860:
793:
6540:: "The 'revisionist project' certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purånas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise. Though the ones pursuing this project use dialectic methods quite effectively, they frequently also turn traditional Indian discussion methods and scholastic tricks to their advantage The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the 'truth' of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at 'rewriting' history out of national pride or for the purpose of 'nation building'."
4137:
stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and the "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs. In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top. After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another. Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry. Pottery is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead. Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave. Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.
4148:
painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the
Northern Indian Iron Age. The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into a smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas. Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips. There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding the establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury".
4133:
the end of
Harrapan culture. This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors. This pottery was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad. This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with the culture.
4229:
3545:
695:
40:
4141:
of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities. Black and red ware, and the surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt. There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing.
132:
6737:
6995:
7207:
488:
450:
2923:
566:
3215:
912:(horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of
3203:
3831:
3503:, literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.
3645:). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine
6497:, p. 186: "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent."
623:. In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion, the idea of a purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream.
3392:, the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the Upanishads and the subsequent
859:
6641:, p. 65: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from mediaeval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
3054:. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position. People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled
4101:(2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the
3182:, in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period."
6319:"The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a
6310:, contains 1,028 hymns, some of which may be as old as 1500 BCE. Because the Vedic texts are the primary way in which we can understand the period between the fall of the IVC (ca 1700) and the second wave of urbanization (600 BCE), we call the intervening era of South Asian history the 'Vedic Period.'"
4140:
Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir
Mortimer Wheeler. The pottery, as the name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece. Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels. Most
4132:
Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar
Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district. It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between the Indus Valley civilization and
3306:
In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system. To aid in governing these new states, the kings and their
Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox
813:
plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
4136:
Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the
Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus. These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation. This culture is thought to occur in 3
3513:
traders, but the evidence for this is slim. Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of
6547:
comments: "...the parallels between the
Intelligent Design issue and the Indo-Aryan "controversy" are distressingly close. The Indo-Aryan controversy is a manufactured one with a non-scholarly agenda, and the tactics of its manufacturers are very close to those of the ID proponents mentioned above.
3117:
associates the
Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher
847:
priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and the Vedic
808:
had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic
817:
The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing the Śrauta ritual. It is associated with the
Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab. It differed from the
4147:
is a significant pottery style that has been linked to a group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna
Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period. It's also thought that the groups that introduced the
3387:
characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose rituals that also served to
3323:(polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as
3768:. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment.
780:. Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the
275:. The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and
6306:, p. xxiv: "Although the Vedas are essentially liturgical documents and increasingly mystical reflections on Vedic ritual, they are sufficiently rich and extensive to give us some understanding of what life was like at the time. The earliest of the Vedas, the
6548:
However unwittingly and however high their aims, the two editors have sought to put a gloss of intellectual legitimacy, with a sense that real scientific questions are being debated, on what is essentially a religion-nationalistic attack on a scholarly consensus."
6346:, University of Minnesota Press: "Patriarchal culture entered Siam late, through the royal family, which, though to this day Buddhist, in the late Sukhothai period—as Angkor long before it—imported brahminical priests and, with them, Vedic patriarchal culture."
3741:, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common
3412:
itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy. Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society.
742:
and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic
6482:) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."Narasimhan et al. state that there was no genetic impact from Bactria-Margiana populations on the ancestry of South Asians.
449:
3375:, as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context. The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early
887:, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox
3173:
indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as
4096:
focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the
3854:
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:
6339:, Penguin UK: "The Vedic patriarchal culture was defined by an extremely aggressive need to establish a social order that catered to male sexuality, both on earth and in the heavens—among humans and also among the gods."
3403:
According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple
3490:
The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the
3343:
are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of the king, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states
8263:
733:
which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as
6629:
is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."
3169:. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like
3429:, to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings (
6742:
6740:
650: 1400–1000 BCE. They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised
336:
were adopted, which allowed for the clearing of forests and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns,
6386:, pp. 33, 35 states that they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians, who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone and "chased them to the extremities of Central Eurasia."
1066:," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Greater Magadha reached its zenith under the
809:
leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The
8838:
7961:
3383:
and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic."
792:
8691:
6955:
3162:
IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."
668:) and (present-day) Tajikistan. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the
3649:—into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.
1062:) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in "
6211:
4036:
9563:
3437:), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the
9571:
7971:
6965:
6563:
6323:
of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present"
6470:, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the
6353:, Concept Publishing Company: "But the most important transformation that occurred in the patriarchal Vedic society is the exclusion of women from the sacrifices."
4228:
3509:
in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were
3165:
Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a
1453:
8773:
3522:
refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (
6574:
is a late Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE. However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the
999:. The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access.
776:, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of
3530:) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities.
6121:
7803:
6181:
3974:: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the
6245:
6151:
3158:
as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole. Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like
9491:
3136:
endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three
6161:
2566:
1748:
1623:
7755:
6522:, p. 7: "This does not mean that the Indigenous Aryan position is historically probable. The available evidence by no means denies the
3796:, but interpret the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of
6578:
cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into account a period needed for linguistic change, it may not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE."
654:
and the Indo-Iranian religion. Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta culture show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the
9715:
1953:
669:
584:
507:
The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Historically, after the collapse of the
660:, while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the
2958:
6534:, p. 342 used the term "Indo-Aryan Controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory, and some of its opponents.
9700:
2452:
3148:
place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. The
3050:
The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the
1078:
of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, which continued in the Kingdoms of the
7771:
3872:
elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic text. Its time span likely corresponds to the
3985:(MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware culture from c. 1000 or 900 BCE corresponds to the
3936:, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of
9602:
9581:
9473:
9452:
9415:
9397:
9374:
9333:
9290:
9269:
9249:
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8943:
8895:
8857:
8827:
8804:
8783:
8762:
8735:
8599:
8576:
8535:
8515:
8495:
8474:
8451:
8343:
8324:
8297:
8273:
8230:
7942:
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3267:
was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils.
574:
9690:
8289:
The Wonder that was India: A survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims
4105:(1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura.
3331:
increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (
619:
Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an
495:
250:
6238:
5971:
2447:
2292:
1268:
8025:
502:
Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and arrival in the subcontinent as Indo-Aryans
9730:
9351:
9113:
Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".
8671:
8414:. Waterloo, Ontario (Canada); Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey (US): Wilfrid Laurier University Press; Humanities Press.
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formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.
9720:
9643:
9549:
9095:
9056:
8629:
8419:
4448:
294:
into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and
4437:
2052:
8485:
4160:, the timeline of events in ancient Indian history and mythology as narrated in post-Vedic Hindu texts such as the
2976:
While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or
1458:
9725:
6370:, p. 408 states that around 1800–1600 BCE, the Indo-Aryans are believed to have split off from the Iranians.
3612:, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing
3518:. Some of these might have needed full-time specialists. There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of the
3042:, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk
2350:
2047:
7787:
7739:
380:
9309:
6231:
4480:
4238:
4118:
3881:
2075:
399:
94:
9614:
The Gandhara Grave Culture: New Perspectives on Protohistoric Cemeteries in Northern and Northwestern Pakistan
8717:
Kak, Subhash (2005), "Vedic astronomy and early Indian chronology", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie (eds.),
6056:
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and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of
3111:. The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The
2951:
2835:
1333:
6454:, pp. 454–455, at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god
3544:
3251:
could not accede to the throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear.
8962:
8223:
The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World
4565:
4028:
1468:
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651:
17:
9181:
Selective remembrances: archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts
9444:
7781:
6166:
6036:
3742:
3034:, such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility:
2312:
291:
9440:
9434:
4172:, envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received by the
2057:
9705:
8353:
8316:
6216:
4126:
4102:
2840:
2810:
843:
which reflected a division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were four:
839:
system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were a "hierarchical
750:
Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the
407:
8994:
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; Bernardos, Rebecca (2019).
6504:, pp. 460–461 note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency" as to the
3231:
Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a
9710:
9408:
Worlds together, worlds apart: A history of the world from the beginnings of humankind to the present
8356:(2002). "Aryanization of the Indus Civilization". In K. N. Panikkar; T. J. Byres; U. Patnaik (eds.).
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related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the
797:
608:
508:
411:
384:
246:
84:
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valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (
3178:, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads.
1351:
1038:
The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of
7819:
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4985:
4825:
3653:
2944:
2926:
2863:
2410:
2362:
2327:
2117:
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538:, from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent
428:
9201:
8240:
Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Perspectives",
4049:: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the
3367:, it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period. However,
2620:
772:, against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river
8913:
Mishra, Anup (2007), "Chalcolithic Black and Red Ware of Balathal, Upaidur, Rajasthan: A Study",
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3252:
2600:
2357:
2210:
2042:
1941:
1636:
1493:
755:
272:
9179:(2008). "The Aryan homeland debate in India". In P. L. Kohl; M. Kozelsky; N. Ben-Yehuda (eds.).
3784:". Vedic religion survived in the srayta ritual, whereas ascetic and devotional traditions like
1708:
9695:
9685:
8813:
6505:
6091:
6066:
6016:
5956:
5541:
5477:
5275:
4491:
4366:
4122:
3877:
3869:
2932:
2908:
2465:
1967:
1338:
699:
694:
596:
570:
403:
9592:
9463:
9323:
9280:
9239:
8525:
8505:
8462:
7813:
7797:
7765:
7749:
947:(approximately between 900 and 750 BCE). Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of
9680:
9387:
9259:
8931:
8439:
8035:
6126:
6096:
5961:
5916:
5746:
5385:
5375:
5345:
5077:
5057:
4918:
4287:
4249:
4089:
2147:
1783:
1418:
515:
267:
texts which formed the basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in the
2297:
891:
rituals. Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king
8971:
8254:
6513:
6509:
6206:
6061:
6046:
5991:
5632:
4098:
4043:(N. Bihar and Nepal) is established as the third main political centre of the Vedic period.
3409:
2825:
2595:
2272:
2237:
2035:
1768:
1688:
1398:
1393:
1178:
840:
604:
534:
before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in the
436:
8:
9521:
8662:
Jamison, Stephanie W.; Witzel, Michael (2003). "Vedic Hinduism". In Arvind Sharma (ed.).
8312:
Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present
8265:
India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200
6279:
5986:
5714:
5561:
5255:
5235:
4647:
4595:
4024:
3113:
2800:
2152:
1761:
1703:
1358:
1313:
810:
620:
356:. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called
254:
242:
219:
142:
50:
9188:
9164:
9122:
9030:
8995:
6191:
6051:
6031:
5676:
5285:
5195:
4965:
4955:
4888:
4837:
4543:
4459:
4188:(aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE. The
4157:
3957:
3873:
3371:
observes that it is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a
2898:
2830:
2815:
2805:
2785:
2750:
2725:
2700:
2583:
2142:
2107:
2017:
1972:
1928:
1773:
1433:
1318:
1047:
944:
906:
The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the
744:
612:
600:
523:
512:
466:
432:
349:
89:
9325:
A History of Ancient and Early Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century
8077:
3085:
The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the
348:. During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic
39:
9639:
9598:
9577:
9545:
9469:
9448:
9421:
9411:
9393:
9370:
9347:
9329:
9305:
9286:
9265:
9245:
9207:
9168:
9091:
9073:
9052:
9035:
9017:
8939:
8891:
8863:
8853:
8823:
8800:
8779:
8758:
8741:
8731:
8667:
8625:
8595:
8572:
8531:
8511:
8491:
8470:
8447:
8415:
8339:
8320:
8293:
8269:
8226:
7561:
6201:
6171:
6081:
6076:
6021:
5966:
5796:
5686:
5665:
5621:
5591:
5295:
5225:
5215:
5185:
4667:
4629:
4509:
4261:
3961:
3781:
2820:
2720:
2546:
2521:
2322:
2232:
2222:
2197:
1738:
1698:
1558:
1548:
1403:
1303:
1278:
1138:
1126:
984:
968:
899:, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern
580:
535:
531:
440:
388:
223:
3868:
is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common
3082:
was used. Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes.
2367:
995:
By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called
131:
9344:
History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century
9261:Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600
9176:
9156:
9025:
9007:
8981:
8927:
8249:
8218:
6259:
6196:
6131:
6101:
6086:
6041:
6026:
6011:
5981:
5876:
5571:
5355:
5265:
5144:
5134:
5087:
5016:
4995:
4585:
4575:
4414:
4349:
4198:, which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at the heartland of
4114:
4092:
during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the
3690:
3480:
3372:
3312:
3179:
3091:
3079:
3018:
2981:
2760:
2511:
2496:
2476:
2417:
2302:
2262:
2162:
2130:
2062:
1997:
1898:
1878:
1788:
1643:
1543:
1488:
1443:
1428:
980:
913:
864:
835:
721:
and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (
395:
376:
227:
187:
60:
4084:
In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the
2526:
9633:
9364:
9067:
8885:
8817:
8794:
8586:
8566:
8310:
8287:
7555:
6778:
6776:
5654:
5643:
5601:
5581:
5499:
5466:
5047:
4975:
4935:
4847:
4807:
4769:
4687:
4189:
4181:
4177:
4062:
3975:
3376:
3335:) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation.
