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502:. They have the ability to float due to the accumulation of gases within their vacuole, and the role of turgor pressure and its effect on the capacity of these vacuoles has been reported in varying scientific papers. It is noted that the higher the turgor pressure, the lower the capacity of the gas-vacuoles in different cyanobacteria. Experiments used to correlate osmosis and turgor pressure in
127:
645:
tissues but was not used to measure turgor pressure until Hüsken and
Zimmerman improved the method. Pressure probes measure turgor pressure via displacement. A glass micro-capillary tube is inserted into the cell and whatever the cell exudes into the tube is observed through a microscope. An attached
339:
Turgor pressure within the stomata regulates when the stomata can open and close, which plays a role in transpiration rates of the plant. This is also important because this function regulates water loss within the plant. Lower turgor pressure can mean that the cell has a low water concentration and
290:
The action of turgor pressure on extensible cell walls is usually said to be the driving force of growth within the cell. An increase of turgor pressure causes expansion of cells and extension of apical cells, pollen tubes, and other plant structures such as root tips. Cell expansion and an increase
184:
that pump solutes into the cell can be regulated by cell turgor pressure. Lower values allow for an increase in the pumping of solutes, which in turn increases osmotic pressure. This function is important as a plant response under drought conditions (seeing as turgor pressure is maintained), and for
514:
When measuring turgor pressure in plants, many factors have to be taken into account. It is generally stated that fully turgid cells have a turgor pressure that is equal to that of the cell and that flaccid cells have a value at or near zero. Other cellular mechanisms to be taken into consideration
686:
A hypothesis presented by M. Harold and colleagues suggests that tip growth in higher plants is amoebic in nature, and is not caused by turgor pressure as is widely believed, meaning that extension is caused by the actin cytoskeleton in these plant cells. Regulation of cell growth is implied to be
691:
micro-tubules which control the orientation of cellulose fibrils, which are deposited into the adjacent cell wall and results in growth. In plants, the cells are surrounded by cell walls and filamentous proteins which retain and adjust the plant cell's growth and shape. It is concluded that lower
677:
plants, but a paper by M. T. Tyree explores whether this is possible, or a conclusion based on misinterpreted data. He concludes that claims of negative turgor pressure values were incorrect and resulted from mis-categorization of "bound" and "free" water in a cell. By analyzing the isotherms of
678:
apoplastic and symplastic water, he shows that negative turgor pressures cannot be present within arid plants due to net water loss of the specimen during droughts. Despite this analysis and interpretation of data, negative turgor pressure values are still used within the scientific community.
605:
technique was developed by
Scholander et al., reviewed by Tyree and Hammel in their 1972 publication, in order to test water movement through plants. The instrument is used to measure turgor pressure by placing a leaf (with stem attached) into a closed chamber where pressurized gas is added in
450:
Some protists do not have cell walls and cannot experience turgor pressure. These few protists use their contractile vacuole to regulate the quantity of water within the cell. Protist cells avoid lysing in hypotonic solution by utilizing a vacuole which pumps water out of the cells to maintain
2114:"Experimental evidence for negative turgor pressure in small leaf cells of Robinia pseudoacacia L versus large cells of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et W.C. Cheng. 2. Höfler diagrams below the volume of zero turgor and the theoretical implication for pressure-volume curves of living cells"
436:. In observations of this phenomenon, it is noted that invasive hyphal growth is due to turgor pressure, along with the coenzymes secreted by the fungi to invade said substrates. Hyphal growth is directly related to turgor pressure, and growth slows as turgor pressure decreases. In
654:
These are used to accurately quantify measurements of smaller cells. In an experiment by Weber, Smith and colleagues, single tomato cells were compressed between a micro-manipulation probe and glass to allow the pressure probe's micro-capillary to find the cell's turgor pressure.
577:, are known in a water potential equation. These equations are used to measure the total water potential of a plant by using variables such as matric potential, osmotic potential, pressure potential, gravitational effects and turgor pressure. After taking the difference between Ψ
76:. Movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a volume with a low solute concentration to one with a higher solute concentration is called osmotic flow. In plants, this entails the water moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell into the cell's
1891:
122:
Turgidity is the point at which the cell's membrane pushes against the cell wall, which is when turgor pressure is high. When the cell has low turgor pressure, it is flaccid. In plants, this is shown as wilted anatomical structures. This is more specifically known as
274:, or squirting cucumber, turgor pressure builds up in the fruit to the point that aggressively detaches from the stalk, and seeds and water are squirted everywhere as the fruit falls to the ground. Turgor pressure within the fruit ranges from .003 to 1.0 MPa.
