646:
a "treaty" in the way that
Haudenosaunee tradition remembers it, and may instead have seen their agreement as something less official and more contingent. Mark Meuwese has examined the history of Dutch-Indigenous relations in Africa and Brazil and found that, before 1621, "Dutch traders did not conclude treaties with Native peoples in the Atlantic world. Various agreements and alliances were made, but these took place only when specific factors were involved — the threat of Iberian intervention and the presence of centralized political orders among Indigenous peoples, factors that were not present in North America." Similarly, examining Dutch language sources pertaining to early Dutch trade voyages to the Hudson River and other areas in the mid-Atlantic region, Jaap Jacobs finds that "Dutch traders would have had no need to make a treaty with local Indian groups on behalf of the Dutch nation and there is no indication that they did so. On the other hand, there is good reason to believe that Dutch traders and local Native people would have made some sort of agreement as indicated by the Dutch building of the Fort Nassau on native lands and the Kleyntjen affair." Jacobs concludes (along with Paul Otto) that
869:
20:
398:
896:. Herkens writes that the document contains c. 40 grammatical anachronisms, and that on grammatical grounds it is likely that the text was written in the 20th century. Given that Van Loon forged other pieces from the same period, they point to him as the most probable forger. In 2013, linguistic experts Harrie Hermkens, Jan Noordegraaf, and Nicoline van der Sijs submitted the document to further linguistic and historical analysis, including its provenance and connection to Lawrence G. Van Loon. They also found the document to contain "a significant number of anachronisms making it impossible for the text to have originated in 1613. Nor is it possible that it is a later copy of a document since lost."
28:
695:
indicates that the dominant style was a relatively simple, monochrome design, often with discoidal beads strung together (rather than tubular beads woven together). Historians debate whether or not the technology required to construct the sophisticated two-row style wampum belt (including, most importantly, tubular purple beads) was available to communities in the region prior to 1613; however, Parmenter indicates that archeological evidence does not rule out the possibility that two-row wampum belts may have featured in the initial treaty negotiations between the Dutch and the
Haudenosaunee.
920:
652:
between Dutch and
Iroquois representatives that would later became the basis for Anglo-British and then American negotiations with the Iroquois. The historical context does make it unlikely, at best, that such an event happened in the 1610s. The claim that 2013 is the four-hundredth anniversary of a first covenant is therefore not corroborated by historical research. However, after the 1621 establishment of the West India Company and particularly after the end of the Mohawk-Mahican War four years later, the context for such an enduring agreement is far more probable.
940:, a diplomat from the Onondaga Turtle Clan, described the Two Row Treaty as the foundation for all Haudenosaunee treaties, many since broken by New York State, the US and Canada. UN representatives from Panama and Bolivia described their work to restore land to native ownership and protection. The UN Secretary for Human Rights outlined the UN's goal to redress treaty violations, treat them as human rights violations, and help enforce treaties like the Two Row in the future.
753:. As illustrated in the recitations , the idea of a rope, and later a "chain" of iron, then silver represented a critical component of the tradition that bound the two peoples together in friendship as a necessary precursor to the kind of relationship embodied by two vessels travelling along a parallel route. The latter idea, in other words, related to the former concept – the two were neither incompatible nor mutually exclusive.
856:, which decreed that Christian European nations could seize lands of non-Christian peoples whom they encountered in the New World. Modern legal rulings, including a 2005 decision by the US Supreme Court against Haudenosaunee plaintiffs, continue to hinge on that doctrine, and Two Row Treaty supporters promote the treaty as a legal standard to replace it.
622:
agreement prior to circa 1620 finds support in 1701 recitation, in which
Haudenosaunee delegates described their original agreement with the Dutch occurring 'above eighty years' prior to that date, and in 1744 Onondaga headman Canasatego dated the origin of the relationship to "above One Hundred Years Ago'."
791:), to do more than simply identify a single document as a fake, or to set the bar for evidentiary proof of a concept's existence to practically impossible standards – such as requiring a surviving "physical" Two Row belt from the colonial era that can be explicitly associated with a documentary source.
