
1899:"Historical ecology of late Holocene sea otters (
542:
5041:
2269:Pauly, D.; Christensen, V.; Walters, C. (2000).
1709:
1441:
2303:
1467:
1465:
1137:is the mean trophic level of the catch at year
1993:Sethi, S.A.; Branch, T.A.; Watson, R. (2010).
1522:
1331:
370:
125:The concept of trophic level was developed by
4263:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
3973:
3156:
2409:
2121:
2119:
2117:
1857:
1855:
1380:
1462:
841:is the annual catch of the species or group
588:is the fractional trophic level of the prey
422:
392:the next in a food chain. This is called an
203:. Animals that eat other animals are called
4328:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
1448:. Princeton University Press. p. 399.
117:(trophÄ) referring to food or nourishment.
3980:
3966:
3377:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3163:
3149:
2416:
2402:
2114:
1973:Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis
1852:
1780:
1680:
1634:
1577:
1567:. Fish on line. August 2014. vers. 3.
1445:The Ecology of Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents
2288:
2262:
2245:
2235:
2056:"Trophic fingerprint of marine fisheries"
2030:
2020:
1881:
1843:
1741:
1615:
1605:
3275:Predatorāprey (LotkaāVolterra) equations
2914:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
2352:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1235:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
671:
426:
374:
140:
38:
3307:Random generalized LotkaāVolterra model
1334:"The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology"
27:Position of an organism in a food chain
14:
5042:
3987:
3115:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1823:
1716:Sahney, S. & Benton, M.J. (2008).
1495:
1493:
4516:
4515:
3999:
3961:
3144:
2397:
1982:. Island Press. 2005. pp. 32ā33.
667:
46:. The plants in this image, and the
3130:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1501:American Heritage Science Dictionary
1414:
1321:– via www.merriam-webster.com.
129:(1942), based on the terminology of
4591:Oceanic physical-biological process
4453:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
3580:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2364:10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.000353
1771:. Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York.
1523:Pauly, D.; Palomares, M.L. (2005).
1490:
1242:develop defenses against herbivores
648:analysis of animal tissues such as
173:. For this reason, they are called
24:
3333:Ecological effects of biodiversity
2047:
1986:
1965:
1890:
1817:
1385:[The aquatic food cycle].
25:
5071:
2669:Generalist and specialist species
2381:
2197:(Press release). 3 December 2013.
1908:Journal of Archaeological Science
1503:. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005.
1393:: 29ā79 – via Google Books.
1383:"Der Nahrungskreislauf im Wasser"
1229:Tritrophic and other interactions
885:is the trophic level for species
103:form more complex trophic paths.
74:is the position it occupies in a
5024:
5023:
5011:
4997:
4629:
4301:
4118:Colored dissolved organic matter
3392:Occupancyāabundance relationship
1654:Campbell, Bernard Grant (1995).
333:
314:
295:
276:
4463:Latin America and the Caribbean
3412:Relative abundance distribution
3125:Plant defense against herbivory
2992:Competitive exclusion principle
2704:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2342:
2201:
2183:
2172:
1980:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
1935:
1774:
1758:
1647:
1571:
1561:. Biodiversity and Morphology.
1269:Mesopredator release hypothesis
4945:Ecological values of mangroves
4488:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
2997:Consumerāresource interactions
2276:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1869:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1831:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1635:Yirka, Bob (3 December 2013).
1578:Yirka, Bob (3 December 2013).
1551:
1442:van Dover, Cindy (2000).
1435:
1408:
1374:
1325:
1300:
1039:
1029:
993:
983:
765:
733:
539:
504:
13:
1:
3843:Biological data visualization
3670:Environmental niche modelling
3397:Population viability analysis
2390:BBC. Last updated March 2004.
1294:
900:catch, in a process known as
266:By definition, healthy adult
4965:Marine conservation activism
4950:Fisheries and climate change
3328:Density-dependent inhibition
2150:10.1126/science.279.5352.860
1540:(2): 197ā211. Archived from
914:
414:
87:such as plants, can move to
62:, using energy from the sun.
7:
4960:Human impact on marine life
4837:Davidson Seamount Ā§ Ecology
4073:Aquatic population dynamics
3797:Liebig's law of the minimum
3632:Resource selection function
2523:Metabolic theory of ecology
1247:
1244:such as chemical defenses.
