22:
233:
401:
387:
204:
369:
1531:
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet measured, with one measurement of 63 GPa, still well below one theoretical value of 300 GPa. The first nanotube ropes (20 mm in length) whose tensile strength was published (in 2000) had a strength of 3.6 GPa. The
1542:
The strength of spider silk is highly variable. It depends on many factors including kind of silk (Every spider can produce several for sundry purposes.), species, age of silk, temperature, humidity, swiftness at which stress is applied during testing, length stress is applied, and way the silk is
150:; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, depending on the material, it may be dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material.
341:
is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stress–strain curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the ultimate tensile strength, given by point 1.
337:, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress–strain curve (curve A, figure 2); this is because the
1543:
gathered (forced silking or natural spinning). The value shown in the table, 1,000 MPa, is roughly representative of the results from a few studies involving several different species of spider however specific results varied greatly.
430:
correlates linearly with tensile strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held
330:. A plastically deformed specimen does not completely return to its original size and shape when unloaded. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation.
314:, as shown in figure 1 up to point 3. The elastic behavior of materials often extends into a non-linear region, represented in figure 1 by point 2 (the "yield strength"), up to which
2701:
25:
Two vises apply tension to a specimen by pulling at it, stretching the specimen until it fractures. The maximum stress it withstands before fracturing is its ultimate tensile strength.
2647:
2661:
2556:
2138:
195:(lb/in or psi). Kilopounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi) is equal to 1000 psi, and is commonly used in the United States, when measuring tensile strengths.
74:
1879:
2056:
2164:
2006:
1980:
1954:
1928:
3009:
Yu, Min-Feng; Lourie, O; Dyer, MJ; Moloni, K; Kelly, TF; Ruoff, RS (2000). "Strength and
Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load".
2327:
333:
After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to
3159:"Quasistatic and continuous dynamic characterization of the mechanical properties of silk from the cobweb of the black widow spider Latrodectus hesperus"
168:
per unit area. For some non-homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the
2063:
353:. It is, however, used for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples.
2693:
1910:
2189:
157:, in what is called a brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation and possibly
112:
is the ultimate tensile strength and has units of stress. The equivalent point for the case of compression, instead of tension, is called the
1151:
2599:
1854:
356:
The ultimate tensile strength is a common engineering parameter to design members made of brittle material because such materials have no
2915:
Xu, Wei; Chen, Yun; Zhan, Hang; Nong Wang, Jian (2016). "High-Strength Carbon
Nanotube Film from Improving Alignment and Densification".
3131:
3113:
2219:
2498:
2267:
2245:
2811:
3194:
2668:
2629:
1135:
2552:
2134:
2643:
2964:
2538:
2293:
1883:
2028:
2820:
3275:
2094:
2160:
2054:
2002:
1976:
1950:
1924:
147:
101:
2715:
Dang, Chaoqun; et al. (1 January 2021). "Achieving large uniform tensile elasticity in microfabricated diamond".
419:
Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-sectional area, and then pulling it with a
2343:"Quantitative detection of chemical compounds in human hair with coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy"
2319:
638:
2241:
3354:
322:
will elongate, but will return to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this elastic region, for
169:
154:
2392:"Bioprospecting Finds the Toughest Biological Material: Extraordinary Silk from a Giant Riverine Orb Spider"
423:
at a constant strain (change in gauge length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks.
2902:
188:
3349:
2193:
126:
members, but they are important with brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as
655:
440:
315:
3107:"From Highly Efficient Impurity-Free CNT Synthesis to DWNT forests, CNTsolids and Super-Capacitors"
3066:"Tensile strength of single-walled carbon nanotubes directly measured from their macroscopic ropes"
52:
1492:
1079:
508:
311:
237:
109:
2603:
1846:
1564:
1369:
318:
are completely recoverable upon removal of the load; that is, a specimen loaded elastically in
192:
2767:
3135:
1802:
334:
267:
158:
2215:
3290:
3077:
3018:
2924:
2857:
2779:
2724:
2505:
2403:
2271:
1532:
density depends on the manufacturing method, and the lowest value is 0.037 or 0.55 (solid).
819:
427:
113:
105:
2341:
Zimmerley, M.; Lin, C. Y.; Oertel, D. C.; Marsh, J. M.; Ward, J. L.; Potma, E. O. (2009).