672:
decreases as the cell becomes more dehydrated, but scientists have speculated whether this value will continue to decrease but never fall to zero, or if the value can be less than zero. There have been studies which show that negative cell pressures can exist in
152:
cell or plant structure (i.e. leaf, stalk). One mechanism in plants that regulate turgor pressure is the cell's semipermeable membrane, which allows only some solutes to travel in and out of the cell, maintaining a minimum pressure. Other mechanisms include
157:, which results in water loss and decreases turgidity in cells. Turgor pressure is also a large factor for nutrient transport throughout the plant. Cells of the same organism can have differing turgor pressures throughout the organism's structure. In
625:(SPM). Small probes are introduced to the area of interest, and a spring within the probe measures values via displacement. This method can be used to measure turgor pressure of organisms. When using this method, supplemental information such as
523:
rates of the cell and the tension of cell walls. Measurement is limited depending on the method used, some of which are explored and explained below. Not all methods can be used for all organisms, due to size or other properties. For example, a
134:
The volume and geometry of the cell affects the value of turgor pressure and how it can affect the cell wall's plasticity. Studies have shown that smaller cells experience a stronger elastic change when compared to larger cells.
1899:
322:
Turgidity is observed in a cell where the cell membrane is pushed against the cell wall. In some plants, cell walls loosen at a faster rate than water can cross the membrane, which results in cells with lower turgor pressure.
138:
Turgor pressure also plays a key role in plant cell growth when the cell wall undergoes irreversible expansion due to the force of turgor pressure as well as structural changes in the cell wall that alter its extensibility.
147:
Turgor pressure within cells is regulated by osmosis and this also causes the cell wall to expand during growth. Along with size, rigidity of the cell is also caused by turgor pressure; a lower pressure results in a
236:, at the carpal tip. These cells undergo tip growth rather quickly due to increases in turgor pressure. The pollen tube of lilies have a mean turgor pressure of 0.21 MPa when growing during this process.
482:
turgor-resistant cell walls. Throughout these organisms' life cycle, carefully controlled turgor pressure is responsible for cell expansion and for the release of sperm, but not for processes such as
585:, the value for turgor pressure is obtained. When using this method, gravity and matric potential are considered to be negligible, since their values are generally either negative or close to zero.
99:
concentration (osmolarity), to an adjacent region with a higher solute concentration until equilibrium between the two areas is reached. It is usually accompanied by a favorable increase in the
1790:
Tomos, A. D.; Leigh, R. A.; Shaw, C. A.; Jones, R. G. W. (1 November 1984). "A Comparison of
Methods for Measuring Turgor Pressures and Osmotic Pressures of Cells of Red Beet Storage Tissue".
224:
cells cause an outward bending force which leads to the release of pollen. This means that lower turgor pressures are observed in these structures due to the fact that they are dehydrated.
378:
cells of the plant, and the movement of potassium and calcium ions throughout the cells cause the increase in turgor pressure. When touched, the pulvinus is activated and exudes
3320:
1394:
Serpe, Marcelo D.; Matthews, Mark A. (1 January 1994). "Growth, Pressure, and Wall Stress in
Epidermal Cells of Begonia argenteo- guttata L. Leaves during Development".
390:
As earlier stated, turgor pressure can be found in other organisms besides plants and can play a large role in the development, movement, and nature of said organisms.
1696:
Reed, R. H.; Walsby, A. E. (1 December 1985). "Changes in turgor pressure in response to increases in external NaCl concentration in the gas-vacuolate cyanobacterium
1022:"The Root Tip and Accelerating Region Suppress Elongation of the Decelerating Region without any Effects on Cell Turgor in Primary Roots of Maize under Water Stress"
3325:
1125:"Gradients in Water Potential and Turgor Pressure along the Translocation Pathway during Grain Filling in Normally Watered and Water-Stressed Wheat Plants"
72:
when under too much pressure. The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is caused by the osmotic flow of water through a
3458:
48:, and is defined as the pressure in a fluid measured at a certain point within itself when at equilibrium. Generally, turgor pressure is caused by the
1924:
Tyree, M. T.; Hammel, H. T. (1972). "The
Measurement of the Turgor Pressure and the Water Relations of Plants by the Pressure-bomb Technique".
896:
340:
closing the stomata would help to preserve water. High turgor pressure keeps the stomata open for gas exchanges necessary for photosynthesis.
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466:
because they lack a cell wall. In organisms with cell walls, the cell wall prevents the cell from being lysed by high turgor pressure.