625:represents the fraction of
371:Biomass transfer efficiency
136:
10:
5076:
3697:Niche apportionment models
3417:Relative species abundance
2621:Primary nutritional groups
2518:List of feeding behaviours
1959:10.1016/j.aeae.2015.07.013
1533:Bulletin of Marine Science
1312:Merriam-Webster Dictionary
1232:
878:{\displaystyle \ TL_{i}\ }
120:
29:
4991:
4930:
4802:
4738:
4700:
4647:
4638:
4627:
4576:Marine primary production
4528:
4524:
4511:
4470:List of marine ecoregions
4445:
4310:
4299:
4013:
4009:
3995:
3946:
3878:Ecosystem based fisheries
3820:
3720:
3645:
3518:
3490:Interspecific competition
3455:
3382:Minimum viable population
3315:
3240:Maximum sustainable yield
3225:Intraspecific competition
3220:Effective population size
3183:
3100:Anti-predator adaptations
3085:
2964:
2891:
2848:
2770:
2737:
2634:
2611:Photosynthetic efficiency
2546:
2440:
1929:10.1016/j.jas.2011.12.006
1670:– via Google Books.
1458:– via Google Books.
1415:Butz, Stephen D. (2004).
1387:Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Ges.
902:fishing down the food web
423:Fractional trophic levels
4822:Coastal biogeomorphology
4817:Marine coastal ecosystem
3868:Ecological stoichiometry
3833:Alternative stable state
1418:Science of Earth Systems
455:The fisheries scientist
78:. Within a food web, a
30:Not to be confused with
4730:Paradox of the plankton
4541:Diel vertical migration
4435:Freshwater swamp forest
4153:GIS and aquatic science
4001:General components and
3712:Ontogenetic niche shift
3575:Ideal free distribution
3485:Ecological facilitation
3235:Malthusian growth model
3205:Consumer-resource model
3062:Paradox of the plankton
3027:Energy systems language
2747:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2714:Optimal foraging theory
2689:Heterotrophic nutrition
2237:10.1073/pnas.1305827110
2022:10.1073/pnas.1003236107
1607:10.1073/pnas.1305827110
1332:Lindeman, R.L. (1942).
618:{\displaystyle DC_{ij}}
179:hydrothermal ecosystems
4556:Large marine ecosystem
4248:Shoaling and schooling
3858:Ecological forecasting
3802:Marginal value theorem
3600:Landscape epidemiology
3535:Cross-boundary subsidy
3470:Biological interaction
2820:Microbial intelligence
2508:Green world hypothesis
2290:10.1006/jmsc.2000.0726
1883:10.1006/jmsc.1997.0280
1845:10.1006/jmsc.1999.0489
1734:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370
1381:Heinemann, A. (1926).
1215:
1192:
1191:{\displaystyle TL_{0}}
1162:
1131:
1130:{\displaystyle TL_{y}}
1097:
1065:
879:
835:
834:{\displaystyle Y_{iy}}
800:
685:
619:
582:
581:{\displaystyle TL_{j}}
547:
440:
388:
150:
63:
4975:Marine protected area
4902:Salt pannes and pools
4677:Marine larval ecology
4652:Census of Marine Life
4536:Deep scattering layer
4493:San Francisco Estuary
4458:Africa and Madagascar
4283:Underwater camouflage
4063:Aquatic biomonitoring
4003:freshwater ecosystems
3863:Ecological humanities
3762:Ecological energetics
3707:Niche differentiation
3570:Habitat fragmentation
3338:Ecological extinction
3285:Small population size
3037:Feed conversion ratio
3017:Ecological succession
2949:San Francisco Estuary
2863:Ecological efficiency
2805:Microbial cooperation
1683:Nature Climate Change
1474:Environmental Science
1396:"Also available in".