8:
3158:
3106:
3061:
2625:
327:
319:
307:
253:
3294:
3081:
3022:
2928:
2861:
2783:
2728:
2407:
3314:
3186:
3042:
2986:
2959:
2880:
2845:
2803:
2748:
2475:
2450:
2426:
2391:
2367:
2342:
2084:), which is a more appropriate measure for brittle materials than "ultimate strength."
1827:
131:
78:
2578:
21:
3306:
3178:
3034:
2991:
2940:
2885:
2807:
2795:
2752:
2740:
2480:
2431:
2372:
2077:
1822:
1807:
1797:
436:
432:
119:
3318:
3276:"Strength and Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load"
3046:
2768:"Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene"
3298:
3256:
3190:
3170:
3085:
3026:
2981:
2973:
2932:
2875:
2865:
2787:
2732:
2530:
2470:
2462:
2421:
2411:
2362:
2354:
2297:
2108:
261:
241:
803:
787:
81:
that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In
3302:
3239:
Köhler T, Vollrath F (1995). "Thread biomechanics in the two orb-weaving spiders
3030:
2936:
2416:
2190:"Guide to Glass Reinforced Plastic (fibreglass) – East Coast Fibreglass Supplies"
2060:
2032:
1484:
1437:
1420:
1183:
771:
754:
414:
82:
2828:
3322:
2870:
2466:
1261:
996:
526:
214:
1905:
3343:
1521:
Many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purity or composition.
1495:
934:
916:
672:
621:
203:
184:
177:
173:
2791:
2736:
576:
water quenched 855 °C (1,570 °F), 480 °C (900 °F) temper
3310:
3260:
3182:
3038:
2995:
2977:
2944:
2889:
2799:
2744:
2484:
2435:
2376:
1906:
Correlation of Yield
Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels
1046:
950:
350:
97:
2449:
Oral, E; Christensen, SD; Malhi, AS; Wannomae, KK; Muratoglu, OK (2006).
1062:
850:
720:
357:
86:
232:
2694:"What is the density of Hydrogenated Boron Nitride Nanotubes (H-BNNT)?"
2499:"Tensile and creep properties of ultra high molecular weight PE fibres"
1030:
605:
420:
400:
386:
3174:
3090:
3065:
2358:
207:
Figure 1: "Engineering" stress–strain (σ–ε) curve typical of aluminum
1812:
737:
702:
478:
123:
90:
3274:
Min-Feng Y, Lourie O, Dyer MJ, Moloni K, Kelly TF, Ruoff RS (2000).
2242:"Soda-Lime (Float) Glass Material Properties :: MakeItFrom.com"
439:
in metalworking industries to extend well beyond the laboratory and
406:
Some parts showing the "cup" shape and some showing the "cone" shape
1673:
1643:
1613:
1489:
1401:
1340:
1093:
883:
2905:
Z. Wang, P. Ciselli and T. Peijs, Nanotechnology 18, 455709, 2007.
368:
1817:
1598:
1307:
1167:
346:
323:
135:
1553:
Human hair strength varies by ethnicity and chemical treatments.
176:(Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the
3132:"Finding Inspiration in Argiope Trifasciata Spider Silk Fibers"
1721:
1325:
1118:
1114:
1110:
966:
543:
392:
The "cup" side of the "cup–cone" characteristic failure pattern
345:
Ultimate tensile strength is not used in the design of ductile
96:
The ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a
164:
Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as
16:
Maximum stress withstood by stretched material before breaking
1291:
899:
867:
165:
127:
2448:
1705:
1218:
1201:
2644:"Uhu endfest 300 epoxy: Strength over setting temperature"
2389:
1557:
1689:
122:
strengths are rarely of any consequence in the design of
85:
materials, the ultimate tensile strength is close to the
3273:
560:
Steel, Sandvik
Sanicro 36Mo logging cable precision wire
349:
members because design practices dictate the use of the
93:
materials, the ultimate tensile strength can be higher.
2846:"Elastic straining of free-standing monolayer graphene"
2340:
788:
Polyester and chopped strand mat laminate 30% E-glass
55:
3233:
2553:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2161:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2135:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2095:"MatWeb - the Online Materials Information Resource"
2003:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1977:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1951:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1925:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2914:
3008:
146:The ultimate tensile strength of a material is an
68:
2390:Agnarsson, I; Kuntner, M; Blackledge, TA (2010).