3247:. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The
2903:
2795:
2690:
2645:
2561:
2536:
2392:
2372:
2332:
2277:
2167:
2022:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1893:
1618:
1603:
1538:
1388:
1328:
1193:
1109:
1071:
1063:
1004:
773:
689:
661:
499:
353:
303:
8906:
The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World
8555:
Rethinking the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma King
8467:
The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States
8444:
The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States
3989:
and the subsequent eastward shift of the political centre from the Kurus to the
9559:
9517:
8431:
The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity
6284:
5864:
5816:
5510:
5488:
5456:
5434:
5395:
5325:
5315:
5175:
4908:
4718:
4220:
4199:
4079:
3750:
3510:
3484:
3360:
3283:
was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the
2893:
2765:
2650:
2605:
2469:
2242:
2192:
1923:
1693:
1506:
1363:
1293:
1213:
1087:
1083:
1032:
976:
900:
287:
152:
9465:
A history of Indian literature: Introduction, Veda, epics, purānas and tantras
9160:
8961:
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David (2018),
6773:
4050:
4032:
3580:
3393:
487:
361:
9674:
9567:
9425:
9319:
9021:
8867:
8745:
8440:"The prelude to urbanization: ethnicity and the rise of Late Vedic chiefdoms"
6566:: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the
6462:, which according to Anthony was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion."
5786:
5726:
5551:
4945:
4898:
4878:
4752:
4735:
4697:
4677:
4612:
4396:
4386:
4376:
4319:
4194:
3698:
3384:
3368:
3150:
2858:
2695:
2615:
2610:
2437:
2382:
2377:
2137:
2112:
2102:
2092:
1977:
1888:
1883:
1853:
1808:
1778:
1743:
1553:
1523:
1143:
1091:
1067:
1028:
951:
emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is today northern
936:
896:
777:
592:
527:
191:
9012:
6466:, p. 454: "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory,
3303:
performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.
2710:
2655:
2282:
2252:
1039:
9383:
9039:
8376:
The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate
6467:
6459:
6393:
5906:
5896:
5776:
5766:
5696:
5531:
5521:
5405:
5335:
5117:
5037:
4657:
4337:
4185:
4173:
3986:
3965:
3847:
3746:
3694:
3548:
A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of
3397:
3364:
2873:
2868:
2755:
2740:
2640:
2630:
2625:
2551:
2541:
2481:
2422:
2387:
2187:
2097:
1848:
1843:
1513:
1423:
1163:
1095:
996:
884:
876:
781:
735:
677:
357:
341:
310:, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a
268:
108:
9564:"Beyond the Flight of the Falcon: Early 'Aryans' Within and Outside India"
8620:
Holdrege, Barbara A. (2004), "Dharma", in Mittal, S.; Thursby, G. (eds.),
283:
9629:
9484:
Dialectes dans les Litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 97–265.
9360:
9231:
The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century
6588:
6376:, p. 454 states that one of these Indo-Aryan groups would found the
5926:
5886:
5846:
5245:
5107:
5097:
4161:
3896:
3813:
3662:
3634:
3475:
3422:
2680:
2635:
2590:
2531:
2501:
2491:
2397:
2317:
1987:
1903:
1833:
1793:
1578:
1448:
1308:
1158:
1079:
1008:
972:
588:
551:
547:
519:
457:
311:
299:
295:
9544:(1st paperback ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 68–71.
9126:
764:
6351:
A Dictionary of the Vedic Rituals: Based on the Śrauta and Gṛhya Sūtras
5836:
5736:
5446:
4054:
3843:
3805:
3576:
3389:
3256:
3058:(not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn.
2878:
2685:
2506:
2182:
1982:
1798:
1678:
1648:
1528:
1383:
1117:
908:
868:
849:
759:
665:
565:
9522:"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts"
8936:
The Arthasastra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft
8703:
3734:
3396:
movements, and the end of the Vedic Period, which was followed by the
983:; Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king
9540:
Witzel, Michael (2005). "Vedas and Upaniṣads". In Gavin Flood (ed.).
5806:
4016:
4004:
3981:
3928:
3839:
3738:
3568:
3549:
3461:
refer to iron-welders. However, philological evidence indicates that
3202:
3100:
3078:), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a
2883:
2780:
2770:
2267:
2247:
1658:
1653:
1408:
1378:
1368:
1253:
1238:
1203:
921:
892:
340:, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the
3592:
3591:
connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17
3552:, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life
3308:
888:
872:
345:
8986:
8976:
8463:"City states of North India and Pakistan at the time of the Buddha"
7170:
7168:
6587:
According to Erdosy, this battle provided a prototype for the epic
6156:
5067:
4532:
4309:
4299:
4165:
4012:
3990:
3953:
3917:
3596:
3572:
3473:, literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the post-Rigvedic
3405:
3175:
3124:
2888:
2715:
2432:
2427:
2002:
1992:
1838:
1728:
1723:
1668:
1663:
1598:
1593:
1413:
1273:
1263:
1258:
1233:
1168:
1075:
1059:
1024:
940:
939:, and the political center of Vedic culture shifted east, into the
917:
543:
369:
337:
333:
112:
9492:"Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State"
9144:
9106:
The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization
8993:
8336:
Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age
6782:
3618:
3214:
758:, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day
8001:
7112:
6377:
6274:
5365:
4270:
4169:
3911:
3864:
3830:
3801:
3797:
3789:
3722:
3706:
3608:
3588:
3561:
Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four
3104:
3096:
2980:
was absent, the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of
2745:
2670:
2486:
2287:
2227:
2177:
2172:
2157:
2007:
1948:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1823:
1713:
1683:
1673:
1588:
1573:
1478:
1473:
1373:
1298:
1283:
1228:
1198:
1188:
1055:
1051:
1016:
1012:
964:
925:
844:
827:
814:
Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.
683:
656:
632:
628:
539:
365:
264:
9302:
The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation
8719:
Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History
8683:
Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From
8642:
Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History
8588:
The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture
8568:
The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture
8385:
Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History
7356:
7332:
7308:
7219:
7165:
3978:. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the
3666:. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like
1533:
8585:
Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), "Hinduism", in Joseph Kitagawa (ed.),
8565:
Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), "Hinduism", in Joseph Kitagawa (ed.),
7422:
7007:
5165:
4066:
4040:
3994:
3891:
3702:
3667:
3657:
3492:
3380:
3319:
was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of
3108:
2775:
2705:
2665:
2660:
2556:
2442:
2337:
2307:
2217:
1962:
1958:
1858:
1813:
1733:
1608:
1583:
1288:
1248:
1243:
1223:
1218:
1173:
960:
948:
929:
823:
329:
307:
116:
9573:
Which of Us are Aryans?: Rethinking the Concept of Our Origins
8996:"The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia"
8048:
8046:
8044:
7511:
7272:
6653:
6591:, Hiltebeitel calls this idea a "particularly baffling fancy."
3421:
Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of
8775:
A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India
7870:
7410:
7061:
6841:
6839:
6455:
3825:
3761:
3730:
3726:
3714:
3710:
3682:
3671:
3642:
3630:
3626:
3603:
3563:
2730:
2675:
2257:
2012:
1818:
1718:
1613:
1568:
1563:
1518:
1483:
1438:
1208:
1183:
1133:
1043:
1020:
956:
952:
853:
769:
739:
673:
642:
558: 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at
394:
Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan
379:
that would remain influential. Vedic religion developed into
231:
9664:
The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE – 500 BCE)
8548:, vol. 49, Cambridge University Press, pp. 187–190
8123:
8121:
8119:
8117:
7989:
7930:
6396:, who were pursued by the Iranians "across Iran into India."
935:
The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic
787:
8338:(1st ed.). Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
8041:
7729:
7727:
7284:
5826:
3809:
3785:
3718:
3686:
3646:
3095:
hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups—
2735:
1828:
1463:
1153:
1148:
1000:
718:
477:
9433:
Trigger, Bruce G. (2003). "States: City and Territorial".
9366:
Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights
7523:
7385:
7383:
6836:
6824:
3749:
cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in
550:) to northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian
8692:"New reports clearly confirm 'Arya' migration into India"
8613:
Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative
8114:
7894:
7882:
7688:
7078:
7076:
7024:
7022:
6870:
6868:
6866:
6712:
6710:
4151:
3765:
3271:
had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (
800:(c. 1000–600 BCE), associated with Vedic material culture
717:
contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the
8067:
8065:
8063:
8061:
7977:
7906:
7724:
7676:
7664:
7640:
6543:
In her review of Bryant's "The Indo-Aryan Controversy,"
4113:
Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic
3850:
is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.
8666:. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 65–113.
8412:
The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature
8292:, Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan,
8171:
7860:
7858:
7712:
7630:
7628:
7626:
7601:
7599:
7597:
7595:
7593:
7591:
7589:
7451:
7449:
7400:
7398:
7380:
7296:
7185:
7183:
7143:
7141:
7139:
7051:
7049:
6697:
6695:
6399:
For an overview of the current relevant research, see:
3625:
The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (
9482:
Witzel, Michael (1989), "Tracing the Vedic dialects",
9436:
Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study
9410:(4th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
9149:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
8367:
Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India
8183:
8144:
8142:
8140:
8138:
8136:
8104:
8102:
8100:
8098:
8096:
8094:
8092:
7700:
7535:
7499:
7480:
7461:
7073:
7034:
7019:
6983:
6863:
6851:
6788:
6707:
3208:
Ancient Indian antennae sword; metalwork, 1500–500 BCE
9304:. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.
8850:
The dawn of civilization – Earliest times to 700 B. C
8161:
8159:
8157:
8058:
8013:
7949:
7368:
7262:
7260:
7258:
7256:
7254:
7252:
7250:
7248:
7246:
7100:
6763:
6761:
6759:
6757:
6755:
6727:
6725:
6670:
6668:
1011:), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture.
626:
The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the
611:
cultures are candidates for cultures associated with
375:
The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of
9462:
Winternitz, Moriz; Sarma, Vuppala Srinivasa (1981),
8195:
7918:
7855:
7652:
7623:
7586:
7554:
Wan, Peter P.; Reins, Thomas D. (17 February 2021).
7446:
7434:
7395:
7344:
7231:
7180:
7153:
7136:
7124:
7046:
6919:
6892:
6812:
6692:
4088:, but the following millennium, coinciding with the
2984:. Political hierarchy was determined by rank, where
8956:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
8728:
Military manpower, armies and warfare in South Asia
8711:
Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research
8704:"On the Chronological Framework for Indian Culture"
8507:
Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction
8133:
8089:
7843:
7831:
7611:
7574:
7320:
6971:
6943:
6931:
6909:
6907:
6800:
6474:. He was associated more than any other deity with
6297:
3932:. Many of these texts are largely derived from the
3816:, are essential parts of these later developments.
3356:), and tribal principalities had emerged in India.
3066:were popular drinks in the Vedic society, of which
3004:(non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom. The words
8154:
7243:
7195:
7088:
6880:
6752:
6722:
6665:
6594:
6526:—that of external Aryan origins and, if anything,
6392:, p. 34 states that the other group were the
4176:thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of
3263:was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas,
383:, and around the beginning of the Common Era, the
9439:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.
9145:"Kuru kings, Tura Kavaseya and the -tvaya Gerund"
8960:
6680:
6485:
526:represented a sub-group that diverged from other
511:, which occurred around 1900 BCE, groups of
9672:
9594:Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult
8752:
8031:
6904:
6446:
6444:
3968:, dating from c. the 12th to 11th centuries BCE.
3660:tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the
3469:refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or
9461:
8964:The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia
8925:
8839:"The Painted Grey Ware Culture of the Iron Age"
8792:
8753:Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996).
8644:. London and New York: Routledge (Book review)"
8469:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–122.
7876:
7362:
7338:
7314:
7225:
7174:
7067:
6659:
6632:
6553:
6303:
3737:gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially
1050:. Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the
738:connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes
328:culture spread eastward to the fertile western
8446:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–98.
3425:and agriculture. There are references, in the
3388:structure social relations. The period of the
684:Early Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 BCE)
8661:
7995:
6638:
6441:
6380:kingdom in northern Syria (c. 1500–1300 BCE).
6239:
3956:in north-western India, corresponding to the
3483:culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an
3479:, and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a
3239:was restricted by the tribal councils called
2952:
1046:texts, and at the same time the beginning of
9299:
9187:
8903:
8844:. In Ahmad Hasan Dani; V. M. Masson (eds.).
8793:Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998),
8771:
8755:The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development
8383:Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie, eds. (2005),
8382:
8239:
7967:
7416:
6531:
6501:
3780:formed one of the main constituents of the "
3776:Around the beginning of the Common Era, the
3681:The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were
3016:, but they are not associated with the term
747:culture, a difference also noted by Samuel.