2061:
Weber, Alain; Braybrook, Siobhan; Huflejt, Michal; Mosca, Gabriella; Routier-Kierzkowska, Anne-Lise; Smith, Richard S. (1 June 2015).
834:
910:
1225:
Benkert, Rainer; Obermeyer, Gerhard; Bentrup, Friedrich-Wilhelm (1 March 1997). "The turgor pressure of growing lily pollen tubes".
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does not have the same properties as a plant, which would place limitations on methods that could be used to infer turgor pressure.
3192:
1172:
Keller, Markus; Shrestha, Pradeep M. (2014). "Solute accumulation differs in the vacuoles and apoplast of ripening grape berries".
1396:
107:
cell membrane which permits the flow of water into and out of the cell while limiting the flow of solutes. When the cell is in a
629:, single force depth curves and cell geometries can be used to quantify turgor pressures within a given area (usually a cell).
374:
have been observed to affect this response. It has also been recorded that turgor pressure is different in the upper and lower
872:
1866:
536:
Units used to measure turgor pressure are independent from the measures used to infer its values. Common units include
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that have cell walls. This system is not seen in animal cells, as the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to
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appears out of the cut surface and at the point which it doesn't accumulate or retreat back into the cut surface.
310:
can have pressures ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 MPa. These high pressures can explain why plants can grow through
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302:. A growing root cell's turgor pressure can be up to 0.6 MPa, which is over three times that of a car tire.
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2063:"Measuring the mechanical properties of plant cells by combining micro-indentation with osmotic treatments"
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plants grow through apical growth, which differs since the cell wall only expands on one end of the cell.
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is responsible for the plant's reaction when touched. Other factors such as changes in osmotic pressure,
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have been used to show how diffusion of solutes into the cell affects turgor pressure within the cell.
2220:
1955:"Quantifying Hydrostatic Pressure in Plant Cells by Using Indentation with an Atomic Force Microscope"
3519:
3332:
2155:
Oertli, J.J. (July 1986). "The Effect of Cell Size on Cell
Collapse under Negative Turgor Pressure".
622:
3470:
3315:
2365:
1702:
1570:
Money, Nicholas P. (31 December 1995). "Turgor pressure and the mechanics of fungal penetration".
975:
Waggoner, Paul E.; Zelitch, Israel (10 December 1965). "Transpiration and the
Stomata of Leaves".
618:
205:
3300:
3224:
1745:
Oliver, Roderick Lewis (1 April 1994). "Floating and
Sinking in Gas-Vacuolate Cyanobacteria1".
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17:
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device then measures how much pressure is required to push the emission back into the cell.
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1968:
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1335:"Regulator or Driving Force? The Role of Turgor Pressure in Oscillatory Plant Cell Growth"
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8:
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1959:
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1972:
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1626:"The evolution of silicification in diatoms: inescapable sinking and sinking as escape?"
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990:
753:
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3160:
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2416:
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Tyree, M. (January 1976). "Negative Turgor
Pressure in Plant Cells: Fact or Fallacy?".
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proteins, which in turn increases turgor pressure and closes the leaves of the plant.
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of water into the cell, and turgor pressure increases due to the increasing volume of
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solution, water flows into the membrane and increases the cell's volume, while in an
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solution, water flows out of the cell, which decreases the cell's volume. When in a
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2014:"Pressure Probe Technique for Measuring Water Relations of Cells in Higher Plants"
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233:
2221:"Tip growth in plant cells may be amoeboid and not generated by turgor pressure"
1819:
1681:
1661:"Gas vesicle collapse by turgor pressure and its role in buoyancy regulation by
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1490:"Penetration of hard substrates by a fungus employing enormous turgor pressures"
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784:"Effect of Turgor Pressure and Cell Size on the Wall Elasticity of Plant Cells"
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1980:
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cells, but can now be used on larger-celled specimens. It is usually used on
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162:
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34:
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839:
817:
479:
2112:
Yang, Dongmei; Li, Junhui; Ding, Yiting; Tyree, Melvin T. (1 March 2017).
1533:
1074:"Flowers under pressure: ins and outs of turgor regulation in development"
1037:
1020:
Shimazaki, Yumi; Ookawa, Taiichiro; Hirasawa, Tadashi (1 September 2005).
862:
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1283:
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499:
225:
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It has been concluded that loss of turgor pressure within the leaves of
27:
Hydrostatic force in plants, fungi and also walled bacteria and protists
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3246:
3229:
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2907:
2843:
2635:
2482:
2441:
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1723:
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516:
503:
475:
429:
367:
108:
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2012:
Hüsken, Dieter; Steudle, Ernst; Zimmermann, Ulrich (1 February 1978).