3341:
1911:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
236:Figure 2: "Engineering" (red) and "true" (blue)
2827:. American Institute of Physics. Archived from
372:Round bar specimen after tensile stress testing
3238:
2957:
379:Aluminium tensile test samples after breakage
3169:(10). The Company of Biologists: 1937–1949.
3059:
2958:Barber, A. H.; Lu, D.; Pugno, N. M. (2015).
452:Typical tensile strengths of some materials
446:
3215:A.M. Howatson, P. G. Lund, and J. D. Todd,
2960:"Extreme strength observed in limpet teeth"
2818:
1847:"Generic MMPDS Mechanical Properties Table"
326:materials, such as steel, deformations are
153:Some materials break very sharply, without
3235:(2000). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
3156:
2184:
2182:
2109:"Stainless Steel - Grade 302 (UNS S30200)"
435:testers. This practical correlation helps
3089:
2985:
2879:
2869:
2602:. University of Tennessee. Archived from
2474:
2425:
2415:
2366:
2208:
367:
231:
202:
20:
3060:Li, F.; Cheng, H. M.; Bai, S.; Su, G.;
2765:
2330:from the original on 28 September 2017.
2179:
1558:Typical properties of annealed elements
3342:
2965:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
2837:
2814:from the original on 19 February 2009.
1408:
2559:from the original on 21 February 2015
2222:from the original on 24 February 2015
2167:from the original on 21 February 2015
2141:from the original on 21 February 2015
2076:strictly speaking this figure is the
1983:from the original on 21 February 2015
1957:from the original on 21 February 2015
1931:from the original on 15 December 2013
1874:
1872:
1502:
469:
464:
459:
3197:from the original on 1 February 2009
2714:
1857:from the original on 1 December 2017
198:
2843:
2759:
2704:from the original on 13 April 2017.
13:
3225:
3129:
3119:from the original on 12 June 2010.
3104:
2650:from the original on 19 July 2011.
2216:"Properties of Carbon Fiber Tubes"
2009:from the original on 28 March 2017
1869:
1468:High-strength carbon nanotube film
853:10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1% Mn, balance Cu
306:Many materials can display linear
14:
3366:
1904:E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, "
1016:(the strongest human-made fibres)
3157:Blackledge; et al. (2005).
2632:from the original on 3 May 2015.
2541:from the original on 3 May 2007.
2248:from the original on 3 July 2011
1476:
1470:
1462:
1456:
1442:
1405:
1373:
1312:
1295:
1279:
1271:
1265:
1000:
984:
970:
954:
938:
920:
604:Steel, high strength alloy ASTM
399:
385:
183:); or, equivalently to pascals,
3249:Journal of Experimental Zoology
3209:
3163:Journal of Experimental Biology
3150:
3123:
3098:
3053:
3002:
2951:
2908:
2896:
2708:
2686:
2654:
2636:
2618:
2592:
2571:
2545:
2523:
2491:
2442:
2383:
2334:
2312:
2286:
2260:
2234:
2153:
2127:
2101:
2087:
2070:
639:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
2066:Typical Properties of Acrylics
2047:
2021:
1995:
1969:
1943:
1917:
1898:
1839:
1546:
1535:
1524:
1514:
772:Polyester resin (unreinforced)
225:Offset strain (typically 0.2%)
1:
2766:Lee, C.; et al. (2008).
1833:
170:International System of Units
141:
69:{\displaystyle F_{\text{tu}}}
3303:10.1126/science.287.5453.637
3031:10.1126/science.287.5453.637
2937:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03863
2821:"World's Strongest Material"
2819:Phil Schewe (28 July 2008).
2531:"Mechanical Properties Data"
2417:10.1371/journal.pone.0011234
2347:Journal of Biomedical Optics
254:Yield strength (yield point)
189:United States customary unit
77:in notation) is the maximum
7:
3217:Engineering Tables and Data
2825:Inside Science News Service
2579:"Material Properties Chart"
2294:"Toray Properties Document"
1791:
1014:Carbon fiber (Toray T1100G)
108:. The highest point of the
10:
3371:
2871:10.1038/s41467-019-14130-0
2467:10.1016/j.arth.2005.07.009
2268:"Basalt Continuous Fibers"
1548:
1537:
1526:
1516:
1454:Carbon nanotube composites
441:universal testing machines
426:When testing some metals,
412:
363:
312:stress–strain relationship
187:per square metre (N/m). A
3243:(Araneae, Araneidae) and
2451:"PubMed Central, Table 3"
1411:engineering 50,000–60,000
1328:glass fiber-optic strands
688:Steel, stainless AISI 302
656:High-density polyethylene
624:, clear cast sheet (PMMA)
465:Ultimate tensile strength
447:Typical tensile strengths
219:Proportional limit stress
30:Ultimate tensile strength
3247:(Araneae, Uloboridae)".