9278:
8610:
8584:
8564:
8552:
8403:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archeology
8052:
7941:sfn error: no target: CITEREFSinghalGupta (
7491:sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 (
7472:sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 (
7290:
7118:
6746:
6603:
6287:(Contemporaneous period in Iranian history)
3745:religion remain visible, especially in the
2996:(the common people) in the middle, and the
1098:, which resulted in the "Hindu Synthesis".
762:). The battle was fought between the tribe
9529:Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS)
8640:"Edward F. Bryant and Laurie Patton, eds.
8364:
7082:
6246:
6232:
2959:
2945:
1042:marks a final apex in the codification of
1015:expanded towards the south and settled in
486:
130:
38:
9195:. Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press.
9029:
9011:
8985:
8975:
8778:. Rishikesh, India: Divine Life Society.
8624:, New York: Routledge, pp. 213–248,
8253:
6478:, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from
3713:and Amsa, further nature deities such as
3697:and some deities of social order such as
3185:
959:, reaching its prominence under the king
788:Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)
754:. Most notable of such conflicts was the
709:), associated with Vedic material culture
591:cultures have often been associated with
230:when the Vedic literature, including the
71:
9655:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300
9175:
9142:
9133:
9112:
9085:
9065:
8951:
8883:
8846:History of civilizations of Central Asia
8619:
8523:
8305:
8019:
8007:
7983:
7936:
7888:
7828:, "Notes on the translation": pp. xii–x.
7825:
7706:
7694:
7670:
7553:
7486:
7467:
7428:
7040:
7001:
6794:
6622:
6609:
6600:Witzel's study is furthermore cited by:
6418:
6389:
6383:
3829:
3771:
3543:
3046:, would you impart to me endless wealth.
2992:(tribal nobility) stood at the top, the
1070:. Meanwhile, the Achaemenid invasion of
858:
791:
693:
569:Archaeological cultures associated with
564:
387:formed one of the main constituents of "
372:) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy.
241:–900 BCE), was composed in the northern
9590:
9432:
9241:Ancient Indian History And Civilization
9103:
8812:
8725:
8637:
8503:
8460:
8437:
8405:(2nd ed.), Oxford University Press
8400:
8394:Gandhara Grave Complex in West Pakistan
8217:
8083:
7849:
7837:
7777:
7505:
7213:
7028:
7013:
6989:
6874:
6857:
6845:
6544:
6463:
6451:
6423:
6413:
6373:
6367:
3922:(containing some 75 mantras not in the
3641:and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras (
3220:Ancient Indian axe blade, 1500–1000 BCE
3140:is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts.
3089:from the people and the emergence of a
990:
14:
9673:
9661:
9652:
9558:
9539:
9516:
9489:
9481:
9405:
9300:Singhal, K. C.; Gupta, Roshan (2003).
9257:
9228:
9219:
8912:
8689:
8680:
8428:
8373:
8333:
8282:
8255:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812
8189:
8148:
7912:
7809:
7793:
7761:
7745:
7718:
7634:
7617:
7557:Asia Past and Present: A Brief History
7517:
7455:
7440:
7404:
7389:
7374:
7350:
7302:
7278:
7266:
7201:
7189:
7147:
7106:
7094:
6961:
6925:
6886:
6818:
6806:
6767:
6716:
6701:
6686:
6559:
6537:
6519:
6433:
6428:
6403:
4152:Puranic chronology of the Vedic period
4011:belong to this period, as well as the
455:
9628:
9611:
9382:
9359:
9341:
9318:
9199:
9046:
8934:, in M. McClish; P. Olivelle (eds.),
8904:Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006),
8543:
8483:
8261:
8201:
8165:
8127:
8071:
7924:
7900:
7864:
7733:
7682:
7658:
7646:
7605:
7580:
7326:
7237:
7159:
7130:
7055:
6977:
6949:
6937:
6898:
6830:
6731:
6674:
6514:migration out of the Eurasian steppes
6494:
6358:
3583:are also considered to be Vedic. The
3012:occur in various family books of the
963:, whose court provided patronage for
475:
464:
27:Ancient South Asian historical period
9591:Woodard, Roger D. (18 August 2006).
9138:. Britannica Educational Publishing.
8938:, Hackett Publishing, p. xxiv,
8874:
8701:
8392:Dani, Ahmad Hasan (15 August 1966),
8391:
8352:
8108:
7816:, citing Olivelle (1998), pp. xii–x.
7529:
6913:
6408:
3834:An early-19th-century manuscript of
3606:, the composers of the hymns of the
3311:rituals) to strengthen the emerging
1023:which was governed from its capital
1019:. To the south of their kingdom was
725:) or obey the commandments of gods (
621:indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans
518:and started to inhabit the northern
9635:The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism
9542:The Blackwell companion to Hinduism
9499:Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies
9279:Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008).
9237:
9088:The Vedic Experience: Mantramañjari
9051:. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre.
8836:
8716:
8409:
8378:, New York: Oxford University Press
8177:
7955:
7541:
4129:and the Painted Grey Ware culture.
3070:was sanctified by religion. Flute (
2293:Western Mexico Shaft Tomb Tradition
916:, the division of Vedic society in
852:and many Sutras important to later
804:After the 12th century BCE, as the
24:
9716:Indo-Aryan archaeological cultures
9622:
9193:Political History of Ancient India
9090:, Bangalore: Motilal Banarsidass,
8730:. London: Pickering & Chatto.
8690:Joseph, Tony (13 September 2019),
8396:, Pakistan: University of Peshawar
3279:). The main responsibility of the
1090:. This period culminated with the
943:kingdom on the Ganges, under King
25:
9742:
9612:Zahir, Muhammad (15 April 2016),
9049:Axiological approach to the Vedas
8884:Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977),
8524:Griswold, Hervey De Witt (1971),
4202:, is dated in this chronology at
3952:). This is the time of the early
3792:acknowledge the authority of the
3556:
1003:, a small kingdom to the east of
516:migrated into north-western India
286:with precision by speakers of an
9657:, University of California Press
9597:. University of Illinois Press.
8651:Journal of Indo-European Studies
8544:Hedge, K.T.M. (2 January 2015),
6616:
4227:
3890:: This period includes both the
3725:(the earth). Goddesses included
3213:
3201:
2922:
2921:
1694:Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans
1007:(on the door step of modern-day
729:). Their speech is described as
448:
9701:Iron Age cultures of South Asia
8819:The Origin of the Indo-Iranians
7547:
6581:
2988:(tribal king or chieftain) and
863:Modern replica of utensils and
245:, between the end of the urban
9638:. Malden, MA (US): Blackwell.
9206:, Tata McGraw-Hill Education,
8638:Jamison, Stephanie W. (2006).
8546:The Painted Grey Ware of India
8490:, Cambridge University Press,
8401:Darvill, Timothy, ed. (2009),
8225:. Princeton University Press.
6326:
6313:
4481:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
4192:, the background-scene of the
4119:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
4108:
4073:
3964:(PGW) cultures, and the early
3882:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
848:era texts including the early
400:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
95:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
13:
1:
9047:Nigal, Sahebrao Genu (1986).
8557:, University of Chicago Press
8504:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2011),
8365:Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007),
6647:
6625:, pp. 350–351 remarks: "
5411:
5150:
5123:
5022:
5001:
4924:
4863:
4792:
4775:
4758:
4741:
4724:
4703:
4618:
4601:
4355:
4203:
3819:
3760:are based on the concepts of
3674:etc. trace their root to the
3652:Vedic people believed in the
3453:refers to iron and the words
3449:. Some scholars believe that
703:
647:
559:
555:
318:
257:
253:, which began in the central
235:
218:), is the period in the late
208:
162:
9233:, Cambridge University Press
8852:. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
8772:Krishnananda, Swami (1994).
8242:Annual Review of Linguistics
8032:Krishan & Tadikonda 1996
4566:Northern Black Polished Ware
875:ritual originating from the
820:Northern Black Polished Ware
652:Proto-Indo-European religion
282:The Vedas were composed and
271:, a tribal union of several
7:
9691:Ancient history of Pakistan
9328:, Pearson Education India,
9282:A Dictionary of Archaeology
9258:Sharma, Ram Sharan (1990).
9143:Proferes, Theodore (2003).
9086:Panikkar, Raimundo (2001),
9072:, Oxford University Press,
8527:The Religion of the Ṛigveda
8487:An Introduction to Hinduism
8086:, "ochre‐coloured pottery".
7877:Kulke & Rothermund 1998
7363:Kulke & Rothermund 1998
7339:Kulke & Rothermund 1998
7315:Kulke & Rothermund 1998
7226:Kulke & Rothermund 1998
7175:Kulke & Rothermund 1998
7068:Kulke & Rothermund 1998
6660:McClish & Olivelle 2012
6570:for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The
6304:McClish & Olivelle 2012
6162:Influence on Southeast Asia
4212:
3533:
3144:and verse 13.8.3.11 of the
1031:and parts of North Western
546:area (present-day northern
346:orthodox sacrificial ritual
279:to be traced and inferred.
10:
9747:
9406:Tignor, Robert L. (2014).
9224:, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag
9200:Reddy, K. Krishna (2011),
9134:Pletcher, Kenneth (2010).
9066:Olivelle, Patrick (1998),
8954:Hinduism. Past and present
8757:. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
8615:. Oxford University Press.
8465:. In F. R. Allchin (ed.).
8442:. In F. R. Allchin (ed.).
8334:Bellah, Robert N. (2011).
8317:Princeton University Press
8210:
6344:The Alphonso Lingis Reader
4544:Black and Red ware culture
4127:Black and red ware culture
4103:Black and red ware culture
4077:
3948:verbal stem (for Rigvedic
3926:), and the mantras of the
3894:and prose language of the
3823:
3804:. Later texts such as the
3654:transmigration of the soul
3537:
3416:
3128:sacrifice depended on the
3030:are absent. Verses of the
2971:
1101:
955:of India and southeastern
687:
426:
422:
417:
408:black and red ware culture
9731:Historical Vedic religion
9662:Prasad, R. U. S. (2020),
9505:(4): 1–26, archived from
9392:, John Wiley & Sons,
9285:. John Wiley & Sons.
9244:, New Age International,
9229:Samuel, Geoffrey (2010),
9161:10.1017/S0041977X03000120
9108:, Oxford University Press
8908:, Oxford University Press
8875:Long, Jeffrey D. (2013),
8611:Hiltebeitel, Alf (2011).
8553:Hiltebeitel, Alf (2001),
8510:, John Wiley & Sons,
7996:Jamison & Witzel 2003
7560:. John Wiley & Sons.
6639:Jamison & Witzel 2003
6270:Indus Valley civilisation
6265:Historical Vedic religion
4555:Painted Grey Ware culture
4427:Indus Valley Civilisation
4145:Painted grey ware culture
4086:Indus Valley Civilisation
3540:Historical Vedic religion
3195:
2083:Indus Valley Civilisation
822:and the Mahajanapadas of
798:Painted Grey Ware culture
509:Indus Valley Civilisation
412:Painted Grey Ware culture
247:Indus Valley Civilisation
183:
175:
158:
148:
138:
129:
103:
85:Indus Valley Civilisation
77:
66:
56:
46:
37:
9721:Bronze Age civilizations
9576:. Aleph. pp. 1–29.
9490:Witzel, Michael (1995),
8877:Jainism: An Introduction
8484:Flood, Gavin D. (1996),
8461:Erdosy, George (1995b).
8438:Erdosy, George (1995a).
8410:Day, Terence P. (1982).
8307:Beckwith, Christopher I.
8010:, pp. 112–115, 125.
7768:, citing Trigger (2003).
7520:, pp. 48–51, ch. 3.
7281:, pp. 48–51, 61–93.
6532:Bryant & Patton 2005
6502:Mallory & Adams 2006
6349:Chitrabhanu Sen (1978),
6342:Alphonso Lingis (2018),
6291:
5206:Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
5186:Eastern Chalukya Kingdom
4787:Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire
4039:, VadhSS). In the east,
3944:, and the spread of the
3729:(the dawn), Prithvi and
3633:of Rigvedic verses (see
3622:means "what is heard").
3348:), oligarchical states (
3255:, a noted historian and
2864:Ancient Maritime History
856:culture were completed.
670:Bactria–Margiana culture
640:the oldest layer of the
429:Indo-European migrations
9653:Thapar, Romila (2004),
9468:, Motilal Banarsidass,
9369:, Penguin Books India,
9342:Singh, Upinder (2009),
9264:. Motilal Banarsidass.
9013:10.1126/science.aat7487
8952:Michaels, Axel (2004),
8915:Indian History Congress
8890:, Motilal Banarsidass,
8530:, Motilal Banarsidass,
8429:Erdosy, George (1995),
8053:Shaw & Jameson 2008
7431:, pp. xxviii–xxix.
7016:, p. 375, 408–411.