702:
relationship. Parmenter explains how this "ship and canoe" metaphor is one of many "media" by which the
Haudenosaunee have represented pictorially their relationship to European newcomers over the centuries, with other media including "a piece of tree bark or rope" and (later) images of an iron chain
645:
kind of political or economic agreement in the early seventeenth century is overwhelming, some historians have found reasons to be cautious about assuming the nature of that agreement was formal and treaty-like. The Dutch, for example, may not have recognized their agreement with the
Haudenosaunee as
625:
Parmenter has investigated the extent to which
Haudenosaunee oral tradition is corroborated by surviving documentary (written) records and found that "the documentary evidence, considered in the aggregate, reveals a striking degree of consistency over time in the expression of fundamental principles
935:
Mohawk
Community, Albany, Poughkeepsie, and Beacon NY, where Native leaders and public officials discussed the treaty and its bearing on current issues. On August 9, the paddlers arrived in New York City to attend a UN session for Indigenous Peoples Day with Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and member
826:
to be honored internationally. The Dutch government honored the passport until 2010. It remains unclear if the policy will be changed in recognition of the 400th anniversary of the treaty. In
September 2013, three Haudenosaunee leaders traveled to the Netherlands for an official visit in recognition
786:
relations were not static – they evolved over time as ties between the
Iroquois and the Dutch (and the latter's English and American successors) deepened and sociopolitical circumstances grew more complex – but they did exist. Indeed, it is incumbent upon all scholars considering the historicity of
711:
The question of what materials — wampum or otherwise — were exchanged at the initial negotiations of the treaty cannot be answered definitively. While it is possible that a two-row wampum belt featured in the initial treaty negotiations, there is no documentary evidence to support this claim. There
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relationship that is the deepest and most significant, and it is the two-row wampum that is understood to represent this conception most powerfully, with two rows of purple wampum beads against a background of white beads, each row representing a parallel river, down which the respective vessels of
673:
As long as the Sun shines upon this Earth, that is how long our Agreement will stand; Second, as long as the Water still flows; and Third, as long as the Grass Grows Green at a certain time of the year. Now we have Symbolized this Agreement and it shall be binding forever as long as Mother Earth is
731:
relationship between the Haudenosaunee and the Dutch do not mention wampum belts specifically, descriptions "of wampum belts in documentary sources, particularly from the early period of contact, are notoriously vague." Moreover, as artifacts wampum belts were extremely prone to deterioration and
859:
Supporters of the Two Row Wampum Treaty note that it conveys a respect for the laws of nature and thus an obligation for ecological stewardship. The treaty has been cited as an inspiration to clean up polluted waters such as Onondaga Lake and the Mohawk River. "Water is sacred, like all parts of
694:
There is clear evidence of Haudenosaunee use of wampum for diplomatic functions during the pre-contact period, while the post-contact period saw "increasing significance of wampum as a material form to facilitate communication across cultural boundaries". Early evidence for wampum in the region
621:
relations between Iroquois nations and Europeans with a circa 1613 agreement negotiated between Mohawks and a Dutch trader named Jacob Eelckens at Tawagonshi, as a precursor to the formal establishment of Dutch Fort Nassau at nearby Normans Kill." According to Parmenter, "Dating of the original
748:
relationship: its beginnings in the early decades of the seventeenth century, its rhetorical framing in terms of an "iron chain" forged and renewed with the Dutch prior to 1664, and its early association with the "ship and canoe" discourse present in the explicit "Two Row" articulations of the
651:
whatever agreements or negotiations traders such as Jacob Eelkens and Hendrick Christiansen may have made with Native peoples, these could not be construed, at least in European terms, as diplomatic treaties between sovereign nations. does not, however, discredit the tradition of an agreement
598:
relationship in visual form via a long beaded belt of white wampum with two parallel lines of purple wampum along its length – the lines symbolizing a separate-but-equal relationship between two entities based on mutual benefit and mutual respect for each party’s inherent freedom of movement –
801:
Onondaga leaders state that the oral tradition which accompanies the wampum belts is evidence that an agreement was made in 1613. Andy Mager of the Syracuse Peace Council was quoted in The Post-Standard as saying "We believe the Haudenosaunee oral history of the treaty...We believe the basic
927:
In July and August 2013, hundreds of Native Americans and their allies took part in a river journey to recognize and renew the Two Row Wampum Treaty. Canoeing and kayaking across New York State, the participants called attention to the treaty and its significance for native land rights and
887:
In 1987, academics Charles Gehring, William Starna, and William Fenton published an article in the New York History journal entitled "The Tawagonshi Treaty of 1613: The Final Chapter." Their theory is that this written version is a forgery because it contains what they argue are grammatical
749:
tradition that appear after circa 1870. It is important to point out that the while the language of the "chain" connecting the two peoples persisted in recitations of the tradition over time, it never supplanted the "ship and canoe" language characteristic of Haudenosaunee understandings of
717:
Three of the Haudenosaunee recitations (1656, 1722, and 1744) associate the agreement directly with wampum belts, and Johnson punctuated his 1748 recitation with a "large Belt of Wampum". Exchanges of wampum belts also occurred commonly in association with renewals of the alliance at treaty
712:
is, however, evidence in the form of Haudenosaunee oral tradition that wampum belts featured, if not in the original negotiations, then at least in the earliest rituals of renewal (of which there were many) between the Haudenosaunee and the Dutch (later the British). According to Parmenter:
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tradition indicates clearly that the remarkable durability over time of ideas associated with a Two Row relationship does not depend on the legitimacy of a single document and that Haudenosaunee and contemporary Europeans "verbalized" these ideas long before the late nineteenth century.
662:
You say that you are our Father and I am your Son. We say 'We will not be like Father and Son, but like Brothers.' This wampum belt confirms our words. Neither of us will make compulsory laws or interfere in the internal affairs of the other. Neither of us will try to steer the other's
928:
environmental protection. The paddlers traveled from Onondaga, birthplace of the Haudenosaunee league, along the Mohawk and Hudson rivers to New York City, ending at a special session at the United Nations. The anniversary journey brought world attention to the Two Row Treaty.
903:
professor, is among those who remain convinced that the document version is also valid, and concurs with other scholars who point out that any inconsistencies in language and pen strokes can be explained by the fact that it was copied by hand years after 1613.
1535:", p. 89; Parmenter here suggesting there has been an evolution in representation from bark/rope > chain > burnished silver covenant chain, doubtless in part as a consequence of European participation in the practice of commodified representation of the
766:
there is no evidence that such a thing as an "original" two-row wampum belt ever existed. Nor is there any evidence of the existence of a 1613 treaty beyond a claim traceable to a document forged in the 1960s by a historian who collected and wrote about old
603:) as a human-made symbol emulating a river, due in part to its linear form and in part to the way in which its constituent shell beads resemble ripples and waves. Just as a navigable water course facilitates mutual relations between nations, thus does
19:
496:
belts and oral tradition. However, in more recent years the authenticity of the later, written versions of the agreement have been a source of debate, with some scholarly sources maintaining that a treaty between the
599:
neither side may attempt to "steer" the vessel of the other as it travels along its own, self-determined path. A nineteenth-century French dictionary of the Mohawk language defined the very word for wampum belt (
594:
emphasizes the distinct identity of the two peoples and a mutual engagement to coexist in peace without interference in the affairs of the other. The Two Row Belt, as it is commonly known, depicts the
473:. The agreement is considered by the Haudenosaunee to be the basis of all of their subsequent treaties with European and North American governments, and the citizens of those nations, including the
1188:"'De laatste spreker van Low Dutch' L.G. van Loon vervalste de geschiedenis van het Nederlands in Amerika (The last speaker of Low Dutch LG van Loon LG falsified the history of the Dutch in America)"
892:; that a blend of handwriting styles from the 17th and 20th centuries is used; that the names of villages and not chiefs are used; and that the writing is "too smooth" to be made by a 17th-century
1723:
23:
The Two Row Wampum is one of the oldest treaty relationships between the Onkwehonweh, original people of Turtle Island (North America), and European immigrants. The treaty was made in 1613.