1259:Energy flow (ecology)
1233:Further information:
1216:
1193:
1163:
1161:{\displaystyle Y_{0}}
1132:
1103:is the catch at year
1098:
1096:{\displaystyle Y_{y}}
1066:
921:transfer efficiencies
880:
836:
801:
675:
620:
583:
548:
430:
405:ecological efficiency
378:
144:
42:
4710:Marine bacteriophage
4672:Marine invertebrates
3888:Evolutionary ecology
3853:Ecological footprint
3848:Ecological economics
3772:Ecological threshold
3767:Ecological indicator
3637:Sourceāsink dynamics
3590:Land change modeling
3585:Insular biogeography
3437:Species distribution
3176:Modelling ecosystems
2835:Microbial metabolism
2674:Intraguild predation
2463:Biogeochemical cycle
2429:Modelling ecosystems
1703:10.1038/nclimate2349
1264:Marine trophic level
1202:
1172:
1145:
1111:
1080:
937:
853:
815:
701:
596:
562:
469:
322:Fourth trophic level
284:Second trophic level
4586:Ocean fertilization
4395:Trophic state index
4353:Lake stratification
4083:Aquatic respiration
3938:Theoretical ecology
3913:Natural environment
3777:Ecosystem diversity
3747:Ecological collapse
3737:Bateman's principle
3692:Limiting similarity
3605:Landscape limnology
3427:Species homogeneity
3265:Population modeling
3260:Population dynamics
3077:Trophic state index
2320:1990Natur.345..433K
2228:2013PNAS..11020617B
2222:(51): 20617ā20620.
2142:1998Sci...279..860P
2110:on 9 February 2014.
2085:10.1038/nature09528
2077:2010Natur.468..431B
2013:2010PNAS..10712163S
2007:(27): 12163ā12167.
1921:2012JArSc..39.1553S
1824:CortƩs, E. (1999).
1795:1978Natur.275..542P
1695:2014NatCC...4..880B
1598:2013PNAS..11020617B
1592:(51): 20617ā20620.
1288:Trophic state index
303:Third trophic level
146:Consumer categories
44:First trophic level
32:Trophic level index
4852:Intertidal wetland
4847:Intertidal ecology
4715:Marine prokaryotes
4657:Deep-sea community
4551:Iron fertilization
4474:Specific examples
4400:Upland and lowland
4318:Freshwater biology
4183:Microbial food web
4093:Aquatic toxicology
4036:Aquatic adaptation
3989:Aquatic ecosystems
3949:Outline of ecology
3898:Industrial ecology
3893:Functional ecology
3757:Ecological deficit
3702:Niche construction
3665:Ecosystem engineer
3442:Speciesāarea curve
3363:Introduced species
3178:: Other components
3110:Deimatic behaviour
3012:Ecological network
2944:North Pacific Gyre
2929:hydrothermal vents
2868:Ecological pyramid
2815:Microbial food web
2626:Primary production
2571:Foundation species
1769:Estuarine research
1290:ā applied to lakes
1214:{\displaystyle TE}
1211:
1188:
1158:
1127:
1093:
1061:
889:as defined above.
875:
831:
796:
779:
732:
686:
668:Mean trophic level
615:
578:
543:
503:
441:
389:
151:
64:
5050:Fisheries science
5037:
5036:
5018:Oceans portal
4987:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4862:Hydrothermal vent
4798:
4797:
4687:Seashore wildlife
4518:Marine ecosystems
4507:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4273:Thermal pollution
4238:Ramsar Convention
4178:Microbial ecology
4138:Fisheries science
4078:Aquatic predation
3955:
3954:
3838:Balance of nature
3595:Landscape ecology
3480:Community ecology
3422:Species diversity
3358:Indicator species
3353:Gradient analysis
3230:Logistic function
3138:
3137:
3095:Animal coloration
3072:Trophic mutualism
2810:Microbial ecology
2601:Photoheterotrophs
2586:Myco-heterotrophy
2498:Ecosystem ecology
2483:Carrying capacity
2448:Abiotic component
2314:(6274): 433ā434.
2136:(5352): 860ā863.
2071:(7322): 431ā435.
1789:(5680): 542ā544.
1667:978-0-202-36660-9
1483:978-0-13-115090-4
1455:978-0-691-04929-8
1428:978-0-7668-3391-3
1398:Zool. Anz. Suppl.
1370:on 29 March 2017.