5306:Western Chalukya Empire
4449:Mature Harappan culture
3275:) and chiefs of sects (
3253:Arthur Llewellyn Basham
756:Battle of the Ten Kings
571:Indo-Iranian migrations
306:society centred in the
9726:Ancient Indian culture
9104:Parpola, Asko (2015),
8702:Kak, Subhash (2001b),
8374:Bryant, Edwin (2001),
8262:Avari, Burjor (2016).
6783:Narasimhan et al. 2019
6506:Indo-European homeland
6212:Science and technology
4596:Three Crowned Kingdoms
4438:Early Harappan culture
4253:(2,500,000–250,000 BC)
4123:Gandhara grave culture
3878:Gandhara grave culture
3851:
3808:and epics, namely the
3579:as well as the oldest
3553:
3235:. The autonomy of the
3186:Political organisation
3048:
2933:Post-classical History
2909:Cradle of Civilization
1968:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
1669:Massylii Confederation
880:
801:
710:
700:Gandhara grave culture
616:
404:Gandhara grave culture
9220:Rocher, Ludo (1986),
8726:Kaushik, Roy (2013).
8681:Joseph, Tony (2018),
8664:The Study of Hinduism
8358:The Making of History
7532:, p. chapter II.
7121:, p. 2, note 12.
6833:, pp. 30, 33–35.
6458:and the ritual drink
6335:Rita Banerji (2008),
6115:Specialised histories
5386:Kalachuris of Kalyani
5376:Kalachuris of Tripuri
5058:Western Ganga Kingdom
4986:Indo-Sassanid Kingdom
4936:Western Satrap Empire
4919:Indo-Parthian Kingdom
4909:Indo-Scythian Kingdom
4460:Late Harappan culture
4221:History of South Asia
3888:Mantra language texts
3874:Late Harappan culture
3833:
3772:Influence on Hinduism
3629:) which included the
3547:
3327:(supreme ruler). The
3142:Panchavamsha Brahmana
3036:
1679:Kingdom of Mauretania
1054:movements (including
862:
795:
768:, led by their chief
698:Cremation urn of the
697:
676:and the ritual drink
646:, which was composed
568:
498:Bronze Age spread of
381:Brahmanical orthodoxy
364:movements (including
9136:The History of India
8020:Paul & Paul 1989
8008:Paul & Paul 1989
6510:Anatolian hypothesis
5633:Ahmadnagar Sultanate
5435:Late medieval period
5346:Eastern Ganga Empire
5078:Vishnukundina Empire
4099:Copper Hoard culture
4094:early Vedic religion
4090:Indo–Aryan migration
4047:Sutra language texts
4015:, the oldest of the
4001:Brahmana prose texts
3410:Kurukshetra district
3154:visualised the four
2517:Senegambia Megaliths
1769:Proto-Indo-Europeans
1709:Kingdom of the Aurès
1689:Kingdom of Ouarsenis
991:Towards urbanization
672:, including the god
562: 800 BCE.
437:Indo-Aryan migration
9238:Sen, S. N. (1999),
9189:Raychaudhuri, H. C.
9183:. pp. 349–378.
8837:Lal, B. B. (1996).
8433:, Walter de Gruyter
8180:, pp. 412–419.
8130:, pp. 274–293.
7939:, pp. 150–151.
7937:Singhal & Gupta
7903:, pp. 198–199.
7736:, pp. 200–201.
7685:, pp. 204–206.
7649:, pp. 201–203.
7544:, pp. 117–120.
6848:, pp. 410–411.
6280:Indigenous Aryanism
5715:Early modern period
5562:Vijayanagara Empire
5542:Chitradurga Kingdom
5236:Bhauma-Kara Kingdom
4648:Shaishunaga dynasty
4007:proper of the four
3972:Samhita prose texts
3733:(the mother of the
3363:'s analysis of the
3192:
3146:Shatapatha Brahmana
3132:of the sacrificer.
3114:Shatapatha Brahmana
2153:Ancestral Puebloans
1664:Kingdom of Blemmyes
1359:Aegean Civilization
865:falcon shaped altar
833:In this period the
528:Indo-Iranian tribes
344:'s codification of
263:BCE. The Vedas are
255:Indo-Gangetic Plain
251:second urbanisation
243:Indian subcontinent
179:Early Vedic culture
143:Indian subcontinent
126:
107:Late Vedic period,
51:Indian subcontinent
34:
9616:, pp. 274–293
9389:A History of India
9006:(6457). eaat7487.
8796:A History of India
8592:(Digital printing)
6192:Partition of India
6057:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
6005:Regional histories
5950:National histories
5837:Travancore Kingdom
5807:Thondaiman Kingdom
5677:Golkonda Sultanate
5286:Somavamshi Kingdom
5256:Rashtrakuta Empire
5196:Rashidun Caliphate
5118:Kabul Shahi Empire
4966:Nagas of Padmavati
4889:Indo-Greek Kingdom
4829:(230 BC – AD 1206)
4522:Vedic Civilisation
4470:Vedic Civilisation
4367:Ahar-Banas culture
4158:Puranic chronology
3958:Black and Red Ware
3852:
3554:
3190:
3038:O, Indra, fond of
2899:Ancient Literature
2448:Indigenous Peoples
2108:Satavahana Dynasty
1714:Kingdom of Makuria
1684:Kingdom of Nobatia
1674:Kingdom of Numidia
1654:Nasamones Chiefdom
1649:Garamantes Kingdom
1434:Barbarian Kingdoms
1048:Classical Sanskrit
895:and his successor
881:
802:
711:
617:
513:Indo-Aryan peoples
433:Indo-Aryan peoples
284:orally transmitted
139:Geographical range
124:
90:Cemetery H culture
47:Geographical range
33:Early Vedic period
32:
9706:History of Punjab
9604:978-0-252-09295-4
9583:978-93-88292-38-2
9475:978-81-208-0264-3
9454:978-0-521-82245-9
9417:978-0-393-92207-3
9399:978-1-4443-2351-1
9376:978-0-14-309986-4
9335:978-81-317-1120-0
9292:978-0-470-75196-1
9271:978-81-208-0706-8
9251:978-81-224-1198-0
9213:978-0-07-132923-1
9177:Ratnagar, Shereen
9079:978-0-19-283576-5
8945:978-1-60384-903-6
8928:Olivelle, Patrick
8897:978-81-208-0436-4
8859:978-92-3-102719-2
8829:978-90-04-16054-5
8814:Kuzmina, Elena E.
8806:978-0-415-32920-0
8785:978-81-7052-108-2
8764:978-81-215-0565-9
8737:978-1-84893-292-0
8601:978-1-136-87590-8
8578:978-1-136-87597-7
8537:978-81-208-0745-7
8517:978-1-4443-5968-8
8497:978-0-521-43878-0
8476:978-0-521-37695-2
8453:978-0-521-37695-2
8360:. pp. 41–55.
8345:978-0-674-06143-9
8326:978-1-4008-2994-1
8309:(16 March 2009).
8299:978-1-59740-599-7
8275:978-1-317-23673-3
8232:978-0-691-05887-0
8219:Anthony, David W.
7968:Krishnananda 1994
7958:, pp. 42–45.
7915:, pp. 42–43.
7721:, pp. 33–34.
7567:978-1-118-95520-8
7419:, pp. 67–68.
7417:Raychaudhuri 1972
7392:, pp. 48–56.
7365:, pp. 41–43.
7341:, pp. 39–41.
7317:, pp. 39–40.
7305:, pp. 49–50.
7228:, pp. 37–39.
7177:, pp. 37–38.
6719:, pp. 49–52.
6256:
6255:
5941:
5940:
5935:
5934:
5855:
5854:
5757:Thanjavur Kingdom
5705:
5704:
5666:Bijapur Sultanate
5622:Deccan sultanates
5500:Tughlaq Sultanate
5447:Ghaznavid Dynasty
5425:
5424:
5296:Chaulukya Kingdom
5226:Mallabhum kingdom
5216:Umayyad Caliphate
4956:Bharshiva Dynasty
4852:(200 BC – AD 300)
4842:(230 BC – AD 220)
4838:Satavahana Empire
4816:
4815:
4812:(247 BC – AD 224)
4668:Macedonian Empire
4642:(450 BC – AD 489)
4630:Achaemenid Empire
4500:
4499:
4405:
4404:
4328:
4327:
4278:
4277:
4262:Madrasian culture
4057:Sutras, and some
4031:) and the oldest
3962:Painted Grey Ware
3259:, theorises that
3229:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3171:Tattiriya Samhita
3122:. The effects of
2969:
2968:
2547:Sahelian Kingdoms
2522:Pre-Imperial Mali
2198:St. Johns culture
1739:Kingdom of Altava
1734:Kingdom of Alodia
1704:Kingdom of Masuna
1699:Kingdom of Capsus
1549:Kingdom of Simien
1304:Achaemenid Empire
985:Pravahana Jaivali
784:, after the war.
536:Sintashta culture
532:Andronovo horizon
441:Indigenous Aryans
290:language who had
273:Indo-Aryan tribes
197:
196:
125:Late Vedic period
122:
121:
16:(Redirected from
9738:
9711:History of Sindh
9667:
9658:
9649:
9617:
9608:
9587:
9555:
9536:
9526:
9513:
9511:
9496:
9486:
9478:
9458:
9429:
9402:
9379:
9356:
9338:
9315:
9296:
9275:
9254:
9234:
9225:
9216:
9196:
9184:
9172:
9139:
9130:
9121:(1–4): 111–143.
9109:
9100:
9082:
9062:
9043:
9033:
9015:
8990:
8989:
8979:
8969:
8957:
8948:
8922:
8909:
8900:
8880:
8871:
8843:
8833:
8809:
8789:
8768:
8749:
8722:
8713:
8708:
8698:
8686:
8677:
8658:
8648:
8634:
8616:
8604:
8593:
8581:
8558:
8549:
8540:
8520:
8500:
8480:
8457:
8434:
8425:
8406:
8397:
8388:
8379:
8370:
8361:
8349:
8330:
8302:
8279:
8258:
8257:
8236:
8205:
8199:
8193:
8187:
8181:
8175:
8169:
8163:
8152:
8146:
8131:
8125:
8112:
8106:
8087:
8081:
8075:
8069:
8056:
8050:
8039:
8029:
8023:
8017:
8011:
8005:
7999:
7993:
7987:
7981:
7975:
7965:
7959:
7953:
7947:
7946:
7934:
7928:
7922:
7916:
7910:
7904:
7898:
7892:
7891:, p. xxvii.
7886:
7880:
7874:
7868:
7862:
7853:
7847:
7841:
7835:
7829:
7823:
7817:
7807:
7801:
7791:
7785:
7775:
7769:
7759:
7753:
7743:
7737:
7731:
7722:
7716:
7710:
7704:
7698:
7697:, p. xxxvi.
7692:
7686:
7680:
7674:
7668:
7662:
7656:
7650:
7644:
7638:
7632:
7621:
7615:
7609:
7603:
7584:
7578:
7572:
7571:
7551:
7545:
7539:
7533:
7527:
7521:
7515:
7509:
7503:
7497:
7496:
7484:
7478:
7477:
7465:
7459:
7453:
7444:
7438:
7432:
7426:
7420:
7414:
7408:
7402:
7393:
7387:
7378:
7372:
7366:
7360:
7354:
7348:
7342:
7336:
7330:
7324:
7318:
7312:
7306:
7300:
7294:
7293:, pp. 8–10.