1393:~80–90 GPa at microscale
1310:, monocrystalline (m-Si)
3336:(1988). McGraw-Hill, UK
3070:Applied Physics Letters
2792:10.1126/science.1157996
2737:10.1126/science.abc4174
2698:space.stackexchange.com
1563:Typical properties for
804:S-Glass epoxy composite
509:Chromium-vanadium steel
477:Steel, structural ASTM
3261:10.1002/jez.1402710102
3245:Uloboris walckenaerius
2978:10.1098/rsif.2014.1326
2320:"Tensile Testing Hair"
1914:, 17:6 (December 2008)
1370:Boron nitride nanotube
1235:Nylon, molded, 6PLA/6M
1006:4,137 for fibers alone
926:3,450 for fibers alone
373:
310:, defined by a linear
303:
229:
193:pounds per square inch
172:(SI), the unit is the
138:, plastics, and wood.
70:
26:
3334:Mechanical Metallurgy
3134:. JOM. Archived from
2850:Nature Communications
2059:23 March 2014 at the
1803:Strength of materials
924:1,500 for laminates,
371:
235:
206:
71:
24:
3355:Elasticity (physics)
3130:Elices; et al.
2831:on 25 February 2009.
2300:on 17 September 2018
1880:"Tensile Properties"
1358:345 at 1,000 °C
1154:(Dyneema or Spectra)
1080:Darwin's bark spider
1004:1,600 for laminates,
428:indentation hardness
114:compressive strength
53:
3295:2000Sci...287..637Y
3269:Life without metals
3231:Giancoli, Douglas,
3082:2000ApPhL..77.3161L
3023:2000Sci...287..637Y
2929:2016NanoL..16..946X
2862:2020NatCo..11..284C
2784:2008Sci...321..385L
2729:2021Sci...371...76D
2626:"Comparing aramids"
2408:2010PLoSO...511234A
2196:on 16 February 2015
1886:on 16 February 2014
1853:. 6 December 2014.
1568:
1356:275 at 500 °C,
1204:(parallel to grain)
453:
238:stress–strain curve
155:plastic deformation
132:composite materials
110:stress–strain curve
3332:George E. Dieter,
3241:Araneus diadematus
3138:on 15 January 2009
3062:Dresselhaus, M. S.
2274:on 3 November 2009
2115:. 25 February 2013
2082:modulus of rupture
1562:
1409:intrinsic 130,000;
1354:400 at 25 °C,
1248:Nylon fiber, drawn
451:
374:
339:engineering stress
304:
230:
148:intensive property
102:engineering stress
100:and recording the
66:
27:
3350:Materials science
3289:(5453): 637–640.
3175:10.1242/jeb.01597
3091:10.1063/1.1324984
3017:(5453): 637–640.
2628:. Teijin Aramid.
2359:10.1117/1.3184444
2078:flexural strength
1823:Tension (physics)
1808:Tensile structure
1798:Flexural strength
1789:
1788:
1511:
1510:
1022:7,000 fibre alone
705:4.5% C, ASTM A-48
590:Steel, API 5L X65
574:Steel, AISI 4130,
437:quality assurance
433:Rockwell hardness
277:Apparent stress (
249:Ultimate strength
211:Ultimate strength
199:Ductile materials
161:before fracture.
63:
46:ultimate strength
3362:
3329:
3328:on 4 March 2011.
3327:
3321:. Archived from
3280:
3264:
3220:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3111:
3102:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3006:
3000:
2999:
2989:
2955:
2949:
2948:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2883:
2873:
2844:Cao, K. (2020).
