Tropical cyclone - Knowledge

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geopotential height level is 850 hPa (25.10 inHg), which represents the lowest 1,500 m (5,000 ft) of the atmosphere. The moisture content, gained by using either the relative humidity or the precipitable water value, is used in creating forecasts for precipitation. The next level, 700 hPa (20.67 inHg), is at a height of 2,300–3,200 m (7,700–10,500 ft); 700 hPa is regarded as the highest point in the lower atmosphere. At this layer, both vertical movement and moisture levels are used to locate and create forecasts for precipitation. The middle level of the atmosphere is at 500 hPa (14.76 inHg) or a height of 4,900–6,100 m (16,000–20,000 ft). The 500 hPa level is used for measuring atmospheric vorticity, commonly known as the spin of air. The relative humidity is also analyzed at this height in order to establish where precipitation is likely to materialize. The next level occurs at 300 hPa (8.859 inHg) or a height of 8,200–9,800 m (27,000–32,000 ft). The top-most level is located at 200 hPa (5.906 inHg), which corresponds to a height of 11,000–12,000 m (35,000–41,000 ft). Both the 200 and 300 hPa levels are mainly used to locate the jet stream.

3100: 66: 1331: 3406: 1712:(IKE). ACE is a metric of the total energy a system has exerted over its lifespan. ACE is calculated by summing the squares of a cyclone's sustained wind speed, every six hours as long as the system is at or above tropical storm intensity and either tropical or subtropical. The calculation of the PDI is similar in nature to ACE, with the major difference being that wind speeds are cubed rather than squared. The Hurricane Surge Index is a metric of the potential damage a storm may inflict via storm surge. It is calculated by squaring the dividend of the storm's wind speed and a climatological value (33 m/s or 74 mph), and then multiplying that quantity by the dividend of the radius of hurricane-force winds and its climatological value (96.6 km or 60.0 mi). This can be represented in equation form as: 1461:, which can negatively influence subsequent cyclone development. This cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in the form of cold water from falling raindrops (this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days. Conversely, the mixing of the sea can result in heat being inserted in deeper waters, with 2670: 1323: 1522:(56 km/h; 35 mph) or more within 24 hours. Similarly, rapid deepening in tropical cyclones is defined as a minimum sea surface pressure decrease of 1.75 hPa (0.052 inHg) per hour or 42 hPa (1.2 inHg) within a 24-hour period; explosive deepening occurs when the surface pressure decreases by 2.5 hPa (0.074 inHg) per hour for at least 12 hours or 5 hPa (0.15 inHg) per hour for at least 6 hours. For rapid intensification to occur, several conditions must be in place. Water temperatures must be extremely high (near or above 30 °C (86 °F)), and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to the surface. On the other hand, 1386:

cyclones. Observations have shown little change in the overall frequency of tropical cyclones worldwide, with increased frequency in the North Atlantic and central Pacific, and significant decreases in the southern Indian Ocean and western North Pacific. There has been a poleward expansion of the latitude at which the maximum intensity of tropical cyclones occurs, which may be associated with climate change. In the North Pacific, there may also have been an eastward expansion. Between 1949 and 2016, there was a slowdown in tropical cyclone translation speeds. It is unclear still to what extent this can be attributed to climate change: climate models do not all show this feature.

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automobile tourism; therefore, the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances. The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology. Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes, therefore, experts regard the early data as suspect. The ability of climatologists to make a long-term analysis of tropical cyclones is limited by the amount of reliable historical data.

16755: 3515: 297: 2655: 3315: 1564: 2320: 2493:, this flow configuration induces a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center and an anticyclonic gyre poleward and eastward of the storm center. The combined flow of these gyres acts to advect the storm slowly poleward and westward. This effect occurs even if there is zero environmental flow. Due to a direct dependence of the beta drift on angular momentum, the size of a tropical cyclone can affect the influence of beta drift on its motion; beta drift imparts a greater influence on the movement of larger tropical cyclones than that of smaller ones. 1054:'s (WMO) tropical cyclone programme. These warning centers issue advisories which provide basic information and cover a systems present, forecast position, movement and intensity, in their designated areas of responsibility. Meteorological services around the world are generally responsible for issuing warnings for their own country, however, there are exceptions, as the United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service issue alerts, watches and warnings for various island nations in their areas of responsibility. The United States 1454:, allows storms to achieve a higher intensity. Most tropical cyclones that experience rapid intensification are traversing regions of high ocean heat content rather than lower values. High ocean heat content values can help to offset the oceanic cooling caused by the passage of a tropical cyclone, limiting the effect this cooling has on the storm. Faster-moving systems are able to intensify to higher intensities with lower ocean heat content values. Slower-moving systems require higher values of ocean heat content to achieve the same intensity. 105: 2069:, which became Typhoon Genevieve. Within the Southern Hemisphere, it is either called a hurricane, tropical cyclone or a severe tropical cyclone, depending on if it is located within the South Atlantic, South-West Indian Ocean, Australian region or the South Pacific Ocean. The descriptors for tropical cyclones with wind speeds below 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) also vary by tropical cyclone basin and may be further subdivided into categories such as "tropical storm", "cyclonic storm", "tropical depression", or "deep depression". 3179:, being relatively sparse, are rarely available on the site of the storm itself. In general, surface observations are available only if the storm is passing over an island or a coastal area, or if there is a nearby ship. Real-time measurements are usually taken in the periphery of the cyclone, where conditions are less catastrophic and its true strength cannot be evaluated. For this reason, there are teams of meteorologists that move into the path of tropical cyclones to help evaluate their strength at the point of landfall. 16861: 2201: 3084: 16769: 1646:, coastal stations, and buoys, can provide information on a tropical cyclone's intensity or the direction it is traveling. Wind-pressure relationships (WPRs) are used as a way to determine the pressure of a storm based on its wind speed. Several different methods and equations have been proposed to calculate WPRs. Tropical cyclones agencies each use their own, fixed WPR, which can result in inaccuracies between agencies that are issuing estimates on the same system. The ASCAT is a 3375: 2360:(222 km (138 mi)), then the cyclone is "very small" or a "midget". A radius of 3–6 latitude degrees (333–670 km (207–416 mi)) is considered "average sized". "Very large" tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees (888 km (552 mi)). Observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity (i.e. maximum wind speed), radius of maximum wind, latitude, and maximum potential intensity. 747: 17366: 2527: 1354:. The trend was most clear in the North Atlantic and in the Southern Indian Ocean. In the North Pacific, tropical cyclones have been moving poleward into colder waters and there was no increase in intensity over this period. With 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming, a greater percentage (+13%) of tropical cyclones are expected to reach Category 4 and 5 strength. A 2019 study indicates that climate change has been driving the observed trend of 796:, and a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance. There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path. and upper-level divergence. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide. Of those, 47 reach strength higher than 119 km/h (74 mph), and 20 become intense tropical cyclones (at least Category 3 intensity on the 15711: 1103:

cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September. In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November. In the Southern Hemisphere, the tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with peaks in mid-February to early March.

2417:. This environmental flow is termed the "steering flow" and is the dominant influence on tropical cyclone motion. The strength and direction of the steering flow can be approximated as a vertical integration of the winds blowing horizontally in the cyclone's vicinity, weighted by the altitude at which those winds are occurring. Because winds can vary with height, determining the steering flow precisely can be difficult. 1595:. Remnant systems may persist for several days before losing their identity. This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific. Weakening or dissipation can also occur if a storm experiences vertical wind shear which causes the convection and heat engine to move away from the center; this normally ceases the development of a tropical cyclone. In addition, its interaction with the main belt of the 1491:, which involves interaction between two tropical cyclones, can weaken and ultimately result in the dissipation of the weaker of two tropical cyclones by reducing the organization of the system's convection and imparting horizontal wind shear. Tropical cyclones typically weaken while situated over a landmass because conditions are often unfavorable as a result of the lack of oceanic forcing. The 765:, where winds blow from either the northeast or southeast. Within this broad area of low-pressure, air is heated over the warm tropical ocean and rises in discrete parcels, which causes thundery showers to form. These showers dissipate quite quickly; however, they can group together into large clusters of thunderstorms. This creates a flow of warm, moist, rapidly rising air, which starts to 2646:, more than any other tropical cyclone. Lightning activity is produced within tropical cyclones; this activity is more intense within stronger storms and closer to and within the storm's eyewall. Tropical cyclones can increase the amount of snowfall a region experiences by delivering additional moisture. Wildfires can be worsened when a nearby storm fans their flames with its strong winds. 13828: 1680:

cyclones. The ADT has a number of differences from the conventional Dvorak technique, including changes to intensity constraint rules and the usage of microwave imagery to base a system's intensity upon its internal structure, which prevents the intensity from leveling off before an eye emerges in infrared imagery. The SATCON weights estimates from various satellite-based systems and

2486:. The magnitude of the component of tropical cyclone motion associated with the beta drift ranges between 1–3 m/s (3.6–10.8 km/h; 2.2–6.7 mph) and tends to be larger for more intense tropical cyclones and at higher latitudes. It is induced indirectly by the storm itself as a result of feedback between the cyclonic flow of the storm and its environment. 2711:, bridge and road destruction, and the hampering of reconstruction efforts. Winds and water from storms can damage or destroy homes, buildings, and other manmade structures. Tropical cyclones destroy agriculture, kill livestock, and prevent access to marketplaces for both buyers and sellers; both of these result in financial losses. Powerful cyclones that make 2122:. The names of significant tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name. Tropical cyclones that develop around the world are assigned an identification code consisting of a two-digit number and suffix letter by the warning centers that monitor them. 2715:– moving from the ocean to over land – are some of the most powerful, although that is not always the case. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, with 47 reaching hurricane or typhoon strength, and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones, super typhoons, or major hurricanes (at least of 2508:

the two vortices may simply orbit around one another, or else may spiral into the center point and merge. When the two vortices are of unequal size, the larger vortex will tend to dominate the interaction, and the smaller vortex will orbit around it. This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect, after

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works to develop and improve automated satellite methods, such as the Advanced Dvorak Technique (ADT) and SATCON. The ADT, used by a large number of forecasting centers, uses infrared geostationary satellite imagery and an algorithm based upon the Dvorak technique to assess the intensity of tropical

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Should a tropical cyclone make landfall or pass over an island, its circulation could start to break down, especially if it encounters mountainous terrain. When a system makes landfall on a large landmass, it is cut off from its supply of warm moist maritime air and starts to draw in dry continental

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occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September. The statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is September 10. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic. The Northwest Pacific sees tropical

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system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form in a wide band of latitudes, from the equator to 50°. Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as their cores warm.