7291:Hiltebeitel 2007
7288:
7282:
7276:
7270:
7264:
7241:
7235:
7229:
7223:
7217:
7211:
7205:
7199:
7193:
7187:
7178:
7172:
7163:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7134:
7128:
7122:
7119:Hiltebeitel 2001
7116:
7110:
7104:
7098:
7092:
7086:
7080:
7071:
7065:
7059:
7053:
7044:
7038:
7032:
7026:
7017:
7011:
7005:
6999:
6993:
6987:
6981:
6975:
6969:
6959:
6953:
6947:
6941:
6935:
6929:
6923:
6917:
6911:
6902:
6896:
6890:
6884:
6878:
6872:
6861:
6855:
6849:
6843:
6834:
6828:
6822:
6816:
6810:
6804:
6798:
6792:
6786:
6780:
6771:
6765:
6750:
6747:Hiltebeitel 2002
6744:
6735:
6729:
6720:
6714:
6705:
6699:
6690:
6684:
6678:
6672:
6663:
6657:
6642:
6636:
6630:
6620:
6614:
6604:Hiltebeitel 2011
6598:
6592:
6585:
6579:
6557:
6551:
6489:
6483:
6448:
6439:
6362:
6356:
6330:
6324:
6317:
6311:
6301:
6260:History of India
6248:
6241:
6234:
6197:Pakistan studies
6037:Himachal Pradesh
5877:Portuguese India
5873:
5872:
5869:
5827:Sikh Confederacy
5723:
5722:
5719:
5572:Bengal Sultanate
5511:Sayyid Sultanate
5489:Khalji Sultanate
5478:Mamluk Sultanate
5443:
5442:
5439:
5420:
5416:
5413:
5356:Kakatiya Kingdom
5266:Paramara Kingdom
5159:
5155:
5152:
5128:
5125:
5068:Kamarupa Kingdom
5031:
5027:
5024:
5017:Kalabhras Empire
5010:
5006:
5003:
4929:
4926:
4913:(50 BC – AD 400)
4893:(180 BC – AD 10)
4872:
4868:
4865:
4834:
4833:
4830:
4801:
4797:
4794:
4780:
4777:
4763:
4760:
4746:
4743:
4729:
4726:
4712:
4708:
4705:
4623:
4620:
4606:
4603:
4586:Haryanka dynasty
4576:Pradyota dynasty
4518:
4517:
4514:
4423:
4422:
4419:
4360:
4357:
4350:Anarta tradition
4346:
4345:
4342:
4310:Mehrgarh culture
4300:Bhirrana culture
4296:
4295:
4292:
4291:(10,800–3300 BC)
4258:
4257:
4254:
4244:
4243:
4231:
4217:
4216:
4208:
4205:
4115:material culture
3691:sacrificial fire
3595:priests and the
3373:complex chiefdom
3313:social hierarchy
3287:(chaplain), the
3217:
3205:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3180:Patrick Olivelle
3080:heptatonic scale
2961:
2954:
2947:
2925:
2924:
2567:African Kingdoms
2418:Ortoiroid People
2131:Northern America
1954:Bactria–Margiana
1749:African Kingdoms
1724:Nemencha Kingdom
1719:Kingdom of Hodna
1624:African Kingdoms
1524:Kingdom of Kerma
1429:Migration Period
1269:Israel and Judah
1106:
1105:
981:Gargi Vachaknavi
841:order of estates
708:
705:
649:
595:migrations. The
561:
557:
490:
482:
473:
462:
452:
396:material culture
323:
320:
262:
259:
240:
237:
228:history of India
217:
213:
210:
188:Haryanka dynasty
171:
167:
164:
134:
127:
123:
73:
61:Bronze Age India
42:
35:
31:
21:
9746:
9745:
9741:
9740:
9739:
9737:
9736:
9735:
9671:
9670:
9646:
9625:
9623:Further reading
9620:
9605:
9584:
9560:Witzel, Michael
9552:
9524:
9518:Witzel, Michael
9512:on 11 June 2007
9509:
9494:
9476:
9455:
9418:
9400:
9377:
9354:
9336:
9312:
9293:
9272:
9252:
9214:
9098:
9080:
9059:
8967:
8946:
8926:McClish, Mark;
8898:
8860:
8848:. Vol. 1:
8841:
8830:
8807:
8786:
8765:
8738:
8706:
8674:
8646:
8632:
8622:The Hindu World
8607:
8602:
8591:
8579:
8538:
8518:
8498:
8477:
8454:
8422:
8346:
8327:
8300:
8276:
8233:
8213:
8208:
8200:
8196:
8188:
8184:
8176:
8172:
8164:
8155:
8147:
8134:
8126:
8115:
8107:
8090:
8082:
8078:
8070:
8059:
8051:
8042:
8030:
8026:
8018:
8014:
8006:
8002:
7994:
7990:
7982:
7978:
7966:
7962:
7954:
7950:
7940:
7935:
7931:
7923:
7919:
7911:
7907:
7899:
7895:
7887:
7883:
7875:
7871:
7863:
7856:
7848:
7844:
7836:
7832:
7824:
7820:
7808:
7804:
7792:
7788:
7776:
7772:
7760:
7756:
7744:
7740:
7732:
7725:
7717:
7713:
7705:
7701:
7693:
7689:
7681:
7677:
7673:, p. xxvi.
7669:
7665:
7657:
7653:
7645:
7641:
7633:
7624:
7616:
7612:
7604:
7587:
7579:
7575:
7568:
7552:
7548:
7540:
7536:
7528:
7524:
7516:
7512:
7504:
7500:
7490:
7485:
7481:
7471:
7466:
7462:
7454:
7447:
7439:
7435:
7427:
7423:
7415:
7411:
7403:
7396:
7388:
7381:
7377:, pp. 2–8.
7373:
7369:
7361:
7357:
7349:
7345:
7337:
7333:
7325:
7321:
7313:
7309:
7301:
7297:
7289:
7285:
7277:
7273:
7265:
7244:
7236:
7232:
7224:
7220:
7212:
7208:
7200:
7196:
7188:
7181:
7173:
7166:
7158:
7154:
7146:
7137:
7129:
7125:
7117:
7113:
7105:
7101:
7093:
7089:
7083:Bronkhorst 2007
7081:
7074:
7066:
7062:
7054:
7047:
7039:
7035:
7027:
7020:
7012:
7008:
7000:
6996:
6988:
6984:
6976:
6972:
6960:
6956:
6948:
6944:
6936:
6932:
6924:
6920:
6912:
6905:
6897:
6893:
6885:
6881:
6873:
6864:
6856:
6852:
6844:
6837:
6829:
6825:
6817:
6813:
6805:
6801:
6793:
6789:
6781:
6774:
6766:
6753:
6745:
6738:
6730:
6723:
6715:
6708:
6704:, pp. 3–5.
6700:
6693:
6685:
6681:
6673:
6666:
6662:, p. xxiv.
6658:
6654:
6650:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6621:
6617:
6599:
6595:
6586:
6582:
6558:
6554:
6490:
6486:
6449:
6442:
6438:
6363:
6359:
6331:
6327:
6318:
6314:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6252:
6223:
6222:
6221:
6116:
6108:
6107:
6106:
6006:
5998:
5997:
5996:
5951:
5943:
5942:
5937:
5936:
5870:
5867:
5865:Colonial states
5857:
5856:
5747:Madurai Kingdom
5720:
5717:
5707:
5706:
5655:Bidar Sultanate
5644:Berar sultanate
5612:Ladakh Kingdom
5602:Gajapati Empire
5582:Garhwal Kingdom
5467:Delhi Sultanate
5440:
5437:
5427:
5426:
5418:
5414:
5396:Chutiya Kingdom
5366:Zamorin Kingdom
5157:
5153:
5145:Maukhari Empire
5135:Chalukya Empire
5126:
5088:Maitraka Empire
5029:
5025:
5008:
5004:
4996:Vakataka Empire
4976:Sasanian Empire
4927:
4870:
4866:
4848:Kuninda Kingdom
4831:
4828:
4826:Middle Kingdoms
4818:
4817:
4808:Parthian Empire
4799:
4795:
4778:
4761:
4744:
4727:
4710:
4706:
4621:
4604:
4515:
4512:
4502:
4501:
4420:
4417:
4407:
4406:
4358:
4343:
4340:
4330:
4329:
4320:Edakkal culture
4293:
4290:
4280:
4279:
4271:Soanian culture
4255:
4252:
4241:
4215:
4207: 3100 BCE
4206:
4190:Kurukshetra War
4184:of the current
4178:Vaivasvata Manu
4154:
4111:
4082:
4076:
3828:
3822:
3782:Hindu synthesis
3778:Vedic tradition
3774:
3721:(the wind) and
3559:
3542:
3536:
3441:, but the word
3433:) and priests (
3419:
3377:state formation
3221:
3218:
3209:
3206:
3188:
2974:
2965:
2914:
2913:
2904:Ancient Warfare
2854:
2846:
2845:
2586:
2572:
2571:
2472:
2458:
2457:
2413:
2403:
2402:
2353:
2343:
2342:
2213:
2203:
2202:
2133:
2123:
2122:
2118:Middle Kingdoms
2078:
2068:
2067:
2038:
2028:
2027:
1944:
1934:
1933:
1919:Eurasian Nomads
1914:Five Barbarians
1909:Four Barbarians
1894:Pannonian Avars
1764:
1762:Eurasian Steppe
1754:
1753:
1639:
1629:
1628:
1619:Nilotic Peoples
1544:Kingdom of Axum
1539:Kingdom of Kush
1534:Kingdom of Dʿmt
1509:
1499:
1498:
1354:
1344:
1343:
1129:
1110:Ancient history
1104:
1064:Greater Magadha
993:
871:, an elaborate
796:Pottery of the
790:
707: 1200 BCE
706:
692:
690:Rigvedic tribes
686:
662:Zeravshan River
505:
504:
503:
497:
492:
491:
484:
483:
480:
476:
474:
471:
469:
465:
463:
460:
456:
453:
443:
425:
420:
389:Hindu synthesis
385:Vedic tradition
354:Greater Magadha
321:
304:Late Bronze Age
260:
238:
215:
211:
169:
165:
99:
70:1500-1100
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9744:
9734:
9733:
9728:
9723:
9718:
9713:
9708:
9703:
9698:
9693:
9688:
9683:
9669:
9668:
9666:, Vernon Press
9659:
9650:
9644:
9632:, ed. (2003).
9624:
9621:
9619:
9618:
9609:
9603:
9588:
9582:
9556:
9550:
9537:
9514:
9487:
9479:
9474:
9459:
9453:
9430:
9416:
9403:
9398:
9380:
9375:
9357:
9353:978-8131716779
9352:
9339:
9334:
9320:Singh, Upinder
9316:
9310:
9297:
9291:
9276:
9270:
9255:
9250:
9235:
9226:
9217:
9212:
9203:Indian History
9197:
9185:
9173:
9155:(2): 210–219.
9140:
9131:
9110:
9101:
9096:
9083:
9078:
9063:
9057:
9044:
8991:
8987:10.1101/292581
8977:10.1101/292581
8958:
8949:
8944:
8932:"Introduction"
8923:
8910:
8901:
8896:
8881:
8872:
8858:
8834:
8828:
8810:
8805:
8790:
8784:
8769:
8763:
8750:
8736:
8723:
8714:
8699:
8687:
8678:
8673:978-1570034497
8672:
8659:
8635:
8630:
8617:
8608:
8606:
8605:
8600:
8582:
8577:
8561:
8559:
8550:
8541:
8536:
8521:
8516:
8501:
8496:
8481:
8475:
8458:
8452:
8435:
8426:
8420:
8407:
8398:
8389:
8380:
8371:
8362:
8350:
8344:
8331:
8325:
8303:
8298:
8280:
8274:
8259:
8237:
8231:
8214:
8212:
8209:
8207:
8206:
8194:
8192:, p. 122.
8182:
8170:
8153:
8132:
8113:
8088:
8076:
8074:, p. 218.
8057:
8055:, p. 248.
8040:
8024:
8012:
8000:
7988:
7986:, p. 215.
7976:
7960:
7948:
7929:
7917:
7905:
7893:
7881:
7869:
7867:, p. 190.
7854:
7842:
7830:
7818:
7802:
7786:
7770:
7754:
7738:
7723:
7711:
7699:
7687:
7675:
7663:
7661:, p. 204.
7651:
7639:
7622:
7610:
7608:, p. 191.
7585:
7573:
7566:
7546:
7534:
7522:
7510:
7508:, p. 208.
7498:
7479:
7460:
7445:
7433:
7421:
7409:
7394:
7379:
7367:
7355:
7343:
7331:
7319:
7307:
7295:
7283:
7271:
7242:
7240:, p. 200.
7230:
7218:
7206:
7194:
7179:
7164:
7162:, p. 103.
7152:
7135:
7133:, p. 187.
7123:
7111:
7109:, p. 335.
7099:
7087:
7072:
7060:
7058:, p. 192.
7045:
7033:
7031:, p. 462.
7018:
7006:
6994:
6992:, p. 242.
6982:
6970:
6954:
6942:
6930:
6918:
6903:
6901:, p. 186.
6891:
6879:
6877:, p. 454.
6862:
6860:, p. 322.