2841:
2835:
2832:
2815:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2673:
2667:. Archived from
2666:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2606:on 19 April 2015
2596:
2590:
2589:
2583:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2510:
2504:. Archived from
2503:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2478:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2429:
2419:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2370:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2296:. Archived from
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2270:. Archived from
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2192:. Archived from
2186:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2091:
2085:
2074:
2068:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2031:. Archived from
2029:"USStubular.com"
2025:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2014:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1921:
1915:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1882:. Archived from
1876:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1843:
1569:
1561:
1552:
1541:
1530:
1520:
1440:(see note below)
1065:(see note below)
454:
450:
403:
389:
308:elastic behavior
262:Strain hardening
242:structural steel
75:
73:
72:
67:
65:
64:
61:
38:tensile strength
3370:
3369:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3359:
3340:
3339:
3325:
3278:
3228:
3226:Further reading
3223:
3214:
3210:
3200:
3198:
3155:
3151:
3141:
3139:
3128:
3124:
3116:
3109:
3103:
3099:
3058:
3054:
3007:
3003:
2956:
2952:
2913:
2909:
2901:
2897:
2842:
2838:
2778:(5887): 385–8.
2764:
2760:
2723:(6524): 76–78.
2713:
2709:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2677:
2675:
2674:on 25 July 2011
2671:
2664:
2660:
2659:
2655:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2609:
2607:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2586:Advanced Nylons
2581:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2562:
2560:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2535:www.mse.mtu.edu
2529:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2512:
2511:on 28 June 2007
2508:
2501:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2447:
2443:
2388:
2384:
2339:
2335:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2303:
2301:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2277:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2251:
2249:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2225:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2199:
2197:
2188:
2187:
2180:
2170:
2168:
2159:
2158:
2154:
2144:
2142:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2118:
2116:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2075:
2071:
2061:Wayback Machine
2052:
2048:
2038:
2036:
2035:on 13 July 2009
2027:
2026:
2022:
2012:
2010:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1986:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1958:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1934:
1932:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1903:
1899:
1889:
1887:
1878:
1877:
1870:
1860:
1858:
1851:stressebook.com
1845:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1828:Young's modulus
1794:
1592:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1578:
1576:
1560:
1504:
1485:Patella vulgata
1438:Carbon nanotube
1421:carbon nanotube
1410:
1392:
1357:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1184:Polybenzoxazole
1015:
1005:
925:
836:Copper 99.9% Cu
820:Aluminium alloy
755:Aluminium alloy
575:
471:
466:
461:
449:
417:
415:Tensile testing
411:
410:
409:
408:
407:
404:
395:
394:
393:
390:
381:
380:
366:
302:
291:Actual stress (
287:
273:
228:
201:
144:
60:
56:
54:
51:
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3368:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3338:
3337:
3330:
3271:
3265:
3236:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3208:
3149:
3122:
3097:
3052:
3001:
2950:
2923:(2): 946–952.
2907:
2895:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2758:
2707:
2685:
2653:
2635:
2617:
2600:"Nylon Fibers"
2591:
2570:
2544:
2522:
2490:
2455:J Arthroplasty
2441:
2382:
2333:
2311:
2285:
2259:
2233:
2207:
2178:
2152:
2126:
2100:
2086:
2069:
2046:
2020:
1994:
1968:
1942:
1916:
1897:
1868:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1747:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1587:
1580:
1573:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1544:
1533:
1522:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1501:
1499:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1389:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1321:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1262:Epoxy adhesive
1258:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1215:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1148:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1107:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1075:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1002:
999:
993:
992:
989:
986:
983:
979:
978:
975:
972:
969:
963:
962:
959:
956:
953:
947:
946:
943:
940:
937:
931:
930:
927:
922:
919:
913:
912:
909:
906:
903:
896:
895:
892:
889:
886:
880:
879:
876:
873:
870:
864:
863:
860:
857:
854:
847:
846:
843:
840:
837:
833:
832:
829:
826:
823:
816:
815:
812:
809:
806:
800:
799:
796:
793:
790:
784:
783:
780:
777:
774:
768:
767:
764:
761:
758:
751:
750:
747:
744:
741:
734:
733:
730:
727:
724:
716:
715:
712:
709:
706:
699:
698:
695:
692:
689:
685:
684:
681:
678:
675:
669:
668:
665:
662:
659:
652:
651:
648:
645:
642:
635:
634:
631:
628:
625:
618:
617:
614:
611:
608:
601:
600:
597:
594:
591:
587:
586:
583:
580:
577:
571:
570:
567:
564:
561:
557:
556:
553:
550:
547:
539:
538:
535:
532:
529:
527:Maraging steel
522:
521:
518:
515:
512:
505:
504:
501:
498:
495:
491:
490:
487:
484:
481:
474:
473:
468:
463:
460:Yield strength
458:
448:
445:
413:Main article:
405:
398:
397:
396:
391:
384:
383:
382:
378:
377:
376:
375:
365:
362:
301:
300:
289:
285:
274:
272:
271:
265:
259:
256:
251:
245:
227:
226:
223:
220:
217:
215:Yield strength
212:
208:
200:
197:
143:
140:
59:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3367:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3335:
3331:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3277:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3229:
3218:
3212:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3137:
3133:
3126:
3115:
3108:
3101:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2954:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2904:
2899:
2891:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2840:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2816:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2670:
2663:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2631:
2627:
2621:
2605:
2601:
2595:
2587:
2580:
2574:
2558:
2554:
2548:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2507:
2500:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2461:(4): 580–91.