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to identify tropical cyclones dates back to the late 1800s and early 1900s and gradually superseded the existing system—simply naming cyclones based on what they hit. The system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form, that is readily understood and

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by politicians and weather forecasters, among others. They prepare by determining their risk to the different types of weather, tropical cyclones cause, checking their insurance coverage and emergency supplies, as well as determining where to evacuate to if needed. When a tropical cyclone develops

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Before satellite imagery became available during the 20th century, many of these systems went undetected unless it impacted land or a ship encountered it by chance. Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes, many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of

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A third component of motion that occurs relatively infrequently involves the interaction of multiple tropical cyclones. When two cyclones approach one another, their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a point between the two systems. Depending on their separation distance and strength,

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with one, three, or ten-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h (40 mph) depending on which basin it originates. However, standards vary from basin to basin with some tropical depressions named in the Western Pacific, while tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of

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and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings. Since the systems can last a week or longer and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time, the names are

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is the radius of hurricane-force winds. The Hurricane Severity Index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system; up to 25 points come from intensity, while the other 25 come from the size of the storm's wind field. The IKE model measures the destructive capability of a tropical cyclone

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and a closed wind circulation at the surface. A tropical cyclone is generally deemed to have formed once mean surface winds in excess of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph) are observed. It is assumed at this stage that a tropical cyclone has become self-sustaining and can continue to intensify

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can cause an significant increase in the intensity of the convection of a tropical cyclone when its eye moves over a mountain, breaking the capped boundary layer that had been restraining it. Jet streams can both enhance and inhibit tropical cyclone intensity by influencing the storm's outflow as

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are required in order for tropical cyclones to form and strengthen. The commonly-accepted minimum temperature range for this to occur is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), however, multiple studies have proposed a lower minimum of 25.5 °C (77.9 °F). Higher sea surface temperatures result in

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is a storm that derives energy from horizontal temperature differences, which are typical in higher latitudes. A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air

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A variety of methods or techniques, including surface, satellite, and aerial, are used to assess the intensity of a tropical cyclone. Reconnaissance aircraft fly around and through tropical cyclones, outfitted with specialized instruments, to collect information that can be used to ascertain the

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Heat energy from the ocean acts as the accelerator for tropical cyclones. This causes inland regions to suffer far less damage from cyclones than coastal regions, although the impacts of flooding are felt across the board. Coastal damage may be caused by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to

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Data from three center fixes by the Hurricane Hunters indicate that the intensity, based on a blend of 700 mb-flight level and SFMR-observed surface winds, is near 175 kt. This makes Patricia the strongest hurricane on record in the National Hurricane Center's area of responsibility (AOR) which

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and other sensors, scientists have increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent decades. However, scientists are not as skillful at predicting the intensity of tropical cyclones. The lack of improvement in intensity forecasting is attributed to the complexity of tropical systems and an

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in the 1970s, and uses both visible and infrared satellite imagery in the assessment of tropical cyclone intensity. The Dvorak technique uses a scale of "T-numbers", scaling in increments of 0.5 from T1.0 to T8.0. Each T-number has an intensity assigned to it, with larger T-numbers indicating a

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Each year on average, around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form around the world, of which over half develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and

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In meteorology, geopotential heights are used when creating forecasts and analyzing pressure systems. Geopotential heights represent the estimate of the real height of a pressure system above the average sea level. Geopotential heights for weather are divided up into several levels. The lowest

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During the 1940s, routine aircraft reconnaissance started in both the Atlantic and Western Pacific basin during the mid-1940s, which provided ground truth data, however, early flights were only made once or twice a day. Polar-orbiting weather satellites were first launched by the United States

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to form in bodies of water by increasing the amount of nutrients available. Insect populations can decrease in both quantity and diversity after the passage of storms. Strong winds associated with tropical cyclones and their remnants are capable of felling thousands of trees, causing damage to

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air. This, combined with the increased friction over land areas, leads to the weakening and dissipation of the tropical cyclone. Over a mountainous terrain, a system can quickly weaken; however, over flat areas, it may endure for two to three days before circulation breaks down and dissipates.

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decreases tropical cyclone predicability, with storms exhibiting wide range of responses in the presence of shear. Wind shear often negatively affects tropical cyclone intensification by displacing moisture and heat from a system's center. Low levels of vertical wind shear are most optimal for

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over a much smaller area. This replenishing of moisture-bearing air after rain may cause multi-hour or multi-day extremely heavy rain up to 40 km (25 mi) from the coastline, far beyond the amount of water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time. This in turn can lead to river

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levels too high for some habitats to withstand. Some are able to cope with the salt and recycle it back into the ocean, but others can not release the extra surface water quickly enough or do not have a large enough freshwater source to replace it. Because of this, some species of plants and

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show a decreased frequency in future projections. For instance, a 2020 paper comparing nine high-resolution climate models found robust decreases in frequency in the Southern Indian Ocean and the Southern Hemisphere more generally, while finding mixed signals for Northern Hemisphere tropical

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can affect tropical cyclones in a variety of ways: an intensification of rainfall and wind speed, a decrease in overall frequency, an increase in the frequency of very intense storms and a poleward extension of where the cyclones reach maximum intensity are among the possible consequences of

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There are a number of ways a tropical cyclone can weaken, dissipate, or lose its tropical characteristics. These include making landfall, moving over cooler water, encountering dry air, or interacting with other weather systems; however, once a system has dissipated or lost its tropical

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strengthening, while stronger wind shear induces weakening. Dry air entraining into a tropical cyclone's core has a negative effect on its development and intensity by diminishing atmospheric convection and introducing asymmetries in the storm's structure. Symmetric, strong

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onshore when they make landfall. The floodwater can pick up the toxins from different spills and contaminate the land that it passes over. These toxins are harmful to the people and animals in the area, as well as the environment around them. Tropical cyclones can cause

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above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to develop, air must be rising very rapidly in the eyewall of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently. However, some cyclones such as

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that predict tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and strength of high- and low-pressure systems. Combining forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that act on tropical cyclones, as well as with a wealth of data from Earth-orbiting

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The number of $ 1 billion Atlantic hurricanes almost doubled from the 1980s to the 2010s, and inflation-adjusted costs have increased more than elevenfold. The increases have been attributed to climate change and to greater numbers of people moving to coastal

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in 1960 but were not declared operational until 1965. However, it took several years for some of the warning centers to take advantage of this new viewing platform and develop the expertise to associate satellite signatures with storm position and intensity.

4720: 2630:. These hazards can occur hundreds of kilometers (hundreds of miles) away from the center of a cyclone, even if other weather conditions are favorable. The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone, and vertical wind shear at its periphery, spawns 1590:

A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly cooler than 26.5 °C (79.7 °F). This will deprive the storm of such tropical characteristics as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center, so that it becomes a remnant

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frequently occur during tropical cyclones and can vastly alter landscapes; some storms are capable of causing hundreds to tens of thousands of landslides. Storms can erode coastlines over an extensive area and transport the sediment to other locations.

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winds and pressure of a system. Tropical cyclones possess winds of different speeds at different heights. Winds recorded at flight level can be converted to find the wind speeds at the surface. Surface observations, such as ship reports, land stations,

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to cover the expected effects. However, there are some exceptions with the United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service responsible for issuing or recommending warnings for other nations in their area of responsibility.

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and high winds, disrupting international shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks. Tropical cyclones stir up water, leaving a cool wake behind them, which causes the region to be less favorable for subsequent tropical cyclones. On land, strong

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In addition to environmental steering, a tropical cyclone will tend to drift poleward and westward, a motion known as "beta drift". This motion is due to the superposition of a vortex, such as a tropical cyclone, onto an environment in which the

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westward from the African coast toward the Caribbean Sea, North America, and ultimately into the central Pacific Ocean before the waves dampen out. These waves are the precursors to many tropical cyclones within this region. In contrast, in the

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allow people to track ongoing systems to form their own opinions regarding where the storms are going and whether or not they need to prepare for the system being tracked, including possible evacuation. This continues to be encouraged by the

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On Earth, tropical cyclones span a large range of sizes, from 100–2,000 km (62–1,243 mi) as measured by the radius of vanishing wind. They are largest on average in the northwest Pacific Ocean basin and smallest in the northeastern

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see an increase as a consequence of changes in tropical cyclones, further exacerbating storm surge dangers to coastal communities. The compounding effects from floods, storm surge, and terrestrial flooding (rivers) are projected to increase

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channel to determine the wind speeds of tropical cyclones at the ocean surface, and has been shown to be reliable at higher intensities and under heavy rainfall conditions, unlike scatterometer-based and other radiometer-based instruments.

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at which the background winds are most correlated with a tropical cyclone's motion is known as the "steering level". The motion of stronger tropical cyclones is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a thicker portion of

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Environmental steering is the primary influence on the motion of tropical cyclones. It represents the movement of the storm due to prevailing winds and other wider environmental conditions, similar to "leaves carried along by a stream".

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The majority of tropical cyclones each year form in one of seven tropical cyclone basins, which are monitored by a variety of meteorological services and warning centers. Ten of these warning centers worldwide are designated as either a

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Though a tropical cyclone typically moves from east to west in the tropics, its track may shift poleward and eastward either as it moves west of the subtropical ridge axis or else if it interacts with the mid-latitude flow, such as the

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The movement of a tropical cyclone (i.e. its "track") is typically approximated as the sum of two terms: "steering" by the background environmental wind and "beta drift". Some tropical cyclones can move across large distances, such as

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by damaging or destroying pipelines and storage facilities. Similarly, chemical spills have been reported when chemical and processing facilities were damaged. Waterways have become contaminated with toxic levels of metals such as

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has the largest effect on tropical cyclone activity. Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the

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for the Western Pacific. Formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the North and South Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Western and Southern Pacific basins as well as the Australian region and Indian Ocean.