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2618:
2538:
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Beauzamy, Léna; Nakayama, Naomi; Boudaoud, Arezki (1 November 2014).
688:
674:
460:
303:
292:
266:
95:
Osmosis is the process in which water flows from a volume with a low
38:
2205:
1585:
1549:"Fungal Cells Turgor Pressure: Theoretical Approach and Measurement"
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Kroeger, Jens H.; Zerzour, Rabah; Geitmann, Anja (25 April 2011).
2598:
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In fungi, turgor pressure has been observed as a large factor in
296:
270:, turgor pressure is the method by which seeds are dispersed. In
210:
149:
100:
77:
65:
49:
1262:"The mechanics of explosive seed dispersal in orange jewelweed (
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2768:
2706:
2682:
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2672:
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solution, water flows in and out of the cell at an equal rate.
96:
57:
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2890:
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2401:
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638:
428:. The study showed that they could penetrate substances like
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69:
53:
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2613:
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2426:
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307:
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bloom via volatile turgor pressure of cells on the plant's
2060:
1547:
Gervais, Patrick; Abadie, Christophe; Molin, Paul (1999).
1441:"Mechanism of the Seismonastic Reaction in Mimosa pudica1"
1260:
Hayashi, M.; Feilich, K. L.; Ellerby, D. J. (1 May 2009).
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2608:
2255:
607:
299:
126:
1123:
Fisher, Donald B.; Cash-Clark, Cora E. (27 April 2017).
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Open stomata on the left and closed stomata on the right
185:
cells which need to accumulate solutes (i.e. developing
2011:
1224:
1019:
637:
This machine was originally used to measure individual
1332:
929:"Plasmolysis in Elodea Plant Cells – Science NetLinks"
1317:
Seed
Biology: Importance, Development and Germination
1259:
424:
immense turgor pressures have been observed in their
519:, solutes within the protoplast (solute potential),
405:
bursting through asphalt due to high turgor pressure
192:
1789:
744:Fricke, Wieland (January 2017). "Turgor Pressure".
2218:
1850:
1546:
1328:
1326:
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1319:. Vol. 1. Academic Press. pp. 195–196.
1122:
2111:
974:
442:, pressures of up to 8 MPa have been observed.
1323:
1171:
860:
681:
561:Turgor pressure can be deduced when the total
103:of the solvent. All cells are surrounded by a
2271:
1553:Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research
1393:
861:Koeppen, Bruce M.; Stanton, Bruce A. (2013).
711:Pritchard, Jeremy (2001). "Turgor Pressure".
548:per square meter. 1 bar is equal to 0.1 MPa.
33:is the force within the cell that pushes the
3377:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
952:
142:
1923:
1624:Raven, J. A.; Waite, A. M. (1 April 2004).
663:
658:
649:
556:
2278:
2264:
1695:
1623:
895:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
613:
588:
2244:
2219:Pickett-Heaps, J.D.; Klein, A.G. (1998).
2131:
2088:
2037:
1988:
1892:"Pressure, Gravity, and Matric Potential"
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1643:
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1360:
1314:
1291:
1148:
1099:
1045:
807:
710:
385:
3321:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1952:
668:It has been observed that the value of Ψ
606:increments. Measurements are taken when
592:
397:
349:
330:
281:
243:
197:It has been recorded that the petals of
125:
87:
1658:
1397:International Journal of Plant Sciences
781:
498:are the ones generally responsible for
14:
3507:
2154:
1848:
1744:
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743:
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2189:
1919:
1917:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1569:
1438:
1067:
1065:
415:Saprolegnia ferax, Magnaporthe grisea
370:contraction and increase in cellular
161:, turgor pressure is responsible for
64:. The phenomenon is also observed in
970:
968:
867:(Fifth ed.). Philadelphia, PA.
829:
827:
777:
775:
773:
706:
704:
291:in turgor pressure is due to inward
1820:"What is a pressure unit "bar" (b)"
955:"Biomechanics of Plant Cell Growth"
754:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001687.pub2
459:Turgor pressure is not observed in
220:, it has been observed that drying
24:
1914:
1837:
1439:Allen, Robert D. (1 August 1969).
1062:
432:, and synthetic materials such as
25:
3531:
3326:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
1488:Howard, Richard (December 1991).
965:
953:Jordan, B.M.; Dumais, J. (2010).
911:"GCSE Bitesize: Osmosis in cells"
824:
770:
701:
632:
239:
193:Flowering and reproductive organs
3489:
3488:
2225:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
1769:10.1111/j.0022-3646.1994.00161.x
1645:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01022.x
782:Steudle, Ernst (February 1977).