6850:
6835:
6823:
6811:
6799:
6787:
6772:
6751:
6736:
6721:
6706:
6691:
6679:
6664:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6643:
6631:
6615:
6613:
6612:
6607:
6593:
6580:
6552:
6550:
6549:
6541:
6535:
6524:normative view
6517:
6498:
6484:
6440:
6437:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6400:
6398:
6397:
6387:
6381:
6371:
6357:
6355:
6354:
6347:
6340:
6325:
6321:tape-recording
6312:
6308:Ṛgveda Saṃhitā
6295:
6293:
6290:
6289:
6288:
6285:Avestan period
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6250:
6243:
6236:
6228:
6225:
6224:
6220:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6118:
6117:
6114:
6113:
6110:
6109:
6105:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6008:
6007:
6004:
6003:
6000:
5999:
5995:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5953:
5952:
5949:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5939:
5938:
5933:
5932:
5929:
5923:
5922:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5899:
5893:
5892:
5889:
5883:
5882:
5879:
5871:
5863:
5862:
5859:
5858:
5853:
5852:
5849:
5843:
5842:
5839:
5833:
5832:
5829:
5823:
5822:
5819:
5817:Maratha Empire
5813:
5812:
5809:
5803:
5802:
5799:
5797:Sikkim Kingdom
5793:
5792:
5789:
5787:Marava Kingdom
5783:
5782:
5779:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5763:
5762:
5759:
5753:
5752:
5749:
5743:
5742:
5739:
5733:
5732:
5729:
5721:
5713:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5703:
5702:
5699:
5693:
5692:
5689:
5687:Keladi Kingdom
5683:
5682:
5679:
5672:
5671:
5668:
5661:
5660:
5657:
5650:
5649:
5646:
5639:
5638:
5635:
5628:
5627:
5624:
5618:
5617:
5614:
5608:
5607:
5604:
5598:
5597:
5594:
5592:Mysore Kingdom
5588:
5587:
5584:
5578:
5577:
5574:
5568:
5567:
5564:
5558:
5557:
5554:
5548:
5547:
5544:
5538:
5537:
5534:
5528:
5527:
5524:
5522:Lodi Sultanate
5517:
5516:
5513:
5506:
5505:
5502:
5495:
5494:
5491:
5484:
5483:
5480:
5473:
5472:
5469:
5463:
5462:
5459:
5457:Ghurid Dynasty
5453:
5452:
5449:
5441:
5433:
5432:
5429:
5428:
5423:
5422:
5408:
5402:
5401:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5378:
5372:
5371:
5368:
5362:
5361:
5358:
5352:
5351:
5348:
5342:
5341:
5338:
5332:
5331:
5328:
5326:Hoysala Empire
5322:
5321:
5318:
5316:Lohara Kingdom
5312:
5311:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5298:
5292:
5291:
5288:
5282:
5281:
5278:
5272:
5271:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5258:
5252:
5251:
5248:
5242:
5241:
5238:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5222:
5221:
5218:
5212:
5211:
5208:
5202:
5201:
5198:
5192:
5191:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5178:
5176:Tibetan Empire
5172:
5171:
5168:
5162:
5161:
5147:
5141:
5140:
5137:
5131:
5130:
5120:
5114:
5113:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5100:
5094:
5093:
5090:
5084:
5083:
5080:
5074:
5073:
5070:
5064:
5063:
5060:
5054:
5053:
5050:
5048:Kadamba Empire
5044:
5043:
5040:
5034:
5033:
5019:
5013:
5012:
4998:
4992:
4991:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4978:
4972:
4971:
4968:
4962:
4961:
4958:
4952:
4951:
4948:
4942:
4941:
4938:
4932:
4931:
4921:
4915:
4914:
4911:
4905:
4904:
4901:
4895:
4894:
4891:
4885:
4884:
4881:
4875:
4874:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4850:
4844:
4843:
4840:
4832:
4824:
4823:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4813:
4810:
4804:
4803:
4789:
4783:
4782:
4772:
4770:Pallava Empire
4766:
4765:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4721:
4715:
4714:
4700:
4694:
4693:
4690:
4688:Seleucid India
4684:
4683:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4670:
4664:
4663:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4650:
4644:
4643:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4632:
4626:
4625:
4615:
4613:Maha Janapadas
4609:
4608:
4598:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4578:
4572:
4571:
4568:
4561:
4560:
4557:
4550:
4549:
4548:(1300–1000 BC)
4546:
4539:
4538:
4535:
4528:
4527:
4524:
4516:
4508:
4507:
4504:
4503:
4498:
4497:
4494:
4487:
4486:
4485:(2000–1600 BC)
4483:
4476:
4475:
4472:
4466:
4465:
4464:(1900–1300 BC)
4462:
4455:
4454:
4453:(2600–1900 BC)
4451:
4444:
4443:
4442:(3300–2600 BC)
4440:
4433:
4432:
4431:(3300–1300 BC)
4429:
4421:
4418:(3300–1300 BC)
4413:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4391:(1600–1300 BC)
4389:
4383:
4382:
4379:
4373:
4372:
4371:(3000–1500 BC)
4369:
4363:
4362:
4352:
4344:
4341:(3500–1500 BC)
4336:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4325:
4324:(5000–3000 BC)
4322:
4316:
4315:
4314:(7000–3300 BC)
4312:
4306:
4305:
4304:(7570–6200 BC)
4302:
4294:
4286:
4285:
4282:
4281:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4256:
4248:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4224:
4223:
4214:
4211:
4153:
4150:
4110:
4107:
4080:Art of Mathura
4075:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4044:
3998:
3969:
3885:
3824:Main article:
3821:
3818:
3773:
3770:
3756:Ethics in the
3751:Zoroastrianism
3637:), singing of
3575:and the older
3558:
3557:Vedic religion
3555:
3538:Main article:
3535:
3532:
3418:
3415:
3361:Michael Witzel
3291:(army chief),
3227:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3219:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3200:
3191:Vedic weaponry
3187:
3184:
2982:social classes
2973:
2970:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2963:
2956:
2949:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2929:
2916:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2894:Historiography
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2587:
2580:Southeast Asia
2578:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2473:
2470:Central Africa
2464:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2414:
2409:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2079:
2074:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2018:Fergana Valley
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1973:Yavana Kingdom
1970:
1965:
1956:
1951:
1945:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1924:Nomadic Empire
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1640:
1635:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1510:
1507:Horn of Africa
1505:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1355:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1113:
1112:
1103:
1100:
1088:Indo-Parthians
1084:Indo-Scythians
992:
989:
977:Uddalaka Aruni
901:Iron Age India
789:
786:
685:
682:
494:
493:
485:
478:
467:
458:
454:
447:
446:
445:
444:
424:
421:
419:
416:
377:social classes
324:–1000 BCE the
288:Old Indo-Aryan
216: 500 BCE
195:
194:
185:
181:
180:
177:
173:
172:
170: 500 BCE
160:
156:
155:
153:Iron Age India
150:
146:
145:
140:
136:
135:
120:
119:
105:
101:
100:
98:
97:
92:
87:
81:
79:
75:
74:
68:
64:
63:
58:
54:
53:
48:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9743:
9732:
9729:
9727:
9724:
9722:
9719:
9717:
9714:
9712:
9709:
9707:
9704:
9702:
9699:
9697:
9696:Iron Age Asia
9694:
9692:
9689:
9687:
9686:Ancient India
9684:
9682:
9679:
9678:
9676:
9665:
9660:
9656:
9651:
9647:
9645:1-4051-3251-5
9641:
9637:
9636:
9631:
9627:
9626:
9615:
9610:
9606:
9600:
9596:
9595:
9589:
9585:
9579:
9575:
9574:
9569:
9568:Romila Thapar
9565:
9561:
9557:
9553:
9551:1-4051-3251-5
9547:
9543:
9538:
9534:
9530:
9523:
9519:
9515:
9508:
9504:
9500:
9493:
9488:
9485:
9480:
9477:
9471:
9467:
9466:
9460:
9456:
9450:
9446:
9442:
9438:
9437:
9431:
9427:
9423:
9419:
9413:
9409:
9404:
9401:
9395:
9391:
9390:
9385:
9384:Stein, Burton
9381:
9378:
9372:
9368:
9367:
9362:
9358:
9355:
9349:
9345:
9340:
9337:
9331:
9327:
9326:
9321:
9317:
9313:
9307:
9303:
9298:
9294:
9288:
9284:
9283:
9277:
9273:
9267:
9263:
9262:
9256:
9253:
9247:
9243:
9242:
9236:
9232:
9227:
9223:
9218:
9215:
9209:
9205:
9204:
9198:
9194:
9190:
9186:
9182:
9178:
9174:
9170:
9166:
9162:
9158:
9154:
9150:
9146:
9141:
9137:
9132:
9128:
9124:
9120:
9116:
9115:East and West
9111:
9107:
9102:
9099:
9097:81-208-1280-8
9093:
9089:
9084:
9081:
9075:
9071:
9070:
9064:
9060:
9058:81-85119-18-X
9054:
9050:
9045:
9041:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9023:
9019:
9014:
9009:
9005:
9001:
8997:
8992:
8988:
8983:
8978:
8973:
8966:
8965:
8959:
8955:
8950:
8947:
8941:
8937:
8933:
8929:
8924:
8920:
8916:
8911:
8907:
8902:
8899:
8893:
8889:
8888:
8887:Ancient India
8882:
8879:, I.B. Tauris
8878:
8873:
8869:
8865:
8861:
8855:
8851:
8847:
8840:
8835:
8831:
8825:
8821:
8820:
8815:
8811:
8808:
8802:
8799:, Routledge,
8798:
8797:
8791:
8787:
8781:
8777:
8776:
8770:
8766:
8760:
8756:
8751:
8747:
8743:
8739:
8733:
8729:
8724:
8720:
8715:
8712:
8705:
8700:
8697:
8693:
8688:
8684:
8679:
8675:
8669:
8665:
8660:
8656:
8652:
8645:
8643:
8636:
8633:
8631:0-415-21527-7
8627:
8623:
8618:
8614:
8609:
8603:
8597:
8594:, Routledge,
8590:
8589:
8583:
8580:
8574:
8571:, Routledge,
8570:
8569:
8563:
8562:
8560:
8556:
8551:
8547:
8542:
8539:
8533:
8529:
8528:
8522:
8519:
8513:
8509:
8508:
8502:
8499:
8493:
8489:
8488:
8482:
8478:
8472:
8468:
8464:
8459:
8455:
8449:
8445:
8441:
8436:
8432:
8427:
8423:
8421:0-919812-15-5
8417:
8413:
8408:
8404:
8399:
8395:
8390:
8386:
8381:
8377:
8372:
8368:
8363:
8359:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8341:
8337:
8332:
8328:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8313:
8308:
8304:
8301:
8295:
8291:
8290:
8285:
8284:Basham, A. L.
8281:
8277:
8271:
8268:. Routledge.
8267:
8266:
8260:
8256:
8251:
8247:
8243:
8238:
8234:
8228:
8224:
8220:
8216:
8215:
8204:, p. 19.
8203:
8198:
8191:
8186:
8179:
8174:
8167:
8162:
8160:
8158:
8150:
8145:
8143:
8141:
8139:
8137:
8129:
8124:
8122:
8120:
8118:
8111:, p. 99.
8110:
8105:
8103:
8101:
8099:
8097:
8095:
8093:
8085:
8080:
8073:
8068:
8066:
8064:
8062:
8054:
8049:
8047:
8045:
8037:
8033:
8028:
8021:
8016:
8009:
8004:
7998:, p. 65.
7997:
7992:
7985:
7984:Holdrege 2004
7980:
7973:
7969:
7964:
7957:
7952:
7944:
7938:
7933:
7927:, p. 81.
7926:
7921:
7914:
7909:
7902:
7897:
7890:
7889:Olivelle 1998
7885:
7879:, p. 40.
7878:
7873:
7866:
7861:
7859:
7851:
7846:
7839:
7834:
7827:
7826:Olivelle 1998
7822:
7815:
7811:
7806:
7799:
7795:
7790:
7783:
7779:
7774:
7767:
7763:
7758:
7751:
7747:
7742:
7735:
7730:
7728:
7720:
7715:
7709:, p. 45.
7708:
7707:Majumdar 1977
7703:
7696:
7695:Olivelle 1998
7691:
7684:
7679:
7672:
7671:Olivelle 1998
7667:
7660:
7655:
7648:
7643:
7637:, p. 35.
7636:
7631:
7629:
7627:
7619:
7614:
7607:
7602:
7600:
7598:
7596:
7594:
7592:
7590:
7583:, p. 54.
7582:
7577:
7569:
7563:
7559:
7558:
7550:
7543:
7538:
7531:
7526:
7519:
7514:
7507:
7502:
7494:
7489:, p. 66.
7488:
7487:Majumdar 1998
7483:
7475:
7470:, p. 65.
7469:
7468:Majumdar 1998
7464:
7458:, p. 41.
7457:
7452:
7450:
7443:, p. 40.
7442:
7437:
7430:
7429:Olivelle 1998
7425:
7418:
7413:
7407:, p. 42.
7406:
7401:
7399:
7391:
7386:
7384:
7376:
7371:
7364:
7359:
7353:, p. 33.
7352:
7347:
7340:
7335:
7329:, p. 89.
7328:
7323:
7316:
7311:
7304:
7299:
7292:
7287:
7280:
7275:
7268:
7263:
7261:
7259:
7257:
7255:
7253:
7251:
7249:
7247:
7239:
7234:
7227:
7222:
7215:
7210:
7203:
7198:
7192:, p. 49.
7191:
7186:
7184:
7176:
7171:
7169:
7161:
7156:
7150:, p. 32.
7149:
7144:
7142:
7140:
7132:
7127:
7120:
7115:
7108:
7103:
7096:
7091:
7084:
7079:
7077:
7070:, p. 38.
7069:
7064:
7057:
7052:
7050:
7043:, p. 32.
7042:
7041:Beckwith 2009
7037:
7030:
7025:
7023:
7015:
7010:
7003:
7002:Beckwith 2009
6998:
6991:
6986:
6980:, p. 30.
6979:
6974:
6967:
6963:
6958:
6952:, p. 37.