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regimes of places they affect, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Their precipitation may also alleviate drought conditions by restoring soil moisture, though one study focused on the

2256:. When the primary eyewall weakens, the tropical cyclone weakens temporarily. The outer eyewall eventually replaces the primary one at the end of the cycle, at which time the storm may return to its original intensity. 1089:

is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all the

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Villarini, Gabriele; Vecchi, Gabriel A (January 15, 2012). "North Atlantic Power Dissipation Index (PDI) and Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE): Statistical Modeling and Sensitivity to Sea Surface Temperature Changes".

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and shell layers in some coastal areas, which have been used to gain insight into hurricane activity over the past thousands of years. Sediment records in Western Australia suggest an intense tropical cyclone in the

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Osland, Michael J.; Feher, Laura C.; Anderson, Gordon H.; Varvaeke, William C.; Krauss, Ken W.; Whelan, Kevin R.T.; Balentine, Karen M.; Tiling-Range, Ginger; Smith III, Thomas J.; Cahoon, Donald R. (May 26, 2020).

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years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the

4709: 3440:, potential response volunteers should affiliate with established organizations and should not self-deploy, so that proper training and support can be provided to mitigate the danger and stress of response work. 1421:) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 kn (85 m/s; 305 km/h; 190 mph). The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded was 185 kn (95 m/s; 345 km/h; 215 mph) in 12913:"How tropical cyclone flooding caused erosion and dispersal of mercury-contaminated sediment in an urban estuary: The impact of Hurricane Harvey on Buffalo Bayou and the San Jacinto Estuary, Galveston Bay, USA" 2562:", commonly occurs near the western edge of the major ocean basins, where the jet stream typically has a poleward component and extratropical cyclones are common. An example of tropical cyclone recurvature was 14971: 2694:

oceans. Tropical cyclones have caused significant destruction and loss of human life, resulting in about 2 million deaths since the 19th century. Large areas of standing water caused by flooding lead to

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inside the cyclone. These sondes measure temperature, humidity, pressure, and especially winds between flight level and the ocean's surface. A new era in hurricane observation began when a remotely piloted

9974:"Dependence of the relationship between the tropical cyclone track and western Pacific subtropical high intensity on initial storm size: A numerical investigation: SENSITIVITY OF TC AND WPSH TO STORM SIZE" 476:

and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones". In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop

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Roberts, Malcolm John; Camp, Joanne; Seddon, Jon; Vidale, Pier Luigi; Hodges, Kevin; Vannière, Benoît; Mecking, Jenny; Haarsma, Rein; Bellucci, Alessio; Scoccimarro, Enrico; Caron, Louis-Philippe (2020).

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There are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size. The most common metrics include the radius of maximum wind, the radius of 34-knot (17 m/s; 63 km/h; 39 mph) wind (i.e.

5266: 15007:"OSHA's Hazard Exposure and Risk Assessment Matrix for Hurricane Response and Recovery Work: Recommendations for General Hazards Commonly Encountered during Hurricane Response and Recovery Operations" 11132: 3670:

Knutson, Thomas; Camargo, Suzana J.; Chan, Johnny C. L.; Emanuel, Kerry; Ho, Chang-Hoi; Kossin, James; Mohapatra, Mrutyunjay; Satoh, Masaki; Sugi, Masato; Walsh, Kevin; Wu, Liguang (August 6, 2019).

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At the center of a mature tropical cyclone, air sinks rather than rises. For a sufficiently strong storm, air may sink over a layer deep enough to suppress cloud formation, thereby creating a clear "

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measurements, in real-time, can be taken by sending specially equipped reconnaissance flights into the cyclone. In the Atlantic basin, these flights are regularly flown by United States government

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described "tempestades" in 1730, although the official record for Pacific hurricanes only dates to 1949. In the south-west Indian Ocean, the tropical cyclone record goes back to 1848. In 2003, the

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masses; although not as frequently, an extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone. From space, extratropical storms have a characteristic "

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within a tropical cyclone. Tropical cyclones may still intensify, even rapidly, in the presence of moderate or strong wind shear depending on the evolution and structure of the storm's convection.

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Tien, Pham Van; Luong, Le Hong; Duc, Do Minh; Trinh, Phan Trong; Quynh, Dinh Thi; Lan, Nguyen Chau; Thuy, Dang Thi; Phi, Nguyen Quoc; Cuong, Tran Quoc; Dang, Khang; Loi, Doan Huy (April 9, 2021).

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The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the "eyewall". The eyewall typically expands outward with height, resembling an arena football stadium; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the "

5369: 2385:, the second longest-lasting tropical cyclone on record, which traveled 13,280 km (8,250 mi), the longest track of any Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclone, over its 31-day lifespan in 3276:

incomplete understanding of factors that affect their development. New tropical cyclone position and forecast information is available at least every six hours from the various warning centers.

14838: 14632: 2783:, then known as East Pakistan, producing a 6.1 m (20 ft) storm surge that killed at least 300,000 people; this made it the deadliest tropical cyclone on record. In October 2019, 2100:

who named systems between 1887 and 1907. This system of naming weather systems subsequently fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired, until it was revived in the latter part of

13934:

Knutson, Thomas; Camargo, Suzana; Chan, Johnny; Emanuel, Kerry; Ho, Chang-Hoi; Kossin, James; Mohapatra, Mrutyunjay; Satoh, Masaki; Sugi, Masato; Walsh, Kevin; Wu, Liguang (October 1, 2019).

14374: 7334:"Effect of Mid-Latitude Jet Stream on the Intensity of Tropical Cyclones Affecting Korea: Observational Analysis and Implication from the Numerical Model Experiments of Typhoon Chaba (2016)" 16266: 7546: 1338:

differ along political lines, on whether climate change was a "major factor" contributing to various extreme weather events experienced by respondents. "Severe storms" includes hurricanes.

10300: 4964:

2019–20 Tropical Cyclone Season Outlook [in the] Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre Nadi – Tropical Cyclone Centre (RSMC Nadi – TCC) Area of Responsibility (AOR)

11577: 11212: 13645:

Muller, Joanne; Collins, Jennifer M.; Gibson, Samantha; Paxton, Leilani (2017), Collins, Jennifer M.; Walsh, Kevin (eds.), "Recent Advances in the Emerging Field of Paleotempestology",

8421: 12645: 10817: 12886: 16261: 11903: 7441: 5545: 11546: 10991: 12581: 5060: 3727: 3201:. Radar plays a crucial role around landfall by showing a storm's location and intensity every several minutes. Other satellites provide information from the perturbations of 2949:

suggested tropical cyclones did not offer significant drought recovery. Tropical cyclones also help maintain the global heat balance by moving warm, moist tropical air to the

2606:, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths. 2429:

compared to weaker tropical cyclones whose motion is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a narrower extent of the lower troposphere. When wind shear and

1350:, there is potentially more of this fuel available. Between 1979 and 2017, there was a global increase in the proportion of tropical cyclones of Category 3 and higher on the 14068: 1518:

On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo a process known as rapid intensification, a period in which the maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone increase by 30

11241: 8381:

Kozar, Michael E; Misra, Vasubandhu (February 16, 2019). "Integrated Kinetic Energy in North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones: Climatology, Analysis, and Seasonal Applications".

2049:), the structure of the system and its intensity. For example, within the Northern Atlantic and Eastern Pacific basins, a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65 13700:

Liu, Kam-biu; Fearn, Miriam L. (2000). "Reconstruction of Prehistoric Landfall Frequencies of Catastrophic Hurricanes in Northwestern Florida from Lake Sediment Records".

4694: 5038: 11297: 4913: 3896: 1709: 605:

in several ways. Scientists found that climate change can exacerbate the impact of tropical cyclones by increasing their duration, occurrence, and intensity due to the

1676: 1145: 13981: 5960: 1718: 1389:

A study review article published in 2021 concluded that the geographic range of tropical cyclones will probably expand poleward in response to climate warming of the

14979: 14125: 11702: 9648: 1705: 13132: 7799: 6167: 5801: 3099: 8027: 6072: 5243: 4748:

Wu, M.C.; Chang, W.L.; Leung, W.M. (2004). "Impacts of El Niño–Southern Oscillation Events on Tropical Cyclone Landfalling Activity in the Western North Pacific".

3119:

Tropical cyclones have occurred around the world for millennia. Reanalyses and research are being undertaken to extend the historical record, through the usage of

13787: 11105: 1487:

The size of tropical cyclones plays a role in how quickly they intensify. Smaller tropical cyclones are more prone to rapid intensification than larger ones. The

1401:

Tropical cyclone intensity is based on wind speeds and pressure; relationships between winds and pressure are often used in determining the intensity of a storm.

11669: 8922:"Frequently Asked Questions: What are "concentric eyewall cycles" (or "eyewall replacement cycles") and why do they cause a hurricane's maximum winds to weaken?" 7513: 5004: 2489:

Physically, the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and equatorial west of center. Because air must conserve its

1988: 1697: 1666:

plays a large role in both the classification of a tropical cyclone and the determination of its intensity. Used in warning centers, the method was developed by

15044: 1480:

leads to a faster rate of intensification than observed in other systems by mitigating local wind shear. Weakening outflow is associated with the weakening of

14552:

Gray, Briony; Weal, Mark; Martin, David (2019). "The Role of Social Networking in Small Island Communities: Lessons from the 2017 Atlantic Hurricane Season".

8080: 692:

and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones", and such storms in the Indian Ocean can also be called "severe cyclonic storms".