1059:
874:
858:
794:
770:
723:
494:
348:primary producers
175:primary producers
131:August Thienemann
110:derives from the
91:at level 2,
85:primary producers
56:primary producers
54:in the lake, are
16:(Redirected from
5067:
5027:
5026:
5020:
5016:
5015:
5006:
5004:Lakes portal
5002:
5001:
5000:
4970:Marine pollution
4662:Deep-water coral
4645:
4644:
4633:
4566:Marine chemistry
4526:
4525:
4513:
4512:
4430:Freshwater marsh
4323:Freshwater biome
4305:
4021:Acoustic ecology
4011:
4010:
3997:
3996:
3982:
3975:
3968:
3959:
3958:
3655:Ecological niche
3627:selection theory
3447:Umbrella species
3432:Species richness
3368:Invasive species
3348:Flagship species
3255:Population cycle
3250:Overexploitation
3215:Ecological yield
3165:
3158:
3151:
3142:
3141:
3047:Mesotrophic soil
2987:Climax community
2919:Marine food webs
2858:Biomagnification
2659:Chemoorganotroph
2513:Keystone species
2473:Biotic component
2418:
2411:
2404:
2395:
2394:
2376:
2375:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2328:10.1038/345433a0
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2249:
2239:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2187:
2181:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2123:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2103:. Archived from
2060:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2034:
2024:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1977:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1915:(5): 1553ā1571.
1894:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1859:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1803:10.1038/275542a0
1778:
1772:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1745:
1728:(1636): 759ā65.
1713:
1707:
1706:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1643:(Press release).
1629:
1619:
1609:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1559:"Table 3.5"
1555:
1549:
1548:
1546:
1529:
1520:
1505:
1504:
1497:
1488:
1487:
1469:
1460:
1459:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1394:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1363:. Archived from
1338:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1304:
1279:Trophic dynamics
1220:
1218:
1217:
1212:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1126:
1125:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1028:
1023:
1022:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1008:
982:
977:
976:
966:
955:
954:
888:
884:
882:
881:
876:
872:
871:
870:
856:
848:
844:
840:
838:
837:
832:
830:
829:
805:
803:
802:
797:
795:
793:
792:
791:
778:
768:
764:
763:
748:
747:
731:
721:
716:
715:
691:
635:weighted average
624:
622:
621:
616:
614:
613:
587:
585:
584:
579:
577:
576:
552:
550:
549:
544:
538:
537:
519:
518:
502:
484:
483:
409:ten-per cent law
337:
318:
299:
280:
161:) are typically
127:Raymond Lindeman
21:
5075:
5074:
5070:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5040:
5039:
5038:
5033:
5010:
5009:
4998:
4996:
4995:
4979:
4940:Coral bleaching
4926:
4907:Seagrass meadow
4804:Marine habitats
4794:
4768:Coral reef fish
4734:
4720:Marine protists
4696:
4634:
4625:
4596:Ocean turbidity
4571:Marine food web
4520:
4499:
4441:
4380:River ecosystem
4333:Freshwater fish
4306:
4297:
4103:Bioluminescence
4088:Aquatic science
4005:
3991:
3986:
3956:
3951:
3942:
3928:Systems ecology
3816:
3787:Extinction debt
3752:Ecological debt
3742:Bioluminescence
3723:
3716:
3685:marine habitats
3660:Ecological trap
3641:
3521:
3514:
3457:
3451:
3407:Rapoport's rule
3402:Priority effect
3343:Endemic species
3311:
3270:Population size
3186:
3179:
3169:
3139:
3134:
3087:
3081:
3067:Trophic cascade
2977:Bioaccumulation
2960:
2887:
2844:
2766:
2733:
2630:
2542:
2503:Ecosystem model
2436:
2422:
2384:
2379:
2347:
2343:
2302:
2298:
2267:
2263:
2206:
2202:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2173:
2124:
2115:
2107:
2058:
2052:
2048:
1991:
1987:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1940:
1936:
1895:
1891:
1860:
1853:
1822:
1818:
1779:
1775:
1763:
1759:
1714:
1710:
1689:(10): 880ā887.
1679:
1675:
1668:
1652:
1648:
1576:
1572:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1547:on 14 May 2013.