1041:
868:
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The significance of the two-row style of wampum, according to Parmenter, is that it captures the original "ship and canoe" metaphor present in the Haudenosaunee understanding of the
657:
Nevertheless, Haudenosaunee tradition records not only the existence of a treaty, but its specific meaning, in the form of a Haudenosaunee reply to the initial Dutch treaty proposal:
2007:
556:, exploiting for extractive purposes the trade networks that had existed for millennia. The Dutch traded with the indigenous populations to supply fur pelts particularly from
1843:
590:
may best be understood as a Haudenosaunee term embodying the ongoing negotiation of their relationship to European colonizers and their descendants; the underlying concept of
860:
creation," said Freida Jacques, an Onondaga Clanmother. "All life relies on it. It has a sacred duty, given to it by the Creator, to give all creation clean, fresh water."
638:
tradition before Anglo-American and French colonial audiences dates to more than 30 years before this, in 1656 (43 years after the putative origin of the treaty in 1613).
1092:
744:
Beyond the direct evidence represented by the recitations, additional documentary sources amplify our confidence in the deep roots of the fundamental concepts of the
607:, "the river formed by the hand of man", serve as a sign of "alliance, concord, and friendship" that links "divergent spirits" and provides a "bond between hearts".
2149:
1893:
The Meaning of Kaswentha and the Two Row Wampum Belt in Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) History: Can Indigenous Oral Tradition be Reconciled with the Documentary Record?
931:
Organized by the Onondaga Nation and Neighbors of the Onondaga Nation (NOON), the renewal journey covered over 300 miles, with public events at sites including
1804:
Harrie Hermkens, Jan Noordegraaf, and Nicoline van der Sijs (2013), The Tawagonshi Tale: Can Linguistic Analysis Prove the Tawagonshi Treaty to be a Forgery?
772:
Indeed, no documentary evidence (including wampum, which is very fragile) survive from the original treaty negotiations of 1613. But, as Parmenter points out:
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tradition. On two such occasions the sources refer to a "Chain Belt," but no documented example provides a specific correlation with a Two Row-patterned belt.
634:
relationship between Iroquois nations and the Dutch appear in 1689". And the earliest record of Haudenosaunee speakers explicitly mentioning or reciting the
1271:
2164:
2000:
1373:
Mark Meuwese (2013), "The States General and the Stadholder: Dutch Diplomatic Practices in the Atlantic World before the West India Company Author",
492:
The treaty is spiritually and culturally revered and widely accepted among the Indigenous peoples in the relevant territories, and documented by the
52:
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belts of the two-row style are merely one of many methods of representing in physical form the diplomatic and economic agreements implicit in the
1993:
541:
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disassembly, so there is no expectation that early belts should have survived had they in fact been exchanged in the early seventeenth century.
1887:
and the Two Row Wampum Belt in Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) History: Can Indigenous Oral Tradition be Reconciled with the Documentary Record?".
1301:
and the Two Row Wampum Belt in Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) History: Can Indigenous Oral Tradition be Reconciled with the Documentary Record?".
936:
state representatives. At the session, UN officials underscored the UN's role as a peacemaker, negotiator, and advocate for treaty rights.
630:
tradition by Haudenosaunee speakers", with "the fullest single written source that corroborates the early seventeenth-century origins of a
1976:
Canada's Forgotten Founders: The Modern Significance of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Application for Membership in the League of Nations
1856:
1234:"Special Issue: Early Iroquoian-European Contacts: The Kaswentha Tradition, the Two Row Wampum Belt, and the Tawagonshi Document, 2013"
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outlines of a treaty and that a treaty was negotiated between representatives of the Dutch and the Haudenosaunee in or around 1613."
2159:
2062:
424:
2169:
2092:
881:
1663:
735:
In any event, by 1870 the image of the two-row wampum belt had come to symbolize for the Haudenosaunee their ongoing treaty and
2016:
1377:
3(1), 43–58; quotation from Paul Otto and Jaap Jacobs (2013), "Introduction: Historians and the public debate about the past",
1868:
1830:
2102:
2037:
1427:
1283:
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The existence of an alleged written version of the treaty was first made public in an article in 1968 by documents collector
1043:
The History And Culture Of Iroquois Diplomacy An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League
2189:
2027:
1676:
2174:
2067:
2057:
2047:
2042:
842:, was resolved in part through the school board's consideration and application of the principles of the Two Row Wampum.