14911: 7310: 7092: 6132:"Exploratory Analysis of Upper-Ocean Heat Content and Sea Surface Temperature Underlying Tropical Cyclone Rapid Intensification in the Western North Pacific" 6102: 5341: 5179: 4941: 2969:

from these powerful storms. The storm surge and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal

1961: 1941: 1847: 1827: 46: 11128: 7971: 7006:

Rios-Berrios, Rosimar; Finocchio, Peter M.; Alland, Joshua J.; Chen, Xiaomin; Fischer, Michael S.; Stevenson, Stephanie N.; Tao, Dandan (October 27, 2023).

2241:, which is the upper-level cirrus shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone. 11070: 8537: 8450: 4603: 3999: 3862: 3636: 1358:

of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin. Rapidly intensifying cyclones are hard to forecast and therefore pose additional risk to coastal communities.

14949: 14873: 14666: 12972: 8663: 3437: 2448:—a persistent high-pressure area over the world's subtropical oceans. In the tropical North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific oceans, the trade winds steer 1047: 6845: 1610:

Over the years, there have been a number of techniques considered to try to artificially modify tropical cyclones. These techniques have included using

16221: 15014: 10669: 3564: 14846: 14636: 14348: 6737: 3503:

is a concern as workers are often exposed to hot and humid temperatures, wear protective clothing and equipment, and have physically difficult tasks.

16070: 15537: 13900: 13623: 9007: 8143: 6346:

Fedorov, Alexey V.; Brierley, Christopher M.; Emanuel, Kerry (February 2010). "Tropical cyclones and permanent El Niño in the early Pliocene epoch".

65: 15416: 14370: 13542:"Coarse-sand beach ridges at Cowley Beach, north-eastern Australia: Their formative processes and potential as records of tropical cyclone history" 12068: 11513: 11416: 8761: 3825: 3790: 973: 11850: 7536: 7480: 14784: 14197: 14190:"Annual average official track errors for Atlantic basin tropical cyclones for the period 1989–2005, with least-squares trend lines superimposed" 14159: 11931: 11924: 11074: 10327: 9580: 9367: 8925: 8720: 8629: 8564: 8542: 4611: 4003: 3353: 271: 14152:"Annual average model track errors for Atlantic basin tropical cyclones for the period 1994–2005, for a homogeneous selection of "early" models" 13109: 10262: 9742: 8962: 7939: 5206:"Global Projections of Intense Tropical Cyclone Activity for the Late Twenty-First Century from Dynamical Downscaling of CMIP5/RCP4.5 Scenarios" 4869: 3443:

Hurricane responders face many hazards. Hurricane responders may be exposed to chemical and biological contaminants including stored chemicals,

2763:

produced 6,083 mm (239.5 in) of rain over 15 days, which was the largest rain total recorded from a tropical cyclone on record.

1409:

and Australia's scale (Bureau of Meteorology), only use wind speed for determining the category of a storm. The most intense storm on record is

16200: 15595: 11569: 11204: 7764: 6321: 5897: 2409:

suspended within the large-scale background flow of the environment. In this way, tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first-order as

14610: 13755: 15652: 15544: 14811: 13877: 11980:"Identifying the role of typhoons as drought busters in South Korea based on hidden Markov chain models: ROLE OF TYPHOONS AS DROUGHT BUSTERS" 10715: 5634:

James P. Kossin; Kerry A. Emanuel; Gabriel A. Vecchi (2014). "The poleward migration of the location of tropical cyclone maximum intensity".

3347:

An important decision in individual preparedness is determining if and when to evacuate an area that will be affected by a tropical cyclone.

3168: 2364:

is the largest cyclone on record, with tropical storm-force winds 2,170 km (1,350 mi) in diameter. The smallest storm on record is

2022: 1326:

The 20-year average of the number of annual Category 4 and 5 hurricanes in the Atlantic region has approximately doubled since the year 2000.

11956: 8898: 7885:"Multiformity of the tropical cyclone wind–pressure relationship in the western North Pacific: discrepancies among four best-track archives" 13060: 12637: 10798: 7208: 4970: 3569: 2402: 610: 13518: 13418: 13263:

Samodra, Guruh; Ngadisih, Ngadisih; Malawani, Mukhamad Ngainul; Mardiatno, Djati; Cahyadi, Ahmad; Nugroho, Ferman Setia (April 11, 2020).

12325: 11787: 4562: 3159:

examined and analyzed the historical record of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic back to 1851, extending the existing database from 1886.

2985:, can be severely damaged or destroyed by tropical cyclones, which erode land and destroy vegetation. Tropical cyclones can cause harmful 13300: 10879: 10480:"The Influence of Tropical Cyclones on Circulation, Moisture Transport, and Snow Accumulation at Kilimanjaro During the 2006–2007 Season" 7638: 4134: 3424:

after a hurricane. Activities performed by hurricane responders include assessment, restoration, and demolition of buildings; removal of

2755:, becoming the deadliest tropical cyclone on record in Africa, with 1,302 fatalities, and damage estimated at US$ 2.2 billion. 2169:-shaped" cloud pattern. Extratropical cyclones can also be dangerous when their low-pressure centers cause powerful winds and high seas. 1330: 275: 14289: 12137: 8765: 7445: 6867:

Ryglicki, David R.; Doyle, James D.; Hodyss, Daniel; Cossuth, Joshua H.; Jin, Yi; Viner, Kevin C.; Schmidt, Jerome M. (August 1, 2019).

2602:

can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, and other outside objects, turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles. The

2252:

can organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward, which is believed to rob the primary eyewall of moisture and

6041:"Dependence of Tropical Cyclone Intensification Rate on Sea SurfaceTemperature, Storm Intensity, and Size in the Western North Pacific" 5537: 4034: 2962: 2631: 1458: 1043: 836: 199: 12290:"A Tropical Cyclone-Induced Ecological Regime Shift: Mangrove Forest Conversion to Mudflat in Everglades National Park (Florida, USA)" 11538: 11078: 10961: 10534:"Saharan dust and biomass burning aerosols during ex-hurricane Ophelia: observations from the new UK lidar and sun-photometer network" 10366: 10239: 9501:"The Basic Relationship between Tropical Cyclone Intensity and the Depth of the Environmental Steering Layer in the Australian Region" 8860: 6869:"The Unexpected Rapid Intensification of Tropical Cyclones in Moderate Vertical Wind Shear. Part III: Outflow–Environment Interaction" 4007: 14319: 14163: 12399:

Zang, Zhengchen; Xue, Z. George; Xu, Kehui; Bentley, Samuel J.; Chen, Qin; D'Sa, Eurico J.; Zhang, Le; Ou, Yanda (October 20, 2020).

11755:

McTaggart-Cowan, Ron; Bosart, Lance F.; Davis, Christopher A.; Atallah, Eyad H.; Gyakum, John R.; Emanuel, Kerry A. (November 2006).

10685: 8568: 5142: 5030: 325: 249: 14816: 13185:

Baker, Jason D.; Harting, Albert L.; Johanos, Thea C.; London, Joshua M.; Barbieri, Michelle M.; Littnan, Charles L. (August 2020).

12691: 12573: 11603: 10103: 5984:"The influence of sea surface temperature on the intensity and associated storm surge of tropical cyclone Yasi: a sensitivity study" 5052: 3719: 16484: 11636: 8985: 6546:"Revisiting the response of western North Pacific tropical cyclone intensity change to vertical wind shear in different directions" 3574: 3436:

operations. Hurricane response requires coordination between federal, tribal, state, local, and private entities. According to the

2854:

in 2017 are the country's costliest ever natural disasters, with monetary damage estimated at US$ 125 billion. Katrina struck

947: 267: 255: 14060: 13491:"Rapid eco-physical impact assessment of tropical cyclones using geospatial technology: a case from severe cyclonic storms Amphan" 11449: 10076: 14730: 14004: 13850: 13202: 11820: 11234: 10015: 8799: 7660: 259: 14201: 13359: 12611: 6017: 5726: 4668: 3194:

images from space, usually at half-hour to quarter-hour intervals. As a storm approaches land, it can be observed by land-based

2775:, tropical cyclones from the Indian and Pacific oceans regularly affect some of the most populated countries on Earth. In 1970, 1457:

The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, a process known as

17400: 14034: 10581: 8693: 4256:"Tropical Cyclogenesis Associated with Rossby Wave Energy Dispersion of a Preexisting Typhoon. Part I: Satellite Data Analyses" 3559: 13225: 12448: 12072: 11293: 11267: 8602: 6967:"The Unexpected Rapid Intensification of Tropical Cyclones in Moderate Vertical Wind Shear. Part I: Overview and Observations" 4920: 3821: 2461:

is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the

17395: 14581: 13662: 13103: 13046: 12230: 10962:"Condition of Agricultural Productivity of Gosaba C.D. Block, South24 Parganas, West Bengal, India after Severe Cyclone Aila" 10532:

Osborne, Martin; Malavelle, Florent F.; Adam, Mariana; Buxmann, Joelle; Sugier, Jaqueline; Marenco, Franco (March 20, 2019).

10041: 8398: 7672: 7624: 7202: 6470: 4863: 3340: 3253: 3156: 1675:, shear, central dense overcast, and eye, in order to determine the T-number and thus assess the intensity of the storm. The 1028: 263: 224: 219: 156: 6233: 3405: 2669: 1856: 1381:

There is currently no consensus on how climate change will affect the overall frequency of tropical cyclones. A majority of

15409: 15233: 14916: 14235: 14117: 13935: 12246:

Khanna, Shruti; Santos, Maria J.; Koltunov, Alexander; Shapiro, Kristen D.; Lay, Mui; Ustin, Susan L. (February 17, 2017).

9279: 7595: 6702:"Combined Effects of Midlevel Dry Air and Vertical Wind Shear on Tropical Cyclone Development. Part II: Radial Ventilation" 5924: 5267:"Dynamical Downscaling Projections of Late 21st Century Atlantic Hurricane Activity: CMIP3 and CMIP5 Model-based Scenarios" 3904: 3782: 2866:

after it dropped 60.58 in (1,539 mm) of rainfall; this was the highest rainfall total on record in the country.