1544:
1527:
1521:
1508:
1499:
1498:
1491:
1484:
1470:
1463:
1456:
1440:
1436:
1429:
1413:
1409:
1395:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1353:10.2307/1930126
1336:
1330:
1326:
1316:
1314:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1274:Trophic cascade
1250:
1237:
1231:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1152:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1087:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1024:
1018:
1014:
1013:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
978:
972:
968:
967:
965:
950:
946:
938:
935:
934:
917:
886:
866:
862:
854:
851:
850:
846:
842:
822:
818:
816:
813:
812:
784:
780:
774:
769:
756:
752:
743:
739:
727:
722:
720:
711:
707:
702:
699:
698:
689:
670:
629:in the diet of
606:
602:
597:
594:
593:
572:
568:
563:
560:
559:
530:
526:
514:
510:
498:
479:
475:
470:
467:
466:
431:Killer whales (
425:
417:
373:
351:
345:
338:
329:
324:
319:
310:
305:
300:
291:
286:
281:
139:
123:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5073:
5063:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5031:
5021:
5007:
4992:
4989:
4988:
4985:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4978:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4936:
4934:
4928:
4927:
4925:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4808:
4806:
4800:
4799:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4792:
4787:
4786:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4758:Saltwater fish
4755:
4753:Marine reptile
4750:
4744:
4742:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4732:
4727:
4725:Marine viruses
4722:
4717:
4712:
4706:
4704:
4702:Microorganisms
4698:
4697:
4695:
4694:
4692:Wild fisheries
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4648:
4642:
4636:
4635:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4606:Thorson's rule
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4561:Marine biology
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4532:
4530:
4522:
4521:
4509:
4508:
4505:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4498:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4472:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4460:
4449:
4447:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4420:Brackish marsh
4417:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4348:Lake ecosystem
4345:
4340:
4338:Hyporheic zone
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4314:
4312:
4308:
4307:
4300:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4188:Microbial loop
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4133:Eutrophication
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4113:Cascade effect
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4059:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4041:Aquatic animal
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4017:
4015:
4007:
4006:
3993:
3992:
3985:
3984:
3977:
3970:
3962:
3953:
3952:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3908:Microecosystem
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3824:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3814:
3809:
3807:Thorson's rule
3804:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3732:Assembly rules
3728:
3726:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3617:
3615:Patch dynamics
3612:
3610:Metapopulation
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3526:
3524:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3505:Storage effect
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3461:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3387:Neutral theory
3384:
3379:
3374:
3372:Native species
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3319:
3317:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3297:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3245:Overpopulation
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3191:
3189:
3181:
3180:
3168:
3167:
3160:
3153:
3145:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3091:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3052:Nutrient cycle
3049:
3044:
3042:Feeding frenzy
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3022:Energy quality
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2982:Cascade effect
2979:
2974:
2968:
2966:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2854:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2843:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2825:Microbial loop
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2790:Lithoautotroph
2787:
2782:
2776:
2774:
2772:Microorganisms
2768:
2767:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2729:Prey switching
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2606:Photosynthesis
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2561:Chemosynthesis
2558:
2552:
2550:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2453:Abiotic stress
2450:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2437:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2406:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2388:Trophic levels
2383:
2382:External links
2380:
2378:
2377:
2341:
2296:
2283:(3): 697ā706.
2261:
2200:
2182:
2171:
2113:
2046:
1985:
1964:
1953:(1): 110ā121.
1934:
1901:Enhydra lutris
1889:
1876:(3): 467ā481.
1851:
1838:(5): 707ā717.
1816:
1773:
1757:
1708:
1673:
1666:
1646:
1633:
1632:
1570:
1550:
1506:
1489:
1482:
1461:
1454:
1434:
1427:
1407:
1373:
1347:(4): 399ā418.