2460:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2402:(9): e11234.
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2353:(4): 044019.
2352:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2183:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2096:
2090:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2050:
2034:
2030:
2024:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1873:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1588:
1581:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1500:
1497:
1496:nanocomposite
1494:
1491:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1480:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1446:11,000–63,000
1445:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1379:
1376:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1353:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1152:UHMWPE fibers
1150:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:Spider silk,
1077:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1003:
998:
995:
994:
990:
987:
981:
980:
976:
973:
968:
965:
964:
960:
957:
952:
949:
948:
944:
941:
936:
933:
932:
928:
923:
918:
915:
914:
910:
907:
904:
901:
898:
897:
893:
890:
887:
885:
882:
881:
877:
874:
871:
869:
866:
865:
861:
858:
855:
852:
849:
848:
844:
841:
838:
835:
834:
830:
827:
824:
821:
818:
817:
813:
810:
807:
805:
802:
801:
797:
794:
791:
789:
786:
785:
781:
778:
775:
773:
770:
769:
765:
762:
759:
756:
753:
752:
748:
745:
742:
739:
736:
735:
731:
728:
725:
722:
718:
717:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
700:
696:
693:
690:
687:
686:
682:
679:
676:
674:
673:Polypropylene
671:
670:
666:
663:
660:
657:
654:
653:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
636:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
619:
615:
612:
609:
607:
603:
602:
598:
595:
592:
589:
588:
584:
581:
578:
573:
572:
568:
565:
562:
559:
558:
554:
551:
548:
545:
541:
540:
536:
533:
530:
528:
524:
523:
519:
516:
513:
510:
507:
506:
502:
499:
496:
493:
492:
488:
485:
482:
480:
476:
475:
456:
455:
444:
442:
438:
434:
429:
424:
422:
416:
402:
388:
370:
361:
359:
354:
352:
348:
343:
340:
336:
331:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
298:
294:
290:
284:
280:
276:
275:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
246:
243:
239:
234:
224:
221:
218:
216:
213:
210:
209:
205:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
179:
175:
171:
167:
162:
160:
156:
151:
149:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
94:
92:
89:, whereas in
88:
84:
80:
76:
57:
47:
43:
39:
35:
32:(also called
31:
23:
19:
3333:
3323:the original
3286:
3282:
3268:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3232:
3216:
3211:
3199:. Retrieved
3166:
3162:
3152:
3140:. Retrieved
3136:the original
3125:
3100:
3076:(20): 3161.
3073:
3069:
3055:
3014:
3010:
3004:
2972:(105): 105.
2969:
2963:
2953:
2920:
2917:Nano Letters
2916:
2910:
2898:
2856:(284): 284.