1317: 602: 194: 14878: 11695: 9660: 7580: 5404:

Walsh, K. J. E.; Camargo, S. J.; Knutson, T. R.; Kossin, J.; Lee, T. -C.; Murakami, H.; Patricola, C. (December 1, 2019).

2234:, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land. 16457: 16450: 16383: 16337: 10684:

Haque, Ubydul; Hashizume, Masahiro; Kolivras, Korine N; Overgaard, Hans J; Das, Bivash; Yamamoto, Taro (March 16, 2011).

8659: 7759: 7377: 6645: 6131: 5797: 4569: 3866: 3215:. These aircraft fly directly into the cyclone and take direct and remote-sensing measurements. The aircraft also launch 3205:

signals, providing thousands of snapshots per day and capturing atmospheric temperature, pressure, and moisture content.

2925: 2900:

is rarely affected by tropical cyclones; however, the continent regularly encounters storms after they transitioned into

2795:

and inflicted US$ 15 billion in damage, making it the costliest storm on record in Japan. The islands that comprise

2092:

recognized by the public. The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the

1406: 923: 290: 35: 13689:. 23rd Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology. Dallas, TX: American Meteorological Society. pp. 374–377. 13383:"Rainfall-induced catastrophic landslide in Quang Tri Province: the deadliest single landslide event in Vietnam in 2020" 11733: 10323: 9576: 9371: 9256:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Archived from 9253: 9229:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Archived from 9226: 9153:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Archived from 9150: 8921: 8716: 8625: 7997: 6040: 5205: 4844:"The Influence of Natural Climate Variability on Tropical Cyclones, and Seasonal Forecasts of Tropical Cyclone Activity" 4607: 1111: 804: 16545: 16491: 15151: 14692: 13786:. NOAA technical memorandum NWS WR; 159. Northridge, California: California State University. pp. 2, 4, 6, 8, 34. 11101: 10722: 3760: 3245: 2759:

island, located east of Southern Africa, experiences some of the wettest tropical cyclones on record. In January 1980,

2579: 2082: 1322: 967: 244: 151: 13781: 13265:"Frequency–magnitude of landslides affected by the 27–29 November 2017 Tropical Cyclone Cempaka in Pacitan, East Java" 12911:

Dellapenna, Timothy M.; Hoelscher, Christena; Hill, Lisa; Al Mukaimi, Mohammad E.; Knap, Anthony (December 15, 2020).

11662: 11481: 7503: 4996: 4058:"MJO and Tropical Cyclogenesis in the Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Pacific: Case Study and Idealized Numerical Modeling" 2061:

or a severe cyclonic storm within the Western Pacific or North Indian oceans. When a hurricane passes west across the

17405: 16807: 15645: 14806:"OSHA's Hazard Exposure and Risk Assessment Matrix for Hurricane Response and Recovery Work: List of Activity Sheets" 14724: 14504: 14478: 14452: 14426: 14400: 14231: 13235: 10903:"Natural Hazards: Causes and Effects: Lesson 5—Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes, Typhoons, Baguios, Cordonazos, Tainos)" 10811: 10233: 8598: 8555: 5827: 5031:"Partisans remain split on climate change contributing to more disasters, and on their weather becoming more extreme" 4688: 3632: 3336: 3267: 3249: 1051: 17: 13187:"Terrestrial Habitat Loss and the Long-term Viability of the French Frigate Shoals Hawaiian Monk Seal Subpopulation" 9972:

Sun, Yuan; Zhong, Zhong; Yi, Lan; Li, Tim; Chen, Ming; Wan, Hongchao; Wang, Yuxing; Zhong, Kai (November 27, 2015).

8270:"A new tropical cyclone surge index incorporating the effects of coastal geometry, bathymetry and storm information" 2113:

thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described. Names are assigned in order from predetermined

16977: 15877: 15779: 12973:"Applying Directional Filters to Satellite Imagery for the Assessment of Tropical Cyclone Impacts on Atoll Islands" 11156:"Projected changes in tropical cyclones over the South West Indian Ocean under different extents of global warming" 10173:"The World Record Storm Surge and the Most Intense Southern Hemisphere Tropical Cyclone: New Evidence and Modeling" 10072: 8050: 6810:"The Implication of Outflow Structure for the Rapid Intensification of Tropical Cyclones under Vertical Wind Shear" 6205: 3175:

Intense tropical cyclones pose a particular observation challenge, as they are a dangerous oceanic phenomenon, and

1681: 893: 536: 11507:

Republic of Fiji: Third National Communication Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

10844:"Sustainable livelihoods and effectiveness of disaster responses: a case study of tropical cyclone Pam in Vanuatu" 7280: 6095: 5330: 5168: 4937: 16505: 16464: 15402: 12100: 11154:

Muthige, M. S.; Malherbe, J.; Englebrecht, F. A.; Grab, S.; Beraki, A.; Maisha, T. R.; Van der Merwe, J. (2018).

8882: 8689: 7962: 7401:"Rapid deepening of tropical cyclones in the northeastern Tropical Pacific: The relationship with oceanic eddies" 5938: 3348: 2643: 2114: 1523: 1451: 1362: 1067: 928: 548: 14530: 14262: 11386: 11361: 10463: 10438: 10287: 9916: 9891: 9875: 9850: 9834: 9809: 9793: 9768: 9708: 9683: 9525: 9500: 9463: 9438: 9422: 9397: 9202: 9177: 9117: 8855: 8493: 7736: 7705: 5877: 5850: 4850:, World Scientific Series on Asia-Pacific Weather and Climate, vol. 4, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 325–360, 4779: 1587:

characteristics, its remnants could regenerate a tropical cyclone if environmental conditions become favorable.

16498: 15075: 14599:"Evaluating the Effectiveness of Psychological Preparedness Advice in Community Cyclone Preparedness Materials" 7889: 5748:

Knapp, Kenneth R.; Knaff, John A.; Sampson, Charles R.; Riggio, Gustavo M.; Schnapp, Adam D. (August 1, 2013).

5567:

Murakami, Hiroyuki; Delworth, Thomas L.; Cooke, William F.; Zhao, Ming; Xiang, Baoqiang; Hsu, Pang-Chi (2020).

3625: 3544: 2917: 2716: 2707:

increase the risk of disease propagation. Tropical cyclones significantly interrupt infrastructure, leading to

2369: 2230:". The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly, clouds reach their highest 1571: 1107: 1011: 823:. Cyclone formation is usually reduced 3 days prior to the wave's crest and increased during the 3 days after. 762: 556: 14658: 14094: 12885:[After Hurricane Willa, metal levels rise in the Baluarte River] (in Spanish). Noreste. Archived from 9632: 9607: 8831:"The Mean Evolution and Variability of the Asian Summer Monsoon: Comparison of ECMWF and NCEP–NCAR Reanalyses" 8655: 7281:"Warm ocean accelerating tropical cyclone Hagibis (2019) through interaction with a mid-latitude westerly jet" 4892:"Frequently Asked Questions: What are the average, most, and least tropical cyclones occurring in each basin?" 1499:, in cases where there has been copious rainfall, through the release of latent heat from the saturated soil. 15129: 12605:"Wind damage and Salinity Effects of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on Coastal Baldcypress Forests of Louisiana" 10321: 9574: 9361: 8714: 8623: 8425: 6809: 4602: 3549: 3496: 3331: 3305: 3225: 2940:

Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the

2543: 2386: 1622:. These techniques, however, fail to appreciate the duration, intensity, power or size of tropical cyclones. 1153: 815:

can aid in the formation of a new tropical cyclone by disseminating the energy of an existing, mature storm.

808: 318: 166: 15006: 10661: 10214:"Rip Currents — Coordinating Coastal Research, Outreach and Forecast Methodologies to Improve Public Safety" 8103: 7998:"The Advanced Dvorak Technique (ADT) for Estimating Tropical Cyclone Intensity: Update and New Capabilities" 5695:

Studholme, Joshua; Fedorov, Alexey V.; Gulev, Sergey K.; Emanuel, Kerry; Hodges, Kevin (December 29, 2021).

4642: 2993:

When hurricanes surge upon shore from the ocean, salt is introduced to many freshwater areas and raises the

1671:

stronger system. Tropical cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns, including

16403: 16282: 15856: 15740: 15638: 15283: 14344: 12720: 9439:"Observational Evidence for Predictions of Tropical Cyclone Propagation Relative to Environmental Steering" 8958: 7101: 6701: 3309: 3078: 2575: 1055: 286: 214: 209: 144: 13912: 13585: 12836: 12782: 12471: 12248:"Marsh Loss Due to Cumulative Impacts of Hurricane Isaac and the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in Louisiana" 10752: 9151:"Frequently Asked Questions: Subject: E5) Which are the largest and smallest tropical cyclones on record?" 9015: 6586: 599:, overland flooding, and a general overwhelming of local water control structures across a large area. 17068: 17062: 16609: 16591: 16193: 15610: 14777: 14716:

Regional Association IV – Hurricane Operational Plan for NOrth America, Central America and the Caribbean

13489:

Mishra, Manoranjan; Kar, Dipika; Debnath, Manasi; Sahu, Netrananda; Goswami, Shreerup (August 30, 2021).

13082:

Onaka, Susumu; Ichikawa, Shingo; Izumi, Masatoshi; Uda, Takaaki; Hirano, Junichi; Sawada, Hideki (2017).