489:
413:penetration. In species such as
343:
2212:
2183:
2148:
2105:
2054:
2005:
1946:
1883:
1812:
1783:
1738:
1689:
1669:Journal of General Microbiology
1652:
1617:
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1540:
1481:
1432:
1387:
1308:
1253:
1218:
1165:
1116:
1013:
509:
248:Mature squirting cucumber fruit
213:surface. During processes like
2068:Journal of Experimental Botany
1927:Journal of Experimental Botany
1793:Journal of Experimental Botany
1271:Journal of Experimental Botany
946:
921:
903:
854:
737:
228:are cells which elongate when
74:selectively permeable membrane
13:
1:
2177:10.1016/S0176-1617(86)80048-7
2119:Plant, Cell & Environment
1600:"Pearson – The Biology Place"
999:10.1126/science.150.3702.1413
959:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
746:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
713:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
695:
3367:History of plant systematics
2954:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1659:Kinsman, R. (January 1991).
1362:10.1371/journal.pone.0018549
627:continuum mechanic equations
317:
176:
83:
52:flow of water and occurs in
7:
2157:Journal of Plant Physiology
1953:Beauzamy, Lena (May 2015).
1682:10.1099/00221287-137-5-1171
715:. American Cancer Society.
682:Tip growth in higher plants
445:
286:Tree roots penetrating rock
10:
3536:
3183:Alternation of generations
2285:
2193:Canadian Journal of Botany
1573:Canadian Journal of Botany
597:Diagram of a pressure bomb
551:
469:
454:
326:
3484:
3432:
3396:
3333:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3296:Biological classification
3286:
3159:
3075:
2971:
2921:
2646:
2576:
2519:
2481:
2455:
2391:
2311:
2293:
1981:10.1016/j.bpj.2015.03.035
1890:Boundless (26 May 2016).
1853:Water Relations of Plants
1196:10.1007/s00425-013-2004-z
623:scanning probe microscopy
314:and other hard surfaces.
277:
143:Turgor pressure in plants
130:A turgid and flaccid cell
3193:Evolutionary development
1703:Archives of Microbiology
1515:10.1073/pnas.88.24.11281
1315:Kozlowski, T.T. (2012).
664:Negative turgor pressure
659:Theoretical speculations
650:Micro-manipulation probe
619:Atomic force microscopes
557:Water potential equation
531:
393:
2844:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
721:10.1038/npg.els.0001687
614:Atomic force microscope
589:Pressure-bomb technique
206:Kalanchoe blossfeldiana
3459:by author abbreviation
3383:Plant taxonomy systems
3301:Botanical nomenclature
2237:10.1098/rspb.1998.0457
1806:10.1093/jxb/35.11.1675
835:"Osmosis and tonicity"
598:
406:
386:Function in other taxa
357:
336:
287:
249:
131:
92:
3466:Botanical expeditions
1849:Kramer, Paul (2012).
1494:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci
1038:10.1104/pp.105.062091
596:
451:osmotic equilibrium.
401:
353:
334:
285:
247:
129:
91:
3198:Evolutionary history
3188:Double fertilization
3040:Cellular respiration
1940:10.1093/jxb/23.1.267
1748:Journal of Phycology
1457:10.1104/pp.44.8.1101
1141:10.1104/pp.123.1.139
255:Impatiens parviflora
165:of features such as
46:hydrostatic pressure
2417:Non-vascular plants
2231:(1404): 1453–1459.
2169:1986JPPhy.124..365O
2030:10.1104/pp.61.2.158
1973:2015BpJ...108.2448B
1960:Biophysical Journal
1902:on 7 September 2017
1761:1994JPcgy..30..161O
1716:1985ArMic.143..290R
1663:Anabaena flos-aquae
1506:1991PNAS...8811281H
1500:(24): 11281–11284.
1353:2011PLoSO...618549K
1188:2014Plant.239..633K
991:1965Sci...150.1413W
985:(3702): 1413–1420.
933:sciencenetlinks.com
800:10.1104/pp.59.2.285
272:Ecballium elaterium
267:Ecballium elaterium
2922:Surface structures
2717:Flower development
2081:10.1093/jxb/erv135
1724:10.1007/BF00411252
1284:10.1093/jxb/erp070
1264:Impatiens capensis
1239:10.1007/BF01282125
1092:10.1093/aob/mcu187
599:
439:Magnaporthe grisea
434:polyvinyl chloride
420:Aspergillus oryzae
407:
358:
337:
288:
252:In fruits such as
250:
182:Transport proteins
132:
93:
44:It is also called
3502:
3501:
3141:Herbaceous plants
2967:
2966:
2200:(23): 2738–2746.