1324:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1285:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1254:Cascade effect
1249:
1246:
1230:
1227:
1210:
1207:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1168:is the catch,
1155:
1151:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1090:
1086:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1017:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
988:
985:
981:
975:
971:
964:
961:
958:
953:
949:
945:
942:
919:Since biomass
916:
913:
869:
865:
861:
828:
825:
821:
809:
808:
807:
806:
790:
787:
783:
777:
773:
767:
762:
759:
755:
751:
746:
742:
738:
735:
730:
726:
719:
714:
710:
706:
669:
666:
646:stable isotope
612:
609:
605:
601:
575:
571:
567:
556:
555:
554:
553:
541:
536:
533:
529:
525:
522:
517:
513:
509:
506:
501:
497:
493:
490:
487:
482:
478:
474:
437:apex predators
424:
421:
416:
413:
394:energy pyramid
381:energy pyramid
372:
369:
355:In real-world
353:
352:
339:
332:
330:
320:
313:
311:
301:
294:
292:
282:
275:
272:
271:
268:apex predators
264:
259:
256:
253:
250:
247:
244:
241:
238:
231:
230:
212:
186:
183:chemosynthesis
171:photosynthesis
138:
135:
122:
119:
97:apex predators
60:photosynthesis
26:
18:Trophic levels
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5072:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5030:
5022:
5019:
5014:
5008:
5005:
4994:
4993:
4990:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4929:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4912:Sponge ground
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4877:Marine biomes
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4807:
4805:
4801:
4791:
4788:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4778:Demersal fish
4776:
4774:
4773:Deep-sea fish
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4760:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4748:Marine mammal
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4737:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4699:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4649:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4637:
4632:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4533:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4514:
4510:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4450:
4448:
4444:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4412:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4309:
4304:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4278:Trophic level
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4243:Sediment trap
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4218:Phytoplankton
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4068:Aquatic plant
4066:
4064:
4061:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4031:Anoxic waters
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3983:
3978:
3976:
3971:
3969:
3964:
3963:
3960:
3950:
3945:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3933:Urban ecology
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3819:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3792:Kleiber's law
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3719:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3565:Foster's rule
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3517:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3182:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3161:
3159:
3154:
3152:
3147:
3146:
3143:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2883:Trophic level
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2841:
2840:Phage ecology
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2830:Microbial mat
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2785:Bacteriophage
2783:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2752:Decomposition
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2699:Mesopredators
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2644:Apex predator
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2478:Biotic stress
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2419:
2414:
2412:
2407:
2405:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2345:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
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262:Apex predator
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69:
68:trophic level
61:
57:
53:
52:phytoplankton
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4932:Conservation
4783:Pelagic fish
4763:Coastal fish
4667:Marine fungi
4405:Water garden
4288:Water column
4277:
4233:Productivity
4208:Pelagic zone
4168:Macrobenthos
4158:Hydrobiology
4128:Ecohydrology
3918:Regime shift
3903:Macroecology
3624:
3620:
3560:Edge effects
3530:Biogeography
3475:Commensalism
3323:Biodiversity
3200:Allee effect
2939:kelp forests
2892:Example webs
2882:
2757:Detritivores
2596:Organotrophs
2576:Kinetotrophs
2528:Productivity
2432:
2358:(1): 41ā65.
2355:
2351:
2344:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2280:
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2185:
2174:
2133:
2127:
2105:the original
2068:
2062:
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2004:
1998:
1988:
1967:
1950:
1944:
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1912:
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1892:
1873:
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1542:the original
1537:
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1410:
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1397:
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1365:the original
1344:
1340:
1327:
1315:. Retrieved
1311:
1302:
1282:
1238:
1223:
1138:
1104:
1075:
925:
918:
910:
905:
891:
810:
687:
680:, have been
643:
639:
630:
626:
589:
557:
457:Daniel Pauly
454:
442:
418:
402:
390:
365:
354:
340:
321:
302:
283:
267:
255:Level 4
249:Level 3
243:Level 2
237:Level 1
232:
219:detritivores
193:heterotrophs
152:
124:
107:
105:
101:biodiversity
67:
65:
43:
36:
5055:Food chains
4917:Sponge reef
4892:Rocky shore
4887:Oyster reef
4857:Kelp forest
4740:Vertebrates
4640:Marine life
4616:Viral shunt
4581:Marine snow
4483:Maharashtra
4390:Stream pool
4293:Zooplankton
4213:Photic zone
4173:Meiobenthos
4026:Algal bloom
3555:Disturbance
3458:interaction
3280:Recruitment
3210:Depensation
3002:Copiotrophs
2873:Energy flow
2795:Lithotrophy
2739:Decomposers
2719:Planktivore
2694:Insectivore
2684:Heterotroph
2649:Bacterivore
2616:Phototrophs
2566:Chemotrophs
2538:Restoration
2488:Competition
1765:Odum, W. E.