11726:"Subject: Tropical Cyclone Names: G6) Why doesn't the South Atlantic Ocean experience tropical cyclones?" 8533: 8528: 3554: 2365: 2209: 2018: 1016: 911: 73: 12721:"Petroleum and Hazardous Material Releases from Industrial Facilities Associated with Hurricane Katrina" 11846: 11506: 11409: 10479: 4894:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory 3930: 2344:), and the radius of vanishing wind. An additional metric is the radius at which the cyclone's relative 1346:

human-induced climate change. Tropical cyclones use warm, moist air as their fuel. As climate change is

17390: 15678: 15474: 15353: 13590: 8051:"A Consensus Approach for Estimating Tropical Cyclone Intensity from Meteorological Satellites: SATCON" 7468: 7087: 3672:"Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change Assessment: Part II. Projected Response to Anthropogenic Warming" 3386: 2946: 2874: 2327:—which is based on sustained wind measurements—it can mean that more people are exposed to its hazards. 2066: 1693: 1149: 1123:

position shifts due to El Niño, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. Areas west of Japan and

757:

Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer, but have been noted in nearly every month in most

622: 57: 31: 12526:"Effects of a tropical cyclone on salt marsh insect communities and post-cyclone reassembly processes" 12136:

Alex Fox. (June 20, 2023). "New Measurements Suggest Tropical Cyclones May Influence Global Climate".

11928: 7760:"Improved Tropical-Cyclone Flight-Level Wind Estimates Using RoutineInfrared Satellite Reconnaissance" 636:

waters around the world. The systems generally have a well-defined center which is surrounded by deep

532:. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter. 17415: 16373: 16316: 14185: 14147: 13813: 13083: 12472:"Assessment of Hurricane Ivan impact on chlorophyll-a in Pensacola Bay by MODIS 250 m remote sensing" 12401:"The role of sediment-induced light attenuation on primary production during Hurricane Gustav (2008)" 11015:"A review of tropical cyclone-generated storm surges: Global data sources, observations, and impacts" 10753:"Tropical cyclones and post-disaster reconstruction of public infrastructure in developing countries" 9398:"Potential vorticity Diagnostics of Hurricane Movement. Part 1: A Case Study of Hurricane Bob (1991)" 8795: 7931: 5893: 5750:"A Pressure-Based Analysis of the Historical Western North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Intensity Record" 4843: 4538:

Tropical Cyclone Operational Plan for the South-East Indian Ocean and the Southern Pacific Ocean 2023

3756: 3539: 3534: 3365: 2490: 2245: 1567: 1375: 1099: 1079: 874: 543:

as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, cyclones rarely form within 5° of the

171: 13809: 13133:"Storm-deposited coral blocks: A mechanism of island genesis, Tutaga island, Funafuti atoll, Tuvalu" 10978: 10439:"Cloud-to-Ground Lightning in Tropical Cyclones: A Study of Hurricanes Hugo (1989) and Jerry (1989)" 9727: 8954: 8104:"Estimating tropical cyclone intensity by satellite imagery utilizing convolutional neural networks" 4770: 17425: 16759: 16091: 15884: 15835: 15213: 14598: 13744: 12056: 12017:"The Influence of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones on Drought over the Eastern United States (1980–2007)" 11978:

Yoo, Jiyoung; Kwon, Hyun-Han; So, Byung-Jin; Rajagopalan, Balaji; Kim, Tae-Woong (April 28, 2015).

8749: 6317: 3520: 2958: 2819:

in April 1973, killing 1,653 people, making it the deadliest tropical cyclone recorded in the

2663: 2590: 2469:

and broad monsoon gyres can also influence tropical cyclone motion by modifying the steering flow.

1701: 1552: 1351: 1070:, however the South Atlantic is not a major basin, and not an official basin according to the WMO. 1059: 797: 773: 590:

Tropical cyclones draw in air from a large area and concentrate the water content of that air into

311: 301: 13873: 10726: 8556:

Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (May 2017).

6313: 4498: 4471: 4446: 3262:

A general decrease in error trends in tropical cyclone path prediction is evident since the 1970s.

3027:

Tropical cyclones can have an extensive effect on geography, such as creating or destroying land.

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Warmer air can hold more water vapor: the theoretical maximum water vapor content is given by the

17254: 16944: 16673: 16378: 15828: 15793: 15786: 15699: 14752: 12156:"Prolonged thermocline warming by near-inertial internal waves in the wakes of tropical cyclones" 11948: 10604: 9656: 9254:"Frequently Asked Questions: Subject: E7) What is the farthest a tropical cyclone has travelled?" 8886: 7132: 6700:

Alland, Joshua J.; Tang, Brian H.; Corbosiero, Kristen L.; Bryan, George H. (February 24, 2021).

6045: 5995: 5082:

Kossin, James P.; Knapp, Kenneth R.; Olander, Timothy L.; Velden, Christopher S. (May 18, 2020).

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coast varies on timescales of centuries to millennia. In the year 957, a powerful typhoon struck

2109: 2078: 2046: 2008: 1438: 1402: 1091: 1086: 832: 758: 564: 351: 237: 204: 189: 13026: 11756: 7702:"Anatomy and Life Cycle of a Storm: What Is the Life Cycle of a Hurricane and How Do They Move?" 7178: 4963: 3314: 1799:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {v}{33\ m/s}}\right)^{2}\times \left({\frac {r}{96.6\ km}}\right)\,} 1058:

and Fleet Weather Center also publicly issue warnings, about tropical cyclones on behalf of the

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over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of

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Millennial-scale variability in catastrophic hurricane landfalls along the Gulf of Mexico coast

13490: 13382: 12352:"Tropical Cyclone-Induced Hazards Caused by Storm Surges and Large Waves on the Coast of China" 12289: 11732:. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Hurricane Research Division. 10973: 10362: 8167:"Seasonal Prediction of North Atlantic Accumulated Cyclone Energy and Major Hurricane Activity" 7733:"Attempts to Stop a Hurricane in its Track: What Else has been Considered to Stop a Hurricane?" 5855: 4765: 4537: 2700: 2627: 2238: 2062: 1600: 1579: 637: 529: 121: 39: 14313:"National Hurricane Center Product Description Document: A User's Guide to Hurricane Products" 13540:

Tamura, Toru; Nicholas, William A.; Oliver, Thomas S. N.; Brooke, Brendan P. (July 14, 2017).

13264: 10843: 7610: 7008:"A Review of the Interactions between Tropical Cyclones and Environmental Vertical Wind Shear" 5466:"Projected Future Changes in Tropical Cyclones Using the CMIP6 HighResMIP Multimodel Ensemble" 5370:"Hurricane Harvey shows how we underestimate flooding risks in coastal cities, scientists say" 4106: 1539: 16800: 16559: 16084: 15905: 15870: 15733: 15454: 15425: 15203: 14285: 14008: 13908: 12524:

Chen, Xuan; Adams, Benjamin J.; Platt, William J.; Hooper-Bùi, Linda M. (February 28, 2020).

11512:(Report). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. April 27, 2020. p. 62. 9011: 8753: 7827: 7376:. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Hurricane Center. 6264: 6191:"Ocean heat content for tropical cyclone intensity forecasting and its impact on storm surge" 5084:"Global increase in major tropical cyclone exceedance probability over the past four decades" 3233: 2966: 2901: 2555: 2382: 2157: 2149: 2135: 2093: 2045:

Around the world, tropical cyclones are classified in different ways, based on the location (

1599:, by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone, can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into 1513: 1477: 1443: 1355: 999: 741: 517: 489: 478: 126: 12154:; Sprintall, Janet; Voet, Gunnar; Warner, Sally J.; Hughes, Kenneth; Moum, James N. (2023). 7133:"A global spatiotemporal analysis of inland tropical cyclone maintenance or intensification" 6965:

Ryglicki, David R.; Cossuth, Joshua H.; Hodyss, Daniel; Doyle, James D. (November 1, 2018).

4680: 16970: 16683: 16429: 16105: 15821: 15800: 14151: 13947: 13709: 13599: 13453: 13394: 13335: 13276: 13144: 12924: 12794: 12783:"An overview of the impact of Hurricane Harvey on chemical and process facilities in Texas" 12732: 12537: 12483: 12412: 12363: 12301: 12259: 12167: 12109: 12028: 11885: 11771: 11373: 11332: 11167: 11066: 11026: 10855: 10616: 10545: 10491: 10450: 10401: 10354: 10274: 10184: 9944: 9903: 9862: 9821: 9780: 9695: 9619: 9561: 9549: 9512: 9450: 9409: 9323: 9189: 9105: 9049: 8842: 8830: 8787:

Pasch, Richard J.; Eric S. Blake; Hugh D. Cobb III; David P. Roberts (September 28, 2006).

8345: 8283: 8234: 8178: 8115: 8062: 8009: 7932:"Intensity and Size of Strong Tropical Cyclones in 2017 from NASA's SMAP L-Band Radiometer" 7902: 7836: 7773: 7576: 7412: 7345: 7243: 7105: 7050: 6978: 6929: 6880: 6821: 6772: 6713: 6654: 6598: 6557: 6508: 6430: 6357: 6273: 6143: 6054: 5999: 5942: 5864: 5761: 5643: 5580: 5477: 5417: 5278: 5217: 5098: 4806: 4757: 4365: 4316: 4267: 4218: 4169: 4069: 4030: 3995: 3942: 3683: 2878: 2635: 2466: 2337: 2026: 2013: 560: 14312: 10693: 6918:"The Outflow–Rainband Relationship Induced by Environmental Flow around Tropical Cyclones" 5083: 2965:. Research on Pacific cyclones has demonstrated that deeper layers of the ocean receive a 2319: 8: 17181: 17116: 16360: 16321: 16256: 16035: 15958: 15849: 15842: 15807: 15747: 15726: 15692: 15309: 15273: 14805: 12837:"Lessons learnt from the impact of hurricane Harvey on the chemical and process industry" 12668: 11599: 10099: 8557: 8268:

Islam, Md. Rezuanal; Lee, Chia-Ying; Mandli, Kyle T.; Takagi, Hiroshi (August 18, 2021).

7541: 7508: 7186: 6198:

Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards

3900: 3285: 3195: 3044: 2913: 2820: 2812: 2434: 2153: 2139: 2119: 1614:, cooling the ocean with icebergs, blowing the storm away from land with giant fans, and 1472: 751: 725: 717: 625: 540: 13951: 13713: 13603: 13457: 13398: 13339: 13280: 13148: 12928: 12835:

Misuri, Alessio; Moreno, Valeria Casson; Quddus, Noor; Cozzani, Valerio (October 2019).