545:
356:
1707:
1633:
1208:
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The Tawagonshi document. New York State Library/Manuscripts and Special Collections, L.G. van Loon Collection (SC16677)
285:
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and, eventually, a burnished silver and/or covenant chain. But of these, it is the "ship and canoe" conception of the
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1941:
1892:
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1382:
1306:
1162:
1102:
1051:
1012:
1694:
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indigenous (not only Haudenosaunee) oral traditions (especially regarding something as fundamentally significant as
1900:
1592:
59:
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negotiations in which neither Iroquois nor New York authorities were recorded making explicit recitations of the
27:
2179:
1930:
1695:"Native Americans to new Pope: Recant the ‘Discovery Doctrine,’ which gave Catholics dominion over New World"
838:
students could be permitted to wear native regalia at their graduation ceremony at Lafayette High School in
668:
The treaty is considered by Haudenosaunee people to still be in effect. The Haudenosaunee tradition states:
417:
90:
80:
216:
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135:
85:
75:
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1187:
553:
478:
1067:
2184:
410:
266:
201:
181:
1817:
1459:
2154:
2075:
1975:
1783:
954:
877:
561:
320:
296:
211:
176:
171:
31:
Andy Mager, Hickory Edwards, Netherlands Consul Rob de Vos, Chief Jake Edwards and Faithkeeper
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If the paper treaty is fake, Starna said, so is the idea of any formal agreement made in 1613.
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853:
846:
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The Two Row Wampum continues to play a role in defining the relationship between citizens of
482:
389:
246:
2080:
1959:
758:
261:
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have been called upon as allies by Haudenosaunee in international affairs, notably at the
8:
1985:
1634:"De Indianen rekenen terecht op Nederland (The Indians rightly count on the Netherlands)"
839:
565:
236:
231:
226:
1452:
900:
328:
251:
1954:
1869:"Indigenous canoe trip celebrating 400-year-old peace treaty culminates with UN event"
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1937:
1770:
Cookies, coleslaw, and Stoops. The influence of Dutch on the North American languages
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1423:
1279:
1245:
1098:
1047:
823:
815:
241:
161:
120:
845:
Larger disputes concerning extant treaties based on the Two Row Wampum, such as the
2085:
1119:"The Tawagonshi Agreement of 1613 A Chain of Friendship in the Dutch Hudson Valley"
923:
First paddlers arrive at Kanatsiohareke, with Sakokwenionkwas Tom Porter, July 2013
365:
344:
196:
146:
115:
1383:
http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18770703-00301006
1307:
http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18770703-00301005
617:"Contemporary Haudenosaunee oral tradition identifies the original elaboration of
2097:
1417:
908:
835:
304:
221:
156:
1933:
The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy
1094:
The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy
2052:
932:
831:
819:
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110:
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70:
43:
1735:
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nations did not take place or took place at a later date. In August 2013, the
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2138:
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521:
502:
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151:
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and Haudenosaunee residents of the region. In 2006, a dispute over whether
1917:"Coming to Terms with Early New Netherland - New York History: 1610 - 1614"
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964:
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537:
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agreement, made in 1613 between representatives of the Five Nations of the
336:
312:
186:
100:
2125:
Article also discusses colonization in Central and South America and Asia
1965:
1397:
3(1), 59–81; quotation from Otto and Jacobs (2013), "Introduction", p. 5.
889:
811:
466:
256:
206:
125:
95:
1808:
3(1), 9–42; quotation from Otto and Jacobs (2013), "Introduction", p. 4.
1276:
America's First River The History and Culture of the Hudson River Valley
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published a special issue dedicated to exploring the Two Row Tradition.
2112:
1916:
937:
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each people travel, independently but in mutual support of each other.
370:
191:
166:
32:
2107:
1844:"Two Row Wampum Renewal Campaign Completes Journey to United Nations"
949:
893:
641:
While the evidence that the Haudenosaunee and the Dutch entered into
375:
1899:
Gehring, Charles T.; Starna, William A.; Fenton, William N. (1987).