2133:10.1111/pce.12860
2075:(11): 3229–3241.
1967:(10): 2448–2456.
1824:www.aqua-calc.com
1800:(11): 1675–1683.
874:978-0-323-08825-1
571:osmotic potential
261:Oxalia acetosella
200:Gentiana kochiana
16:(Redirected from
3527:
3520:Membrane biology
3492:
3491:
3471:Individual trees
3146:Secondary growth
3117:Succulent plants
3105:Prostrate shrubs
2988:Apical dominance
2973:Plant physiology
2934:Epicuticular wax
2479:
2478:
2472:
2463:Plant morphology
2280:
2273:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2163:(3–4): 365–370.
2152:
2146:
2145:
2135:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2092:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2041:
2018:Plant Physiology
2009:
2003:
2002:
1992:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1921:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1898:. Archived from
1887:
1881:
1880:
1859:Elsevier Science
1856:
1846:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1675:(3): 1171–1178.
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1604:www.phschool.com
1596:
1590:
1589:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1527:
1517:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1451:(8): 1101–1107.
1445:Plant Physiology
1436:
1430:
1429:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1374:
1364:
1330:
1321:
1320:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1295:
1278:(7): 2045–2053.
1257:
1251:
1250:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1169:
1163:
1162:
1152:
1129:Plant Physiology
1120:
1114:
1113:
1103:
1086:(7): 1517–1533.
1079:Annals of Botany
1069:
1060:
1059:
1049:
1026:Plant Physiology
1017:
1011:
1010:
972:
963:
962:
950:
944:
943:
941:
939:
925:
919:
918:
907:
901:
900:
894:
886:
864:Renal physiology
858:
852:
851:
849:
847:
831:
822:
821:
811:
788:Plant Physiology
779:
768:
767:
748:. pp. 1–6.
741:
735:
734:
708:
476:Heterokontophyta
474:In diatoms, the
21:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3505:
3504:
3503:
3498:
3480:
3449:Botanical terms
3442:
3428:
3392:
3338:Citrus taxonomy
3316:Author citation
3282:
3176:
3155:
3077:
3071:
3067:Turgor pressure
2975:
2963:
2917:
2732:Floral symmetry
2650:
2642:
2572:
2561:Vascular bundle
2556:Vascular tissue
2515:
2475:
2466:
2465:
2451:
2422:Vascular plants
2387:
2383:Plant pathology
2307:
2289:
2284:
2254:
2217:
2213:
2206:10.1139/b76-294
2188:
2184:
2153:
2149:
2110:
2106:
2059:
2055:
2010:
2006:
1951:
1947:
1922:
1915:
1905:
1903:
1888:
1884:
1869:
1847:
1838:
1828:
1826:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1788:
1784:
1743:
1739:
1694:
1690:
1657:
1653:
1631:New Phytologist
1622:
1618:
1608:
1606:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1586:10.1139/b95-231
1568:
1564:
1545:
1541:
1486:
1482:
1437:
1433:
1392:
1388:
1331:
1324:
1313:
1309:
1258:
1254:
1223:
1219:
1170:
1166:
1121:
1117:
1070:
1063:
1018:
1014:
973:
966:
951:
947:
937:
935:
927:
926:
922:
909:
908:
904:
888:
887:
875:
859:
855:
845:
843:
833:
832:
825:
780:
771:
764:
742:
738:
731:
709:
702:
698:
684:
671:
666:
661:
652:
635:
616:
591:
584:
580:
576:
568:
563:water potential
559:
554:
534:
512:
492:
472:
457:
448:
403:Shaggy ink caps
396:
388:
348:
329:
320:
280:
242:
195:
179:
159:vascular plants
145:
86:
35:plasma membrane
31:Turgor pressure
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3533:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3451:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3440:
3439:Related topics
3437:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3400:
3398:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3390:
3388:Taxonomic rank
3385:
3380:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3340:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3306:Botanical name
3298:
3292:
3290:
3288:Plant taxonomy
3284:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3264:Megasporangium
3261:
3260:
3259:
3252:Microsporangia
3244:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3163:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3097:
3092:
3090:Cushion plants
3081:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3027:
3025:Plant hormones
3022:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3008:Photosynthesis
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2979:
2977:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2925:
2923:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2846:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2727:Floral formula
2724:
2722:Floral diagram
2719:
2714:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2675:
2665:
2660:
2654:
2652:
2651:(incl. Flower)
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2611:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2553:
2551:Storage organs
2548:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2525:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2485:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2437:Spermatophytes
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2407:Archaeplastida
2404:
2398:
2396:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2361:Phytogeography
2358:
2356:Phytochemistry
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2317:
2315:
2313:Subdisciplines
2309:
2308:
2306:
2305:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2260:
2253:
2252:
2211:
2182:
2147:
2126:(3): 340–350.