12798: 12736: 12541: 12487: 12416: 12367: 12305: 12263: 12198: 12171: 12155: 12113: 12032: 11889: 11775: 11629: 11377: 11336: 11171: 11030: 10859: 10620: 10549: 10495: 10454: 10405: 10278: 10188: 9948: 9907: 9866: 9825: 9784: 9699: 9623: 9553: 9516: 9454: 9413: 9327: 9193: 9109: 9053: 8846: 8349: 8287: 8238: 8182: 8119: 8066: 8013: 7906: 7840: 7777: 7416: 7349: 7247: 7109: 7054: 6982: 6933: 6884: 6825: 6776: 6717: 6658: 6602: 6561: 6512: 6434: 6361: 6277: 6147: 6058: 6003: 5946: 5868: 5765: 5647: 5584: 5481: 5421: 5282: 5221: 5102: 4810: 4761: 4369: 4320: 4271: 4222: 4173: 4073: 3946: 3687: 3266:

High-speed computers and sophisticated simulation software allow forecasters to produce

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is generally inhospitable to the formation of a tropical storm. However, in March 2004,

1413:

in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870

1144:

across the region during El Niño years. Tropical cyclones are further influenced by the

16422: 15662: 15439: 15314: 15278: 15193: 15183: 15087: 13973: 13725: 13668: 13563: 13510: 13471: 13410: 13351: 13292: 13160: 13052: 12992: 12945: 12912: 12856: 12810: 12756: 12555: 12440: 12317: 12012: 11442: 11391: 11185: 11129:"Somalia's Strongest Tropical Cyclone Ever Recorded Could Drop 2 Years' Rain In 2 Days" 11044: 10930: 10871: 10772: 10632: 10573: 10507: 10419: 10292: 10213: 10132:"Epidemiology of Tropical Cyclones: The Dynamics of Disaster, Disease, and Development" 10064: 9478: 9341: 9207: 9131: 9075: 9040:

Chavas, D.R.; Emanuel, K.A. (2010). "A QuikSCAT climatology of tropical cyclone size".

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Camargo, Suzana J.; Sobel, Adam H.; Barnston, Anthony G.; Klotzbach, Philip J. (2010),

4795:"El Niño–Southern Oscillation's Impact on Atlantic Basin Hurricanes and U.S. Landfalls" 4716: 4413: 4383: 4334: 4285: 4236: 4187: 4158:"Use of a Genesis Potential Index to Diagnose ENSO Effects on Tropical Cyclone Genesis" 4126: 4087: 3966: 3476: 3464: 3048: 2882: 2835: 2831: 2776: 2539: 2440:

Climatologically, tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east-to-west

2414: 2372:, which generated tropical storm-force winds only 37 km (23 mi) in diameter. 2205: 1966: 1654:

satellites to map the wind field vectors of tropical cyclones. The SMAP uses an L-band

1492: 1447: 1426: 1422: 1390: 1347: 868: 698:

refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over

673: 525: 457: 69: 14714: 14189: 14012: 13846: 13745:"Reconstruction of an 8,000-year record of typhoons in the Pearl River estuary, China" 13186: 12604: 11813: 10005: 8788: 7504:"Epsilon shatters records as it rapidly intensifies into major hurricane near Bermuda" 7425: 7400: 7007: 4305:"Tropical Cyclogenesis Associated with Kelvin Waves and the Madden–Julian Oscillation" 2654: 761:. Tropical cyclones on either side of the Equator generally have their origins in the 17420: 16824: 16678: 16438: 16042: 15814: 15754: 15459: 15329: 15288: 15198: 15168: 15137: 14720: 14577: 13977: 13729: 13672: 13658: 13615: 13514: 13475: 13414: 13355: 13323: 13296: 13231: 13164: 13099: 13056: 13042: 12996: 12950: 12860: 12814: 12748: 12744: 12559: 12499: 12444: 12381: 12321: 12226: 12203: 12185: 11395: 11048: 10983: 10922: 10875: 10807: 10776: 10636: 10577: 10511: 10296: 10263:"Loss of Life in the United States Associated with Recent Atlantic Tropical Cyclones" 10229: 10153: 9482: 9227:"Subject: E6) Frequently Asked Questions: Which tropical cyclone lasted the longest?" 9211: 9135: 9008:"Global Guide to Tropical Cyclone Forecasting: chapter 2: Tropical Cyclone Structure" 8685: 8489: 8408: 8394: 8367: 8311: 8254: 8210: 7862: 7630: 7620: 7306: 7198: 7156: 6951: 6902: 6841: 6794: 6761:"The Impact of Outflow Environment on Tropical Cyclone Intensification and Structure" 6733: 6686: 6618: 6391: 6383: 6295: 6217: 6163: 5983: 5722: 5701: 5696: 5669: 5616: 5598: 5523: 5511: 5493: 5445: 5300: 5239: 5134: 5116: 4859: 4824: 4684: 4387: 4130: 3958: 3701: 3488: 3433: 3421: 3323: 3258: 3212: 3183: 3140: 3133: 3104: 3088: 3021: 2974: 2929: 2847: 2760: 2704: 2509: 2445: 2421: 2065:

in the Northern Hemisphere, it becomes known as a typhoon. This happened in 2014 for

1592: 1120: 954: 887: 793: 766: 606: 347: 14038: 13876:. The Atlantic Hurricane Database Re-analysis Project. Hurricane Research Division. 13611: 13567: 12936: 12760: 12495: 11873: 11189: 10934: 10533: 10423: 9345: 9251: 9079: 7795: 7265: 7072: 6610: 6530: 5783: 4414:

Hurricane Operational Plan for North America, Central America and the Caribbean 2023

4338: 4289: 4240: 4191: 4091: 3970: 17058: 17028: 16877: 16793: 16773: 15986: 14567: 14557: 13963: 13955: 13936:"TROPICAL CYCLONES AND CLIMATE CHANGE ASSESSMENT Part I: Detection and Attribution" 13717: 13650: 13607: 13553: 13502: 13461: 13402: 13343: 13284: 13194: 13152: 13091: 13034: 12988: 12984: 12940: 12932: 12848: 12802: 12740: 12683: 12545: 12491: 12430: 12420: 12400: 12371: 12309: 12267: 12193: 12175: 12117: 12060: 12036: 11991: 11893: 11779: 11381: 11340: 11271: 11175: 11034: 10914: 10863: 10764: 10624: 10563: 10553: 10499: 10458: 10409: 10322:

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division.

10282: 10221: 10192: 10143: 9985: 9952: 9911: 9870: 9829: 9788: 9703: 9627: 9575:

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division.

9557: 9520: 9468: 9458: 9417: 9362:

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division.

9331: 9197: 9121: 9113: 9065: 9057: 8850: 8715:

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division.

8686:"An Overview of Coastal Land Loss: With Emphasis on the Southeastern United States" 8624:

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division.

8594: 8469: 8386: 8353: 8301: 8291: 8242: 8196: 8186: 8133: 8123: 8070: 8017: 7910: 7852: 7844: 7781: 7616: 7420: 7353: 7292: 7251: 7190: 7144: 7113: 7058: 7019: 6986: 6937: 6888: 6829: 6780: 6721: 6672: 6662: 6606: 6565: 6516: 6460:"Modeling the Effect of Vertical Wind Shear on Tropical Cyclone Size and Structure" 6438: 6403: 6373: 6365: 6348: 6281: 6229: 6209: 6151: 6062: 6007: 5950: 5872: 5769: 5710: 5681: 5659: 5651: 5606: 5588: 5501: 5485: 5435: 5425: 5286: 5225: 5124: 5106: 4851: 4814: 4775: 4676: 4373: 4324: 4275: 4226: 4177: 4118: 4077: 3950: 3691: 3410: 3221: 3040: 2950: 2851: 2804: 2502: 2253: 2220: 1946: 1926: 1832: 1812: 1663: 1631: 1488: 772:

Several factors are required for these thunderstorms to develop further, including

713: 414: 369: 16860: 10768: 10171:

Nott, Jonathan; Green, Camilla; Townsend, Ian; Callaghan, Jeffrey (July 9, 2014).

10037: 8919: 8786: 7758:

Knaff, John; Longmore, Scott; DeMaria, Robert; Molenar, Debra (February 1, 2015).

7664: 6459: 3236:. A similar mission was also completed successfully in the western Pacific Ocean. 3127:

and historical documents such as diaries. Major tropical cyclones leave traces in

2200: 1462: 819:

can contribute to tropical cyclone formation by regulating the development of the

104: 17369: 17244: 17199: 17093: 17088: 17078: 16963: 16832: 16098: 15993: 15972: 15930: 15685: 15523: 15324: 14556:. 52nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. University of Hawaii. 11935: 11570:"Africa's Hurricane Katrina: Tropical Cyclone Idai Causes an Extreme Catastrophe" 11205:"Africa's Hurricane Katrina: Tropical Cyclone Idai Causes an Extreme Catastrophe" 10324:"Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?" 6190: 3176: 2982: 2905: 2784: 2744: 1500: 1418: 1127:

tend to experience much fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during

729: 509: 50: 16175: 14905: 14223: 13654: 13038: 12806: 9364:"Frequently Asked Questions: What determines the movement of tropical cyclones?" 8390: 7194: 5633: 4472:

Tropical Cyclone Operational Plan for the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea 2023

3889: 17410: 16866: 16651: 16056: 16014: 16007: 16000: 15951: 15937: 15923: 15898: 15891: 15562: 15093: 14868: 13506: 13466: 13441: 13406: 13347: 13131:

Kench, P.S.; McLean, R.F.; Owen, S.D.; Tuck, M.; Ford, M.R. (October 1, 2018).

13095: 12852: 12376: 12351: 12313: 12160:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Merrill, Robert T (1984). "A comparison of Large and Small Tropical cyclones".

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Lin, I.; Goni, Gustavo; Knaff, John; Forbes, Cristina; Ali, M. (May 31, 2012).