1738:"Tawagonshi-verdrag is vervalst (Tawagonshi-treaty has been forged)"
1736:
Hermkens, Harrie; Noordegraaf, Jan; Sijs, Nicolien van der (2013).
549:
518:
380:
568:
was built, setting the stage for the development of the colony of
1163:"400 years later, a legendary Iroquois treaty comes under attack"
1013:"400 years later, a legendary Iroquois treaty comes under attack"
525:
276:
1393:
Jaap Jacobs (2013), "Early Dutch Explorations in North America,
849:, remain unresolved through litigation and pending land claims.
1970:
969:
880:. He claimed to have acquired it from an unnamed person on the
684:
557:
493:
458:
1980:
818:
in 1923 in a conflict with Canada over membership and at the
2015:
1272:"Dutch and Indians in the Hudson Valley: The Early Period"
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of the anniversary, traveling on Haudenosaunee passports.
777:
Evidence of Haudenosaunee and European recitations of the
1206:
16:
1613 Treaty between Iroquois Indians and Dutch Government
1914:
727:
While most of the earliest recorded recitations of the
1857:"Canoe Journey helps Renew the Two Row Wampum Treaty"
1718:
1716:
1818:"Indianen vieren 400-jarig verdrag met Nederlanders"
1724:"Anniversary recalls water as sacred source of life"
1590:
1422:. Grove / Atlantic Incorporated. pp. 115–116.
1901:"The Tawagonshi Treaty of 1613: The Final Chapter"
1713:
1451:
560:, which were abundant in the region. By 1614, the
528:territory abutted in what is now known as the mid-
1419:The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America
1006:
1004:
2136:
1454:Seven generations: a history of the Kanienkehaka
1270:Gehring, Charles T.; Starna, William A. (2009),
1207:Gehring, Charles T.; Starna, William A. (2012).
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
984:
914:
852:The Two Row Treaty contradicts the 15th Century
805:
536:'s 1609 exploration of what is now known as the
2150:Treaties of indigenous peoples of North America
1772:Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, pp.22-23
1664:"Haudenosaunee Renew Two Row Wampum With Dutch"
1449:
1231:
1209:"Revisiting the Fake Tawagonshi Treaty of 1613"
2001:
1443:
1406:Otto and Jacobs (2013), "Introduction", p. 6.
1269:
1097:, University of Oklahoma Press, p. 269,
981:
418:
1415:
1185:
2165:Native American history of New York (state)
1915:de Leeuw, Hubert; Paulson, Timothy (2013).
1708:"An Analysis of the 1613 Tawagonshi Treaty"
1651:"Netherlands celebrates ties with Iroquois"
1141:"An Analysis of the 1613 Tawagonshi Treaty"
2008:
1994:
1871:United Nations News Centre, August 9, 2013
1775:
1593:"Who's Afraid of the Museum of the Bible?"
1409:
425:
411:
1859:Vassar Miscellany News, February 14, 2014
1781:
1751:(januari 7). Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
465:(or Iroquois) and representatives of the
1330:
1328:
1138:
1116:
1039:
918:
867:
26:
18:
1782:Appelbaum, Diana Muir (27 March 2017).
1631:
1591:DIANA MUIR APPELBAUM (2 January 2018).
1547:
1545:
2137:
2017:European colonization of North America
1883:Jon Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1297:Jon Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1186:Van der Sijs, Nicoline (August 2012),
1139:Venables, Robert W. (September 2012).
1090:
863:
517:At the start of the 17th century, the
1989:
1955:War Art in Canada: A Critical History
1697:, New York Daily News, March 13, 2013
1666:Indian Country Today, October 6, 2013
1458:. Kahnawake Survival School. p.
1325:
911:and remains near Syracuse, New York.
679:
1958:, by Laura Brandon published by the
1935:, University of Oklahoma Press, 1998
1542:
1160:
1065:
1010:
1381:3(1), 1–8, at p. 5. Retrieved from
1214:. New York State Historical Society
546:United Provinces of the Netherlands
13:
1877:
1833:Atlantic Magazine, August 13, 2013
1618:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1577:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1564:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1551:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1531:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1518:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1505:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1492:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1479:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1360:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1347:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1334:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
1318:Parmenter (2013). "The Meaning of
739:relationship with the Dutch crown.