2104:
2053:
2024:(2): 158–163.
2004:
1945:
1934:(1): 267–282.
1913:
1882:
1868:978-0124250406
1867:
1836:
1811:
1782:
1755:(2): 161–173.
1737:
1710:(3): 290–296.
1688:
1651:
1616:
1591:
1580:(S1): 96–102.
1562:
1539:
1480:
1431:
1410:10.1086/297168
1404:(3): 291–301.
1386:
1322:
1307:
1252:
1217:
1182:(3): 633–642.
1164:
1135:(1): 139–148.
1115:
1061:
1032:(1): 458–465.
1012:
964:
945:
920:
902:
873:
853:
823:
769:
762:
736:
729:
699:
697:
694:
683:
680:
669:
665:
662:
660:
657:
651:
648:
634:
633:Pressure probe
631:
621:use a type of
615:
612:
590:
587:
582:
578:
574:
566:
558:
555:
553:
550:
533:
530:
511:
508:
496:cyanobacterium
491:
488:
471:
468:
456:
453:
447:
444:
395:
392:
387:
384:
347:
342:
328:
325:
319:
316:
279:
276:
241:
240:Seed dispersal
238:
194:
191:
178:
175:
144:
141:
105:lipid bi-layer
85:
82:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3532:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3495:
3487:
3486:
3483:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3425:
3424:Phytochemical
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3331:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3245:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3074:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3062:Transpiration
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2849:Inflorescence
2847:
2845:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2534:Ground tissue
2532:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2470:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2457:Plant anatomy
2454:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2378:Plant ecology
2376:
2374:
2373:Plant anatomy
2371:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:Archaeobotany
2319:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2269:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2143:
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494:Gas-vaculate
490:Cyanobacteria
487:
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363:Mimosa pudica
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355:Mimosa pudica
352:
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345:Mimosa pudica
341:
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163:apical growth
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155:transpiration
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19:
3515:Cell biology
3419:Horticulture
3409:Floriculture
3311:Correct name
3161:Reproduction
3151:Woody plants
3076:Plant growth
3066:
3035:Gas Exchange
3020:Phytomelanin
2898:Plant embryo
2648:Reproductive
2496:Phragmoplast
2228:
2224:
2214:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2160:
2156:
2150:
2123:
2117:
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2066:
2056:
2021:
2017:
2007:
1964:
1958:
1948:
1931:
1925:
1904:. Retrieved
1900:the original
1895:
1885:
1852:
1827:. Retrieved
1823:
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1752:
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1740:
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1672:
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1662:
1654:
1638:(1): 45–61.
1635:
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1619:
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1603:
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1233:(1–2): 1–8.
1230:
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932:
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840:Khan Academy
838:
794:(2): 285–9.
791:
787:
745:
739:
712:
685:
667:
653:
643:higher plant
636:
617:
600:
560:
535:
515:include the
513:
510:Measurements
500:water-blooms
493:
480:polyphyletic
473:
458:
449:
437:
418:
414:
408:
389:
372:permeability
368:protoplasmic
361:
359:
354:
344:
338:
321:
289:
271:
265:
259:
253:
251:
226:Pollen tubes
204:
198:
196:
180:
171:pollen tubes
146:
137:
133:
123:plasmolysis.