5714: 5430: 5405: 4855: 3429: 3144: 3036: 2740: 2639: 2607: 2531: 2479: 2462: 2227: 2097: 2034: 1991: 1611: 1366: 1342: 1095: 1063: 789: 677: 580: 461: 15159: 13874:"Documentation for 1851–1910 Alterations and Additions to the HURDAT Database" 13288: 12096:"Contribution of tropical cyclones to meridional heat transport by the oceans" 12041: 12016: 11661:

Pielke, R. A. Jr.; Rubiera, J; Landsea, C; Fernández, M. L.; Klein, R (2003).

10918: 10867: 10686:"Reduced death rates from cyclones in Bangladesh: what more needs to be done?" 10197: 10172: 8246: 7373: 6587:"Latitudinal dependence of the dry air effect on tropical cyclone development" 6213: 6012: 5955: 5291: 4891: 4122: 3854: 2622:, in March 1899. Other ocean-based hazards that tropical cyclones produce are 2118:

gale-force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the

1140:. The Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical 17384: 17053: 16576: 16530: 16226: 16021: 15979: 15965: 15772: 15600: 15569: 15319: 15263: 13959: 13832: 13619: 12385: 12189: 11898: 11725: 11062: 10987: 10558: 10331: 10225: 9584: 9363: 9336: 9311: 9257: 9230: 9154: 8929: 8724: 8633: 8358: 8333: 7930:

Meissner, Thomas; Ricciardulli, L.; Wentz, F.; Sampson, C. (April 18, 2018).

7786: 7732: 7701: 7063: 7038: 6759:

Rappin, Eric D.; Morgan, Michael C.; Tripoli, Gregory J. (February 1, 2011).

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Leonhardt, David; Moses, Claire; Philbrick, Ian Prasad (September 29, 2022).

4828: 4615: 4329: 4304: 3991: 3962: 3850: 3705: 3696: 3671: 3468: 3216: 3198: 3187: 3112: 2954: 2941: 2870: 2843: 2839: 2736: 2732: 2659: 2449: 2353: 2216: 2195: 2038: 1667: 1647: 1635: 1619: 1615: 1527: 1495:

can allow a tropical cyclone to maintain or increase its intensity following

1414: 1382: 1335: 709: 708:

refers to their winds moving in a circle, whirling round their central clear

681: 644:

Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by

591: 568: 521: 513: 465: 131: 77: 14688: 14562: 12687: 12669:"Hurricane Katrina and Oil Spills: Impact on Coastal and Ocean Environments" 12425: 12180: 10842:

Le Dé, Loïc; Rey, Tony; Leone, Frederic; Gilbert, David (January 16, 2018).

10390:"Lightning activity within tropical cyclones in the South West Indian Ocean" 10148: 10131: 9540:

Chan, Johnny C.L. (January 2005). "The Physics of Tropical Cyclone Motion".

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Collins, M.; Sutherland, M.; Bouwer, L.; Cheong, S.-M.; et al. (2019).

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Collins, M.; Sutherland, M.; Bouwer, L.; Cheong, S.-M.; et al. (2019).

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Chen, Buo-Fu; Chen, Boyo; Lin, Hsuan-Tien; Elsberry, Russell (April 2019).

7866: 7823:"Physical understanding of the tropical cyclone wind-pressure relationship" 7117: 6677: 6419:"Effects of Vertical Wind Shear on the Predictability of Tropical Cyclones" 6395: 5673: 5620: 5515: 5203: 5138: 4819: 4794: 4563:"Normas Da Autoridade Marítima Para As Atividades De Meteorologia Marítima" 3028: 2748: 2708: 2691: 2611: 2563: 2458: 2454: 2101: 689: 473: 355: 343: 14554:

Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences

14500: 14474: 14448: 14422: 14396: 13227:

Climate Justice and Community Renewal: Resistance and Grassroots Solutions

12719:

Santella, Nicholas; Steinberg, Laura J.; Sengul, Hatice (April 12, 2010).

11345: 11320: 9957: 9932: 7570:

The Regeneration of South China Sea Tropical Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal

7358: 7333: 6785: 6760: 6521: 6496: 5823: 5053:"Major tropical cyclones have become '15% more likely' over past 40 years" 4082: 4057: 3720:"Major tropical cyclones have become '15% more likely' over past 40 years" 17236: 17111: 16721: 16641: 16535: 16388: 16251: 16168: 16147: 16126: 16112: 15944: 15863: 15268: 15243: 15164: 13968: 12122: 12095: 11996: 11979: 11039: 11014: 10503: 10414: 10389: 9990: 9973: 9684:"Monsoonal Interactions Leading to Sudden Tropical Cyclone Track Changes" 9252:

Dorst, Neal; Delgado, Sandy; Hurricane Research Division (May 20, 2011).

9061: 8894: 7297: 7256: 7231: 6286: 6259: 6096:"Tropical Cyclone Intensity Forecasting: Still a Challenging Proposition" 5489: 4156:

Camargo, Suzana J.; Emanuel, Kerry A.; Sobel, Adam H. (October 1, 2007).

3954: 3500: 3452: 3414: 3319: 3148: 3124: 3108: 3083: 2998:

vegetation die due to the excess salt. In addition, hurricanes can carry

2986: 2859: 2623: 2603: 2559: 2535: 2441: 2433:

release is present, tropical cyclones tend to move towards regions where

2430: 2426: 2361: 2050: 1547: 1543: 1519: 1410: 1137: 816: 812: 785: 633: 576: 482: 362:. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is called a 161: 9070: 8481: 8201: 7088:"On the interaction of tropical-cyclone-scale vortices. I: Observations" 7037:

Carrasco, Cristina; Landsea, Christopher; Lin, Yuh-Lang (June 1, 2014).

6378: 6369: 5664: 5655: 5440: 3890:"Tropical cyclone intensity in relation to SST and moisture variability" 3374: 2873:

experiences occasional tropical cyclones, with 173 fatalities from

2148:

within the spectrum of cyclone types. These kinds of cyclones, known as

17328: 17209: 16935: 16927: 16911: 16890: 16885: 16726: 16716: 16695: 16656: 16368: 16287: 15304: 15258: 15223: 14572: 14061:"NOAA harnessing the power of new satellite data this hurricane season" 13198: 12550: 12525: 10568: 9769:"Tropical Cyclone Motion: Environmental Interaction Plus a Beta Effect" 9473: 9280:"Deadly cyclone Freddy has become Earth's longest-lived tropical storm" 9178:"Tropical Cyclone Motion: Environmental Interaction Plus a Beta Effect" 8465: 8138: 7659: 4182: 4157: 3786: 3484: 3272: 3120: 3052: 2780: 2752: 2615: 2610:

produced the highest storm surge on record, 13 m (43 ft), at

2551: 2521: 2483: 2088: 1655: 1596: 1535: 1141: 1116: 820: 777: 552: 13558: 13541: 12435: 12272: 12247: 11783: 11480:(Information Sheet: 35). Fiji Meteorological Service. April 28, 2006. 10605:"An analysis of storm Ophelia which struck Ireland on 16 October 2017" 9224: 9148: 6641:"Impact of Dry Midlevel Air on the Tropical Cyclone Outer Circulation" 5697:"Poleward expansion of tropical cyclone latitudes in warming climates" 5569:"Detected climatic change in global distribution of tropical cyclones" 4280: 4255: 4231: 4206: 2756: 1132: 1128: 17287: 17249: 17204: 17194: 17134: 16955: 16916: 16690: 16646: 16626: 16342: 16231: 15469: 15385: 15380: 15372: 15228: 15108: – South Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean from 90°E to 160°E 14526: 14258: 13156: 10628: 10010: 9810:"Some Aspects of Vortex Structure Related to Tropical Cyclone Motion" 9126: 8986:"See how Helene dwarfs other hurricanes that have hit the Gulf Coast" 8984:

Dance, Scott; Ducroquet, Simon; Muyskens, John (September 26, 2024).

8473: 8428:, Inc., KGO-TV San Francisco, Channel 7 News. Retrieved May 25, 2023. 7148: 5338:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

5176:

IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

4914:"Report on Cyclonic Disturbances Over North Indian Ocean During 2018" 3152: 3060: 3008: 2978: 2970: 2855: 2808: 2800: 2696: 2619: 2410: 2406: 2345: 2249: 2030: 1575: 1370: 721: 621:

A tropical cyclone is the generic term for a warm-cored, non-frontal

501: 30:

Several terms of bands and albums redirect here. For other uses, see

14178: 14037:. Central Pacific Hurricane Center. December 9, 2006. Archived from 12149: 11443:

Natural hazards in Australia: Identifying risk analysis requirements

8223: 6314:"J8.4 Turbulence in the Ocean Boundary Layer Below Hurricane Dennis" 2108:

At present, tropical cyclones are officially named by one of twelve

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have rapidly intensified despite relatively unfavorable conditions.

535:

The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the

17338: 17282: 17214: 17149: 17035: 17023: 16995: 16711: 16604: 16599: 15710: 15605: 15481: 9726:

Wang, Bin; Elsberry, Russell L.; Yuqing, Wang; Liguang, Wu (1998).

6311: 5925:"Sea Surface Temperature Thresholds for Tropical Cyclone Formation" 4997:"Ian Moves North / Category 4 and 5 Atlantic hurricanes since 1980" 4447:

Typhoon Committee Operational Manual: Meteorological Component 2023

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that may be present in older buildings. Common injuries arise from

3456: 3229: 3191: 3128: 3092: 3017: 2994: 2921: 2712: 2683: 2357: 2231: 1672: 1496: 1481: 811:

modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development.

781: 699: 629: 596: 81: 14635:. World Meteorological Organization. April 8, 2020. Archived from 14140: 14090: 13847:

Operational procedures of TC satellite analysis at RSMC La Reunion

11013:

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basin. If the radius of outermost closed isobar is less than two

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In addition to tropical cyclones, there are two other classes of

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research have revealed that major hurricane activity along the

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will increase storm surge levels. It is plausible that extreme

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Tropical cyclones regularly affect the coastlines of most of

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Ahead of the formal season starting, people are urged to

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in 2015—the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the

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