469:government in what is now upstate
396:
286:Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions
14:
2201:
1947:
1889:Journal of Early American History
1806:Journal of Early American History
1632:Wiemers, Serv (January 3, 2013).
1395:Journal of Early American History
1379:Journal of Early American History
1375:Journal of Early American History
1303:Journal of Early American History
1238:Journal of Early American History
796:
552:(trading posts) to engage in the
507:Journal of Early American History
1831:"The Iroquois are not Giving Up"
2160:First Nations history in Canada
1981:Two Row Wampum Renewal Campaign
1862:
1849:
1836:
1823:
1811:
1798:
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1091:Fenton, William Nelson (1998),
2170:Treaties of the Dutch Republic
1768:Sijs, Nicolien van der (2009)
1726:Washington Post, July 31, 2013
1200:
1179:
1161:Coin, Glenn (August 9, 2012).
1154:
1132:
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1011:Coin, Glenn (August 9, 2012).
907:The document was given to the
1:
1919:. New Netherland Company, Inc
1891:3, 82–109, at p. 83–84.
1046:, Syracuse University Press,
975:
915:400th Anniversary Celebration
806:Interpretations of the treaty
612:
512:
1846:Indian Time, August 22, 2013
582:According to Jon Parmenter:
575:
451:Tawagonshi Agreement of 1613
7:
2190:Documents of New Netherland
1416:James Wilson (March 2000).
943:
899:Robert Venables, a retired
35:reaffirm the Two Row treaty
10:
2206:
2175:1613 in the Dutch Republic
1903:. New York History journal
1040:Jennings, Francis (1995),
2121:
2023:
1117:Benjamin, Vernon (2000).
1931:Fenton, William Nelson.
1450:David Blanchard (1980).
1305:3, 82–109, at p. 83–84.
1232:Various authors (2013).
822:in 1977, requesting the
357:People of New Netherland
1679:Syracuse Post-Standard
1073:. www.peacecouncil.net
955:Hendrick Christiaensen
924:
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824:Haudenosaunee passport
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2180:1613 in North America
1121:. www.mindserpent.com
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847:Treaty of Canandaigua
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439:Two Row Wampum Treaty
400:
390:Flushing Remonstrance
30:
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2081:Fridtjof Nansen Land
1960:Art Canada Institute
1483:", p. 92 with n. 19.
864:Tawagonshi document
759:Diana Muir Appelbaum
564:was established and
2076:Erik the Red's Land
1820:RTL News, Amsterdam
1693:Brown, Stephen Rex
884:reserve in Canada.
840:LaFayette, New York
544:, traders from the
86:Fort Nassau (South)
76:Fort Nassau (North)
1966:Onondaganation.org
1842:Fox, Katsitsionni
1706:Venables, Robert,
1066:Venables, Robert.
925:
901:Cornell University
874:
680:The Wampum Belt(s)
402:
329:Wouter van Twiller
277:The Patroon System
37:
25:
2132:
2131:
1786:. The New Rambler
1722:Gadoua, Renee K.
1429:978-0-8021-3680-0
1285:978-0-615-30829-6
1167:The Post-Standard
1143:. Onondaga Nation
1068:"The 1613 Treaty"
1017:The Post-Standard
816:League of Nations
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441:, also known as
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366:New Netherlander
345:Peter Stuyvesant
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116:Fort Beversreede
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2014:
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1878:Further reading
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1948:External links
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1662:Deer, Kenneth
1655:
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1622:", pp. 93, 98.
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1784:"Museum Time"
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1522:", pp. 92–93.
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1921:. Retrieved
1905:. Retrieved
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1640:. Amsterdam.