121:
94:
45:
43:
37:against the
30:
29:
3235:Pollen tube
3230:Pollinators
3220:Pollination
3215:Germination
3030:Respiration
3013:Chlorophyll
2859:Pedicellate
2793:Gametophyte
2712:Aestivation
2663:Antheridium
2658:Archegonium
2506:Plasmodesma
2483:Plant cells
2346:Paleobotany
2341:Ethnobotany
2326:Astrobotany
1698:Microcystis
1227:Protoplasma
689:cytoplasmic
504:prokaryotes
430:plant cells
380:contractile
306:cells in a
222:endothecium
3509:Categories
3257:Microspore
3247:Sporangium
3225:Artificial
2913:Sporophyte
2908:Sporophyll
2903:Receptacle
2798:Gynandrium
2668:Androecium
2577:Vegetative
2447:Angiosperm
2442:Gymnosperm
2336:Dendrology
696:References
687:caused by
675:xerophytic
569:, and the
517:protoplast
218:dehiscence
109:hypertonic
3454:Botanists
3372:Herbarium
3269:Megaspore
3167:Evolution
3110:Subshrubs
3078:and habit
3003:Nutrition
2998:Cellulose
2993:Bulk flow
2976:Materials
2939:Epidermis
2803:Gynoecium
2784:Endosperm
2779:Dispersal
2695:Staminode
2631:Sessility
2619:Cataphyll
2539:Mesophyll
2491:Cell wall
2432:Lycophyte
2412:Bryophyte
2366:Geobotany
2351:Phycology
1896:Boundless
1877:897023594
891:cite book
883:815507871
608:xylem sap
411:substrate
318:Turgidity
304:Epidermal
293:diffusion
177:Dispersal
167:root tips
113:hypotonic
84:Mechanism
39:cell wall
3494:Category
3414:Forestry
3404:Agronomy
3397:Practice
3348:Cultivar
3343:Cultigen
3203:timeline
3095:Rosettes
2983:Aleurone
2959:Trichome
2876:Perianth
2688:Filament
2546:Meristem
2469:glossary
2331:Bryology
2142:27861986
2099:25873663
2048:16660252
1999:25992723
1829:27 April
1777:83747596
1732:25006411
1609:27 April
1475:16657174
1426:84209016
1381:21541026
1340:PLOS ONE
1302:19321647
1247:23911884
1212:15443543
1204:24310282
1159:10806232
1110:25288632
1056:16100358
1007:17782290
938:27 April
846:27 April
818:16659835
486:growth.
446:Protists
376:pulvinar
297:vacuolar
117:isotonic
66:protists
62:bacteria
3172:Ecology
2929:Cuticle
2759:Capsule
2749:Anatomy
2700:Tapetum
2624:Petiole
2599:Rhizome
2594:Rhizoid
2521:Tissues
2511:Vacuole
2501:Plastid
2303:Outline
2298:History
2246:1689221
2165:Bibcode
2090:4449541
2039:1091824
1990:4457008
1969:Bibcode
1757:Bibcode
1712:Bibcode
1534:1837147
1502:Bibcode
1418:2475182
1372:3081820
1349:Bibcode
1293:2682495
1184:Bibcode
1101:4204789
1047:1203394
987:Bibcode
978:Science
552:Methods
546:newtons
470:Diatoms
455:Animals
327:Stomata
312:asphalt
211:adaxial
101:entropy
78:vacuole
50:osmotic
3476:Plants
3379:(IAPT)
3132:Lianas
3100:Shrubs
3052:Starch
2944:Nectar
2864:Raceme
2830:Stigma
2818:Locule
2808:Carpel
2769:Pyrena
2707:Flower
2683:Anther
2678:Stamen
2673:Pollen
2395:groups
2287:Botany
2243:
2140:
2097:
2087:
2046:
2036:
1997:
1987:
1875:
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1175:Planta
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1005:
881:
871:
816:
809:542383
806:
760:
727:
526:diatom
461:animal
426:hyphae
278:Growth
234:stigma
230:pollen
215:anther
187:fruits
150:wilted
97:solute
60:, and
54:plants
18:Turgor
3436:Lists
3353:Group
3276:Spore
3210:Flora
3127:Vines
3122:Trees
3085:Habit
3057:Sugar
2949:Stoma
2891:Sepal
2886:Petal
2881:Tepal
2869:Umbel
2854:Bract
2835:Style
2823:Ovule
2813:Ovary
2754:Berry
2744:Fruit
2737:Whorl
2604:Shoot
2402:Algae
2393:Plant
1906:1 May
1773:S2CID
1728:S2CID
1700:sp".
1525:53118
1422:S2CID
1414:JSTOR
1243:S2CID
1208:S2CID
1150:58989
639:algal
581:and Ψ
544:, or
532:Units
478:have
464:cells
394:Fungi
58:fungi
3358:Grex
3240:Self
2774:Seed
2636:Stem
2614:Leaf
2589:Root
2584:Bulb
2568:Wood
2529:Cork
2427:Fern
2138:PMID
2095:PMID
2044:PMID
1995:PMID
1908:2017
1873:OCLC
1863:ISBN
1831:2017
1611:2017
1530:PMID
1471:PMID
1377:PMID
1298:PMID
1200:PMID
1155:PMID
1106:PMID
1052:PMID
1003:PMID
940:2017
897:link
879:OCLC
869:ISBN
848:2017
814:PMID
758:ISBN
725:ISBN
601:The
538:bars
484:seta
417:and
308:leaf
264:and
203:and
169:and
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2764:Nut
2609:Bud
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