2853:
2849:
2839:
2829:the original
2824:
2775:
2771:
2761:
2720:
2716:
2710:
2697:
2688:
2676:. Retrieved
2669:the original
2656:
2638:
2620:
2608:. Retrieved
2604:the original
2594:
2585:
2573:
2561:. Retrieved
2547:
2534:
2525:
2513:. Retrieved
2506:the original
2493:
2458:
2454:
2444:
2399:
2395:
2385:
2350:
2346:
2336:
2323:
2314:
2304:17 September
2302:. Retrieved
2298:the original
2288:
2276:. Retrieved
2272:the original
2262:
2250:. Retrieved
2236:
2224:. Retrieved
2210:
2198:. Retrieved
2194:the original
2169:. Retrieved
2155:
2143:. Retrieved
2129:
2117:. Retrieved
2112:
2103:
2089:
2081:
2072:
2053:
2049:
2037:. Retrieved
2033:the original
2023:
2011:. Retrieved
1997:
1985:. Retrieved
1971:
1959:. Retrieved
1945:
1933:. Retrieved
1919:
1909:
1900:
1888:. Retrieved
1884:the original
1859:. Retrieved
1850:
1841:
1608:5,000–9,000
1547:
1536:
1525:
1515:
1505:3,000–6,500
1483:
1047:Bamboo fiber
997:Carbon fiber
951:Basalt fiber
525:Steel, 2800
425:
418:
355:
351:yield stress
344:
338:
332:
316:deformations
305:
296:
292:
282:
278:
248:
180:
163:
152:
145:
118:
98:tensile test
95:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
28:
18:
3267:T Follett,
2678:1 September
2563:20 February
2278:29 December
2252:20 February
2226:20 February
2200:20 February
2171:20 February
2145:20 February
2013:20 February
1987:20 February
1961:20 February
1935:20 February
1890:20 February
1449:0.037–1.34
1324:Ultra-pure
1175:2,850–3,340
1159:2,300–3,500
1063:Spider silk
851:Cupronickel
721:Liquidmetal
494:Steel, 1090
358:yield point
240:typical of
87:yield point
3344:Categories
3201:23 January
3142:23 January
2662:"Fols.org"
2324:instron.us
2119:2 February
1834:References
1031:Human hair
902:, annealed
421:tensometer
142:Definition
2808:206512830
2753:229935085
1813:Toughness
1763:Aluminium
1567:elements
738:Beryllium
729:550–1,600
703:Cast iron
650:0.9–1.53
511:AISI 6150
479:A36 steel
457:Material
178:SI prefix
3319:10758240
3311:10649994
3255:: 1–17.
3195:Archived
3183:15879074
3114:Archived
3105:K.Hata.
3064:(2000).
3047:10758240
3039:10649994
2996:25694539
2945:26757031
2890:31941941
2812:Archived
2800:18635798
2745:33384375
2702:Archived
2648:Archived
2630:Archived
2610:25 April
2557:Archived
2539:Archived
2485:16781413
2436:20856804
2396:PLOS ONE
2377:19725730
2328:Archived
2246:Archived
2220:Archived
2165:Archived
2139:Archived
2113:AZoM.com
2057:Archived
2007:Archived
1981:Archived
1955:Archived
1929:Archived
1861:27 April
1855:Archived
1792:See also
1732:140–195
1716:200–400
1674:Tantalum
1654:246–370
1644:Titanium
1624:550–620
1614:Tungsten
1591:strength
1589:Ultimate
1584:strength
1572:Element
1565:annealed
1490:goethite
1402:Graphene
1364:3.9–4.1
1341:Sapphire
1094:Silkworm
1057:0.4–0.8
982:Concrete
884:Tungsten
740:99.9% Be
222:Fracture
136:ceramics
3291:Bibcode
3283:Science
3219:, p. 41
3191:9678391
3078:Bibcode
3019:Bibcode
3011:Science
2987:4387522
2925:Bibcode
2903:IOP.org
2881:6962388
2858:Bibcode
2780:Bibcode
2772:Science
2725:Bibcode
2717:Science
2476:2716092
2427:2939878
2404:Bibcode
2368:2872558
2039:27 June
1818:Failure
1729:140–350
1713:200–400
1700:15–200
1651:100–225
1599:Silicon
1577:modulus
1575:Young's
1493:whisker
1488:teeth (
1482:Limpet
1385:Diamond
1308:Silicon
1286:
1224:104–121
1213:
1186:(Zylon)
1168:Vectran
1054:350–500
1038:200–250
1035:140–160
935:S-Glass