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1020:. Retrieved
1016:
965:Normans Kill
960:Mohawk Dutch
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534:Henry Hudson
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337:Willem Kieft
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262:Nieuw Amstel
187:Vriessendael
101:Fort Casimir
2063:Hospitaller
882:Mississauga
812:Netherlands
566:Fort Nassau
449:and as the
257:Swaanendael
207:Colen Donck
136:Settlements
106:Fort Altena
81:Fort Orange
53:Exploration
2139:Categories
2093:Portuguese
2072:Norwegian
1923:2016-04-09
1907:2013-08-22
1755:2013-03-06
1537:Kaswentha
1218:2012-01-06
1172:2013-01-06
1147:2013-01-06
1125:2013-01-06
1077:2013-01-06
976:References
938:Oren Lyons
613:The treaty
513:Background
371:Twelve Men
267:Nieuw Dorp
232:Breuckelen
227:Gravesende
202:Oude Dorpe
197:Vlissingen
192:Achter Col
167:Beverwijck
126:De Rondout
33:Oren Lyons
1885:Kaswentha
1620:Kaswentha
1581:", p. 94.
1579:Kaswentha
1568:", p. 91.
1566:Kaswentha
1555:", p. 90.
1553:Kaswentha
1533:Kaswentha
1520:Kaswentha
1509:", p. 92.
1507:Kaswentha
1496:", p. 93.
1494:Kaswentha
1481:Kaswentha
1364:", p. 88.
1362:Kaswentha
1349:Kaswentha
1338:", p. 89.
1336:Kaswentha
1322:", p. 84.
1320:Kaswentha
1299:Kaswentha
1250:1877-0223
1195:Onze Taal
1022:20 August
950:Ganienkeh
909:Onondagas
894:quill pen
789:kaswentha
784:Kaswentha
779:kaswentha
751:kaswentha
746:kaswentha
737:kaswentha
729:kaswentha
720:kaswentha
705:kaswentha
700:kaswentha
689:kaswentha
636:kaswentha
632:kaswentha
628:kaswentha
619:kaswentha
596:kaswentha
592:kaswentha
588:Kaswentha
577:Kaswentha
554:fur trade
550:factorijs
489:in 1794.
485:with the
447:Kaswentha
376:Eight Men
348:(1647–64)
340:(1638–47)
332:(1633–38)
324:(1632–33)
316:(1626–32)
308:(1625–26)
300:(1620–25)
217:Heemstede
212:Greenwich
2145:Iroquois
2103:Scottish
2038:Curonian
1790:27 March
1604:2 August
1255:12 March
944:See also
605:kahionni
601:kahionni
540:and its
524:and the
519:Iroquois
501:and the
471:New York
443:Guswenta
381:Nine Men
222:Rustdorp
172:Wiltwijk
2113:Swedish
2108:Spanish
2098:Russian
2033:Belgian
2028:British
1745:Neder-L
1710:, 2012.
1465:23 July
1435:23 July
663:vessel.
626:of the
548:set up
542:estuary
526:Mahican
479:British
453:or the
252:Boswijk
242:Midwout
182:Pavonia
2058:French
2048:German
2043:Danish
1940:
1598:Mosaic
1426:
1282:
1248:
1101:
1050:
970:Sewant
685:Wampum
558:beaver
522:Mohawk
503:Mohawk
494:wampum
459:treaty
177:Bergen
96:De Wal
46:series
2068:Norse
2053:Dutch
1741:(PDF)
1212:(PDF)
1191:(PDF)
1071:(PDF)
499:Dutch
467:Dutch
1938:ISBN
1792:2017
1749:2013
1606:2018
1467:2013
1437:2013
1424:ISBN
1280:ISBN
1257:2016
1246:ISSN
1099:ISBN
1048:ISBN
1024:2013
810:The
643:some
437:The
1460:124
445:or
2141::
1747:.
1743:.
1715:^
1636:.
1595:.
1544:^
1327:^
1274:,
1244:.
1240:.
1236:.
1193:,
1165:.
1026:.
1015:.
983:^
572:.
2009:e
2002:t
1995:v
1962:.
1926:.
1910:.
1895:.
1794:.
1758:.
1683:.
1677:"
1608:.
1469:.
1439:.
1309:.
1259:.
1242:3
1221:.
1175:.
1150:.
1128:.
1080:.
426:e
419:t
412:v
138::
62::
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