6951:
6946:
6940:, p. 31.
6939:
6934:
6928:, p. 95.
6927:
6922:
6915:
6910:
6908:
6900:
6895:
6888:
6883:
6876:
6871:
6869:
6867:
6859:
6854:
6847:
6842:
6840:
6832:
6827:
6821:, p. 41.
6820:
6815:
6808:
6803:
6797:, p. 60.
6796:
6795:Pletcher 2010
6791:
6784:
6779:
6777:
6769:
6764:
6762:
6760:
6758:
6756:
6748:
6743:
6741:
6734:, p. 82.
6733:
6728:
6726:
6718:
6713:
6711:
6703:
6698:
6696:
6688:
6683:
6677:, p. 50.
6676:
6671:
6669:
6661:
6656:
6652:
6640:
6635:
6628:
6624:
6623:Panikkar 2001
6619:
6611:
6610:Proferes 2003
6608:
6605:
6602:
6601:
6597:
6590:
6584:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6556:
6546:
6542:
6539:
6536:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6518:
6515:
6511:
6508:, namely the
6507:
6503:
6499:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6488:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6457:
6453:
6450:According to
6447:
6445:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6419:Ratnagar 2008
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6401:
6395:
6391:
6390:Beckwith 2009
6388:
6385:
6384:Beckwith 2009
6382:
6379:
6375:
6372:
6369:
6366:
6365:
6361:
6352:
6348:
6345:
6341:
6338:
6337:Sex and Power
6334:
6333:
6329:
6322:
6316:
6309:
6305:
6300:
6296:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6257:
6249:
6244:
6242:
6237:
6235:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6119:
6112:
6111:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6072:Uttar Pradesh
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6009:
6002:
6001:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5947:
5946:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5924:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5914:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5904:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5894:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5884:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5874:
5866:
5861:
5860:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5844:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5834:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5814:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5794:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5784:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5774:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5754:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5744:
5740:
5738:
5735:
5734:
5730:
5728:
5727:Mughal Empire
5725:
5724:
5716:
5711:
5710:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5694:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5680:
5678:
5674:
5673:
5669:
5667:
5663:
5662:
5658:
5656:
5652:
5651:
5647:
5645:
5641:
5640:
5636:
5634:
5630:
5629:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5619:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5609:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5599:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5569:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5559:
5555:
5553:
5552:Reddy Kingdom
5550:
5549:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5539:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5529:
5525:
5523:
5519:
5518:
5514:
5512:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5501:
5497:
5496:
5492:
5490:
5486:
5485:
5481:
5479:
5475:
5474:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5464:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5454:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5436:
5431:
5430:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5383:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5353:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5343:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5313:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5283:
5279:
5277:
5276:Yadava Empire
5274:
5273:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5263:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5253:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5243:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5223:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5213:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5203:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5193:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5183:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5173:
5169:
5167:
5166:Harsha Empire
5164:
5163:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5142:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5132:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5115:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5095:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5085:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5065:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5055:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5045:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5035:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5014:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4993:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4963:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4949:
4947:
4946:Kushan Empire
4944:
4943:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4933:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4886:
4882:
4880:
4879:Shunga Empire
4877:
4876:
4861:
4859:
4858:Mitra Dynasty
4856:
4855:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4827:
4822:
4821:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4805:
4800: AD 500
4796: 250 BC
4790:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4779: 250 AD
4773:
4771:
4768:
4767:
4762: 300 BC
4756:
4754:
4751:
4750:
4745: 300 BC
4739:
4737:
4736:Chera Kingdom
4734:
4733:
4728: 300 BC
4722:
4720:
4719:Pandya Empire
4717:
4716:
4711: 300 AD
4707: 300 BC
4701:
4699:
4698:Sangam period
4696:
4695:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4681:
4679:
4678:Maurya Empire
4676:
4675:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4665:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4655:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4627:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4610:
4605: 600 BC
4599:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4583:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4573:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4562:
4559:(1200–600 BC)
4558:
4556:
4552:
4551:
4547:
4545:
4541:
4540:
4537:(1500–600 BC)
4536:
4534:
4530:
4529:
4526:(1500–500 BC)
4525:
4523:
4520:
4519:
4513:(1500–200 BC)
4511:
4506:
4505:
4496:(1600–500 BC)
4495:
4493:
4489:
4488:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4477:
4474:(2000–500 BC)
4473:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4463:
4461:
4457:
4456:
4452:
4450:
4446:
4445:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4434:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4424:
4416:
4411:
4410:
4401:(1400–700 BC)
4400:
4398:
4397:Jorwe culture
4395:
4394:
4390:
4388:
4387:Malwa culture
4385:
4384:
4381:(1600–750 BC)
4380:
4378:
4377:Pandu culture
4375:
4374:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4339:
4334:
4333:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4297:
4289:
4284:
4283:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4251:
4246:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4225:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4210:
4201:
4197:
4196:
4195:Bhagavad Gita
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4149:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4106:
4104:
4100:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4081:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4045:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3983:
3977:
3973:
3970:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3930:
3925:
3921:
3919:
3914:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3886:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3866:
3861:
3860:Rigvedic text
3858:
3857:
3856:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3817:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3769:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3679:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3565:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3531:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3414:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3385:Romila Thapar
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3369:Robert Bellah
3366:
3362:
3359:According to
3357:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3295:(envoys) and
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3216:
3211:
3204:
3199:
3198:
3194:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3151:Purusha Sukta
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2962:
2957:
2955:
2950:
2948:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2928:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2859:Human History
2857:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2751:Mueang Pahang
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2696:Gangga Negara
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2596:Austronesians
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2575:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2527:Djenné-Djenno
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2461:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2412:
2407:
2406:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2352:
2347:
2346:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2207:
2206:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2148:Mississippian
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2127:
2126:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2113:Sangam Period
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2103:Maurya Empire
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2093:Mahajanapadas
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2072:
2071:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2032:
2031:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1978:Kushan Empire
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1854:Proto-Mongols
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1779:Indo-Iranians
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1758:
1757:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1554:Harla Kingdom
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1508:
1503:
1502:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1469:British Isles
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1347:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:Maurya Empire
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1029:Narmada River
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
997:Mahajanapadas
988:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
945:Keśin Dālbhya
942:
938:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
910:
904:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
878:
874:
870:
866:
861:
857:
855:
851:
846:
842:
838:
837:
831:
829:
825:
821:
815:
812:
807:
799:
794:
785:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
766:
761:
757:
753:
748:
746:
741:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
701:
696:
691:
681:
679:
675:
671:
667:
664:(present-day
663:
659:
658:
653:
645:
644:
639:
635:
634:
630:
624:
622:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
577:
572:
567:
563:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
514:
510:
501:
496:
489:
481:
472:
461:
451:
442:
438:
434:
430:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
363:
360:) as well as
359:
358:mahajanapadas
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
315:
314:way of life.
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
280:
278:
277:Vedic culture
274:
270:
266:
256:
252:
248:
244:
233:
229:
225:
221:
206:
202:
193:
192:Mahajanapadas
189:
186:
182:
178:
174:
161:
157:
154:
151:
147:
144:
141:
137:
133:
128:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
82:
80:
76:
69:
65:
62:
59:
55:
52:
49:
45:
41:
36:
30:
19:
9681:Vedic period
9663:
9654:
9634:
9630:Flood, Gavin
9613:
9593:
9572:
9541:
9532:
9528:
9507:the original
9502:
9498:
9483:
9464:
9435:
9407:
9388:
9365:
9361:Staal, Frits
9343:
9324:
9301:
9281:
9260:
9240:
9230:
9221:
9202:
9192:
9180:
9152:
9148:
9135:
9118:
9114:
9105:
9087:
9068:
9048:
9003:
8999:
8963:
8953:
8935:
8918:
8914:
8905:
8886:
8876:
8849:
8845:
8818:
8795:
8774:
8754:
8727:
8718:
8710:
8695:
8685:, Juggernaut
8682:
8663:
8654:
8650:
8641:
8621:
8612:
8587:
8567:
8554:
8545:
8526:
8506:
8486:
8466:
8443:
8430:
8411:
8402:
8393:
8384:
8375:
8366:
8357:
8335:
8311:
8288:
8264:
8245:
8241:
8222:
8197:
8185:
8173:
8084:Darvill 2009
8079:
8027:
8015:
8003:
7991:
7979:
7963:
7951:
7932:
7920:
7908:
7896:
7884:
7872:
7850:Erdosy 1995b
7845:
7838:Erdosy 1995a
7833:
7821:
7805:
7789:
7778:Trigger 2003
7773:
7757:
7741:
7714:
7702:
7690:
7678:
7666:
7654:
7642:
7620:, p. 5.
7613:
7576:
7556:
7549:
7537:
7525:
7513:
7506:Fortson 2011
7501:
7482:
7463:
7436:
7424:
7412:
7370:
7358:
7346:
7334:
7322:
7310:
7298:
7286:
7274:
7233:
7221:
7214:Kaushik 2013
7209:
7197:
7155:
7126:
7114:
7102:
7090:
7063:
7036:
7029:Anthony 2007
7014:Anthony 2007
7009:
6997:
6990:Woodard 2006
6985:
6973:
6957:
6945:
6933:
6921:
6894:
6882:
6875:Anthony 2007
6858:Kuzmina 2007
6853:
6846:Anthony 2007
6826:
6814:
6809:, p. 3.
6802:
6790:
6682:
6655:
6634:
6626:
6618:
6606:, p. 57
6596:
6583:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6555:
6545:Jamison 2006
6527:
6523:
6500:As of 2006,
6487:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6468:Verethraghna
6464:Anthony 2007
6452:Anthony 2007
6424:Parpola 2015
6414:Anthony 2007
6394:Vedic people
6374:Anthony 2007
6368:Anthony 2007
6360:
6350:
6343:
6336:
6328:
6320:
6315:
6307:
6299:
6137:Demographics
6127:Architecture
5907:French India
5897:Danish India
5777:Bengal Subah
5767:Bhoi dynasty
5697:Koch Kingdom
5532:Ahom Kingdom
5406:Deva Kingdom
5098:Huna Kingdom
5038:Gupta Empire
4940:(AD 35–405 )
4899:Kanva Empire
4871: 50 BC
4753:Chola Empire
4692:(312–303 BC)
4682:(321–184 BC)
4672:(330–323 BC)
4662:(380–321 BC)
4658:Nanda Empire
4652:(424–345 BC)
4634:(550–330 BC)
4590:(684–424 BC)
4580:(799–684 BC)
4570:(700–200 BC)
4521:
4492:Swat culture
4469:
4338:Chalcolithic
4250:Palaeolithic
4193:
4174:seven rishis
4155:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4117:include the
4112:
4083:
4058:
4046:
4033:Śrautasutras
4008:
4000:
3987:Kuru Kingdom
3979:
3971:
3966:Kuru Kingdom
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3923:
3916:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3887:
3870:Indo-Iranian
3863:
3859:
3853:
3848:Vedic accent
3835:
3793:
3775:
3757:
3755:
3743:Indo-Iranian
3680:
3675:
3661:
3651:
3638:
3624:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3601:
3584:
3581:Śrautasutras
3562:
3560:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3497:krishna–ayas
3496:
3489:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3420:
3402:
3398:Mahajanapada
3365:Kuru Kingdom
3358:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3230:
3170:
3166:
3164:
3159:
3155:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3090:
3086:
3084:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3049:
3043:
3039:
3037:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3022:. The words
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2975:
2931:Followed by
2869:Protohistory
2741:Tarumanagara
2631:Singhanavati
2626:Suvarnabhumi
2552:Ghana Empire
2482:Dhar Tichitt
2423:Guanahatabey
2363:Casma–Sechin
2188:Thule people
2098:Nanda Empire
2088:Vedic Period
2087:
1942:Central Asia
1849:Hephthalites
1844:Iranian Huns
1637:North Africa
1514:Land of Punt
1116:Preceded by
1096:Gupta Empire
1037:
994:
969:philosophers
934:
907:
905:
885:Kuru Kingdom
882:
877:Kuru Kingdom
834:
832:
816:
805:
803:
763:
751:
749:
736:Asko Parpola
730:
726:
722:
714:
712:
655:
641:
637:
627:
625:
618:
605:Copper Hoard
593:Indo-Iranian
575:
520:Indus Valley
506:
398:include the
393:
374:
352:culture, of
342:Kuru Kingdom
325:
316:
281:
276:
269:Kuru Kingdom
204:
201:Vedic period
200:
198:
109:Kuru Kingdom
29:
18:Vedic Period
9535:(3): 1–115.
9346:, Longman,
9222:The Purāṇas
8921:: 1322–1339
8721:, Routledge
8387:, Routledge
8354:Bhan, Suraj
8248:: 199–219,
8190:Rocher 1986
8149:Mishra 2007
8034:, pp.
7913:Basham 2008
7810:Bellah 2011
7794:Bellah 2011
7780:, pp.