917:E-Glass
822:6061-T6
814:
798:
782:
757:2014-T6
723:" alloy
680:19.7–80
622:Acrylic
542:Steel,
486:400–550
472:(g/cm)
470:Density
364:Testing
328:plastic
324:ductile
320:tension
268:Necking
258:Rupture
185:newtons
159:necking
124:ductile
120:Tensile
104:versus
91:ductile
83:brittle
3317:
3309:
3189:
3181:
3045:
3037:
2994:
2984:
2943:
2888:
2878:
2806:
2798:
2751:
2743:
2515:11 May
2483:
2473:
2434:
2424:
2375:
2365:
1772:40–50
1737:Silver
1722:Nickel
1710:85–105
1659:Copper
1635:80–100
1593:(MPa)
1586:(MPa)
1582:Yield
1579:(GPa)
1419:First
1377:33,000
1326:silica
1277:Rubber
1221:(limb)
1207:
1200:Wood,
1172:
1136:UHMWPE
1119:Twaron
1115:Kevlar
1111:Aramid
1102:
1051:
1019:
967:Marble
905:
894:19.25
658:(HDPE)
544:AerMet
467:(MPa)
462:(MPa)
347:static
270:region
264:region
174:pascal
128:alloys
106:strain
79:stress
3326:(PDF)
3315:S2CID
3279:(PDF)
3187:S2CID
3117:(PDF)
3110:(PDF)
3043:S2CID
2804:S2CID
2749:S2CID
2672:(PDF)
2665:(PDF)
2582:(PDF)
2509:(PDF)
2502:(PDF)
1769:15–20
1503:4,900
1474:9,600
1460:1,200
1429:3,600
1423:ropes
1391:2,800
1388:1,600
1380:2.62
1361:1,900
1333:4,100
1319:2.33
1316:7,000
1302:2.46
1299:3,100
1292:Boron
1269:12–30
1256:1.13
1243:1.15
1240:75-85
1195:1.56
1192:5,800
1189:2,700
1162:0.97
1146:0.97
1130:1.44
1127:3,757
1124:3,620
1084:1,652
1070:1,000
1041:1.32
1025:1.79
1009:1.75
958:4,840
945:2.48
942:4,710
929:2.57
911:2.53
900:Glass
891:1,510
878:8.73
872:200 +
868:Brass
862:8.94
845:8.92
811:2,358
808:2,358
749:1.84
726:1,723
697:7.86
683:0.91
677:12–43
667:0.85
661:26–33
641:(ABS)
633:1.16
585:7.85
582:1,110
569:8.00
566:2,070
563:1,758
555:7.86
552:2,430
549:2,160
537:8.00
534:2,693
531:2,617
503:7.58
244:.
166:force
3307:PMID
3203:2009
3179:PMID
3144:2009
3035:PMID
2992:PMID
2941:PMID
2886:PMID
2796:PMID
2741:PMID
2680:2010
2612:2015
2565:2015
2517:2007
2481:PMID
2432:PMID
2373:PMID
2306:2018
2280:2009
2254:2015
2228:2015
2202:2015
2173:2015
2147:2015
2121:2023
2080:(or
2064:IAPD
2041:2009
2015:2015
1989:2015
1963:2015
1937:2015
1892:2015
1863:2018
1777:Lead
1758:100
1750:Gold
1745:170
1706:Zinc
1697:9–14
1684:200
1668:210
1638:350
1629:Iron
1432:1.3
1414:1.0
1396:3.5
1230:1.6
1219:Bone
1202:pine
1178:1.4
1105:1.3
1096:silk
1073:1.3
991:2.7
977:2.6
961:2.7
831:2.7
766:2.8
732:6.1
714:7.3
616:7.8
606:A514
599:7.8
520:7.8
489:7.8
335:neck
181:mega
3299:doi
3287:287
3257:doi
3253:271
3171:doi
3167:208
3086:doi
3027:doi
3015:287
2982:PMC
2974:doi
2933:doi
2876:PMC
2866:doi
2788:doi
2776:321
2733:doi
2721:371
2471:PMC
2463:doi
2422:PMC
2412:doi
2363:PMC
2355:doi
1908:",
1785:12
1726:170
1690:Tin
1681:180
1678:186
1665:117
1662:130
1648:120
1632:211
1621:550
1618:411
1603:107
1343:(Al
1253:900
1227:130
1117:or
1099:500
988:2–5
888:941
875:500
859:350
856:130
842:220
828:300
825:241
795:100
792:100
763:483
760:414
746:448
743:345
711:200
708:130
694:620
691:275
613:760
610:690
596:531
593:448
579:951
546:340
517:940
514:620
500:841
497:247
483:250
191:is
48:or
34:UTS
3346::
3313:.
3305:.
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1143:52
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908:41
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779:55
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286:0
283:A
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279:F
58:F
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