894:overfishing
342:Decomposers
215:Decomposers
157:Producers (
5044:Categories
4897:Salt marsh
4832:Coral reef
4621:Whale fall
4601:Photophore
4478:Everglades
4446:Ecoregions
4385:Stream bed
4358:Macrophyte
4311:Freshwater
4143:Food chain
4056:Water bird
3923:Sexecology
3500:Parasitism
3465:Antibiosis
3300:Resistance
3295:Resilience
3185:Population
3105:Camouflage
3057:Oligotroph
2972:Ascendency
2934:intertidal
2924:cold seeps
2878:Food chain
2679:Herbivores
2654:Carnivores
2581:Mixotrophs
2556:Autotrophs
2435:components
1978:(Report).
1295:References
682:overfished
357:ecosystems
205:carnivores
201:herbivores
159:autotrophs
93:carnivores
89:herbivores
80:food chain
4922:Tide pool
4827:Cold seep
4611:Upwelling
4375:Rheotaxis
4368:Fish pond
4343:Limnology
4268:Substrate
4253:Siltation
4123:Dead zone
3828:Allometry
3782:Emergence
3510:Symbiosis
3495:Mutualism
3290:Stability
3195:Abundance
3007:Dominance
2965:Processes
2954:tide pool
2850:Food webs
2724:Predation
2709:Omnivores
2636:Consumers
2591:Mycotroph
2548:Producers
2493:Ecosystem
2458:Behaviour
1308:"Trophic"
963:
915:FiB index
898:fisheries
772:∑
750:⋅
725:∑
521:⋅
496:∑
415:Evolution
209:omnivores
189:Consumers
106:The word
5029:Category
4955:HERMIONE
4872:Mangrove
4682:Seagrass
4228:Pleuston
4223:Plankton
4203:Particle
4148:Food web
3883:Endolith
3812:Xerosere
3724:networks
3540:Ecocline
3086:Defense,
2762:Detritus
2664:Foraging
2533:Resource
2372:53137184
2336:40207145
2256:24297882
2195:Phys.org
2093:21085178
2041:20566867
1752:18198148
1641:Phys.org
1626:24297882
1564:FishBase
1404:: 29ā79.
1317:16 April
1283:Food web
1248:See also
845:in year
662:collagen
450:crayfish
446:bullfrog
361:food web
350:can use.
223:bacteria
137:Overview
76:food web
72:organism
5060:Ecology
4882:Mudflat
4842:Estuary
4812:Bay mud
4790:Seabird
4546:f-ratio
4529:General
4410:Wetland
4198:Neuston
4163:Hypoxia
4108:Biomass
4098:Benthos
4014:General
3873:Ecopath
3680:Habitat
3550:Ecotype
3545:Ecotone
3522:ecology
3520:Spatial
3456:Species
3316:Species
3187:ecology
3172:Ecology
3120:Mimicry
3088:counter
3032:f-ratio
2780:Archaea
2468:Biomass
2441:General
2433:Trophic
2425:Ecology
2316:Bibcode
2247:3870703
2224:Bibcode
2158:9452385
2138:Bibcode
2129:Science
2101:4403636
2073:Bibcode
2032:2901455
2009:Bibcode
1917:Bibcode
1811:4161183
1791:Bibcode
1743:2596898
1691:Bibcode
1617:3870703
1594:Bibcode
1361:1930126
1341:Ecology
660:, bone
398:biomass
385:biomass
288:Rabbits
197:species
121:History
108:trophic
4867:Lagoon
4193:Nekton
4051:Mammal
4046:Insect
2904:Rivers
2800:Marine
2370:
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2307:Nature
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2166:272149
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558:where
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163:plants
149:color)
70:of an
4258:Spawn
3821:Other
3722:Other
3675:Guild
3647:Niche
2899:Lakes
2368:S2CID
2332:S2CID
2162:S2CID
2108:(PDF)
2097:S2CID
2059:(PDF)
1976:(PDF)
1807:S2CID
1545:(PDF)
1528:(PDF)
1368:(PDF)
1357:JSTOR
1337:(PDF)
928:, by
906:et al
448:eats
307:Foxes
227:fungi
167:algae
115:ĻĻĪæĻĪ®
112:Greek
48:algae
4363:Pond
2909:Soil
2252:PMID
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2089:PMID
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1662:ISBN
1622:PMID
1478:ISBN
1450:ISBN
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1319:2017
692:as:
678:tuna
658:hair
654:skin
433:orca
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