7766:pp. 697–698
7762:Bellah 2011
7746:Bellah 2011
7719:Basham 2008
7635:Basham 2008
7618:Witzel 1995
7518:Samuel 2010
7456:Basham 2008
7441:Basham 2008
7405:Basham 2008
7390:Samuel 2010
7375:Witzel 1995
7351:Sharma 1990
7303:Samuel 2010
7279:Samuel 2010
7267:Witzel 1995
7216:, p. .
7202:Tignor 2014
7190:Samuel 2010
7148:Basham 2008
7107:Erdosy 1995
7095:Samuel 2010
7004:, p. .
6962:Witzel 2019
6926:Witzel 2001
6887:Bryant 2001
6819:Samuel 2010
6807:Witzel 1995
6768:Witzel 1989
6749:, p. .
6717:Samuel 2010
6702:Witzel 1995
6687:Witzel 2005
6589:Mahabharata
6560:Witzel 2019
6538:Witzel 2001
6520:Bryant 2001
6434:Joseph 2019
6429:Joseph 2018
6404:Witzel 2001
6122:Agriculture
6092:South India
6067:Maharashtra
6017:Balochistan
5957:Afghanistan
5931:(1858–1947)
5927:British Raj
5921:(1757–1858)
5917:Company Raj
5911:(1759–1954)
5901:(1620–1869)
5891:(1605–1825)
5887:Dutch India
5881:(1510–1961)
5868:(1510–1961)
5851:(1799–1849)
5847:Sikh Empire
5841:(1729–1947)
5831:(1707–1799)
5821:(1674–1818)
5811:(1650–1948)
5801:(1642–1975)
5791:(1600–1750)
5781:(1576–1757)
5771:(1541–1804)
5761:(1532–1673)
5751:(1529–1736)
5741:(1540–1556)
5731:(1526–1858)
5718:(1526–1858)
5701:(1515–1947)
5691:(1499–1763)
5681:(1518–1687)
5670:(1492–1686)
5659:(1492–1619)
5648:(1490–1574)
5637:(1490–1636)
5626:(1490–1596)
5616:(1470–1842)
5606:(1434–1541)
5596:(1399–1947)
5586:(1358–1803)
5576:(1352–1576)
5566:(1336–1646)
5556:(1325–1448)
5546:(1300–1779)
5536:(1228–1826)
5526:(1451–1526)
5515:(1414–1451)
5504:(1320–1414)
5493:(1290–1320)
5482:(1206–1290)
5471:(1206–1526)
5461:(1170–1206)
5438:(1206–1526)
5419: 1300
5415: 1200
5400:(1187–1673)
5390:(1156–1184)
5370:(1102–1766)
5360:(1083–1323)
5350:(1078–1434)
5340:(1070–1230)
5336:Sena Empire
5330:(1040–1347)
5320:(1003–1320)
5246:Pala Empire
5108:Rai Kingdom
4950:(AD 60–240)
4883:(185–73 BC)
4639:Ror Dynasty
4359: 3950
4162:Mahabharata
4109:Archaeology
4074:Visual arts
3897:Atharvaveda
3814:Mahabharata
3717:(the Sun),
3663:Atharvaveda
3635:Vedic chant
3587:record the
3501:shyama–ayas
3476:Atharvaveda
3423:pastoralism
3408:, with the
3379:in ancient
2836:Philippines
2681:Tambralinga
2636:Sungai Batu
2591:Melanesians
2532:Igodomigodo
2466:West Africa
2318:Teotihuacan
2211:Mesoamerica
2023:Tarim Basin
1988:Transoxiana
1339:Mesopotamia
1309:Sea Peoples
1080:Indo-Greeks
1009:West Bengal
973:Yajnavalkya
937:Salva tribe
552:Yaz culture
548:Afghanistan
524:Indo-Aryans
459:Indo-Aryans
322: 1200
300:Indo-Aryans
296:patrilineal
239: 1500
212: 1500
184:Followed by
176:Preceded by
166: 1100
104:Followed by
78:Preceded by
9675:Categories
9311:8126902868
9069:Upanis̥ads
8657:: 255–261.
8202:Singh 2009
8166:Hedge 2015
8128:Zahir 2016
8072:Singh 2008
7970:, p.
7925:Nigal 1986
7901:Singh 2008
7865:Singh 2008
7796:, p.
7748:, p.
7734:Singh 2008
7683:Singh 2008
7659:Singh 2008
7647:Singh 2008
7606:Singh 2008
7581:Staal 2008
7327:Avari 2016
7238:Singh 2008
7160:Reddy 2011
7131:Singh 2008
7056:Singh 2008
6978:Flood 1996
6964:, p.
6950:Flood 1996
6938:Flood 1996
6899:Singh 2008
6831:Flood 1996
6732:Flood 1996
6675:Stein 2010
6648:References
6562:, p.
6495:Singh 2008
6202:Philosophy
6182:Metallurgy
6172:Literature
6097:Tamil Nadu
5962:Bangladesh
5737:Sur Empire
5451:(977–1186)
5417: – c.
5380:(675–1210)
5310:(973–1189)
5300:(942–1244)
5290:(882–1110)
5280:(850–1334)
5270:(800–1327)
5250:(750–1174)
5230:(694–1947)
5210:(650–1036)
5190:(624–1075)
5158: 700
5156: – c.
5154: 550
5127: 500
5072:(350–1100)
5062:(350–1000)
5030: 600
5028: – c.
5026: 250
5009: 500
5007: – c.
5005: 250
4928: 130
4903:(75–26 BC)
4869: – c.
4867: 150
4798: – c.
4764:– AD 1279)
4747:– AD 1102)
4730:– AD 1345)
4709: – c.
4622: 600
4607:– AD 1600)
4415:Bronze Age
4078:See also:
4059:Upanishads
4017:Upanishads
3976:injunctive
3960:(BRW) and
3906:Shaunmkiya
3902:Paippalada
3844:Devanagari
3820:Literature
3806:Upanishads
3656:, and the
3577:Upanishads
3567:, but the
3481:Bronze Age
3471:śyāma ayas
3390:Upanishads
3257:indologist
3101:Kshatriyas
2879:Bronze Age
2874:Copper Age
2786:Shailendra
2701:Sri Ksetra
2686:Langkasuka
2606:Micronesia
2507:Senegambia
2358:Caral-Supe
2298:Teuchitlán
2283:Chupícuaro
2253:Gran Coclé
2183:Pre-Dorset
2076:South Asia
1983:Badakhshan
1799:Tocharians
1774:Afanasievo
1384:Pelasgians
1334:The Levant
1118:prehistory
967:sages and
909:Ashvamedha
897:Janamejaya
869:Agnicayana
850:Upanishads
745:Indo-Aryan
688:See also:
666:Uzbekistan
615:movements.
613:Indo-Aryan
601:Cemetery H
468:Afanasievo
427:See also:
350:Indo-Aryan
334:Iron tools
265:liturgical
261: 600
222:and early
220:Bronze Age
214: – c.
168: – c.
9426:854609153
9169:162246125
9022:0036-8075
8868:760610934
8822:. Brill.
8746:827268432
8696:The Hindu
8286:(2008) ,
8109:Dani 1966
7530:Long 2013
6914:Kak 2001b
6409:Bhan 2002
6152:Education
6142:Dynasties
6062:Rajasthan
6047:Karnataka
5992:Sri Lanka
5260:(753–982)
5240:(736–916)
5220:(661–750)
5200:(632–661)
5180:(618–841)
5170:(606–647)
5139:(543–753)
5112:(489–632)
5102:(475–576)
5092:(475–767)
5082:(420–624)
5052:(345–525)
5042:(280–550)
4990:(230–360)
4980:(224–651)
4970:(210–340)
4960:(170–350)
4923:(AD 21 –
4781:– AD 800)
4533:Janapadas
4361:–1900 BC)
4288:Neolithic
4200:Āryāvarta
4013:Aranyakas
4005:Brahmanas
3991:Panchalas
3982:Yajurveda
3940:"all" by
3929:Yajurveda
3840:padapatha
3739:Saraswati
3597:purohitas
3573:Aranyakas
3569:Brahmanas
3550:Prajapati
3487:culture.
3406:chiefdoms
3299:(spies).
3167:grihapati
3097:Brahmanas
3074:), lute (
3010:Kshatriya
3006:Brahamana
2884:Axial Age
2841:Singapore
2826:Indonesia
2781:Srivijaya
2771:Dvaravati
2621:Hồng Bàng
2616:Polynesia
2611:Melanesia
2601:Australia
2453:Seafaring
2411:Caribbean
2268:Cuicuilco
2248:Xochipala
2223:Epi-Olmec
2036:East Asia
1444:Germanics
1419:Etruscans
1409:Tartessos
1404:Talaiotic
1379:Illyrians
1369:Thracians
1254:Phoenicia
1239:Phrygians
1204:Babylonia
1127:Near East
922:Kshatriya
893:Parikshit
867:used for
774:Saraswati
581:Andronovo
205:Vedic age
203:, or the
9562:(2019).
9520:(2001).
9386:(2010),
9363:(2008),
9322:(2008),
9191:(1972).
9127:29756891
9040:31488661
8930:(2012),
8816:(2007).
8221:(2007).
8178:Lal 1996
7956:Day 1982
7542:Sen 1999
6576:Rig Veda
6572:Rig Veda
6568:Rig Veda
6512:, and a
6217:Timeline
6207:Religion
6187:Military
6177:Maritime
6167:Language
6157:Indology
5987:Pakistan
5977:Maldives
5675: –
5664: –
5653: –
5642: –
5631: –
5520: –
5509: –
5498: –
5487: –
5476: –
4624:–300 BC)
4564: –
4553: –
4542: –
4531: –
4510:Iron Age
4490: –
4479: –
4458: –
4447: –
4436: –
4213:See also
4168:and the
4166:Ramayana
3954:Iron Age
3918:Samaveda
3910:Rigveda
3723:Prithivi
3631:chanting
3534:Religion
3485:Iron Age
3400:period.
3301:Purohita
3285:purohita
3273:sabhasad
3176:Vishpala
3134:Rajasuya
3125:Rajasuya
3105:Vaishyas
2927:Category
2889:Iron Age
2853:See also
2811:Thailand
2801:Malaysia
2791:Cambodia
2761:Kalingga
2716:Quduqian
2477:Kintampo
2433:Kalinago
2428:Saladoid
2393:Tiwanaku
2328:Veracruz
2303:Veraguas
2263:Tlatilco
2163:Mogollon
2143:Hopewell
2058:Mongolia
2003:Margiana
1998:Khorasan
1993:Khwarazm
1839:Xionites
1789:Tungusic
1729:Laguatan
1644:Carthage
1599:Sarapion
1594:Avalites
1559:Barbaria
1529:Macrobia
1494:Caucasus
1414:Guanches
1314:Anatolia
1264:Arameans
1259:Alashiya
1234:Hittites
1076:Darius I
1060:Buddhism
1052:shramana
1025:Kausambi
971:such as
941:Panchala
918:Brahmins
811:Gangetic
765:Bharatas
544:Margiana
479:Iranians
410:and the
370:Buddhism
338:kingdoms
312:pastoral
298:. Early
292:migrated
224:Iron Age
113:Panchala
9570:(ed.).
9031:6822619
9000:Science
8972:bioRxiv
8369:, BRILL
8211:Sources
7782:108–109
6480:Ephedra
6472:Rigveda
6378:Mitanni
6275:Vedanga
6147:Economy
6132:Coinage
6052:Kashmir
6032:Gujarat
5129:– 1026)
4239:Outline
4170:Puranas
3993:on the
3934:Rigveda
3924:Rigveda
3920:Samhita
3912:Khilani
3908:), the
3865:Rigveda
3836:Rigveda
3802:Brahman
3798:Ishvara
3790:Vedanta
3707:Aryaman
3693:), and
3609:Rigveda
3589:liturgy
3520:Rigveda
3516:Rigveda
3511:semitic
3467:Rigveda
3465:in the
3459:karmara
3439:Rigveda
3427:Rigveda
3417:Economy
3394:śramaṇa
3329:rajan's
3321:rashtra
3277:gramani
3160:Rigveda
3109:Shudras
3052:Rigveda
3032:Rigveda
3024:Vaishya
3014:Rigveda
2990:rājanya
2972:Society
2816:Vietnam
2806:Myanmar
2746:Kantoli
2721:Pan Pan
2691:Tagaung
2671:Tun Sun
2584:Oceania
2562:Pygmies
2487:Oualata
2373:Paracas
2333:Totonac
2313:Cholula
2288:Quelepa
2278:Mezcala
2273:Zapotec
2238:Huastec
2228:Capacha
2178:Sinagua
2173:Patayan
2168:Fremont
2158:Hohokam
2008:Parthia
1949:Bactria
1929:Siberia
1874:Tuyuhun
1869:Xianbei
1864:Kumo Xi
1824:Xiongnu
1784:Scythia
1589:Aromata
1574:Mosylon
1479:Thracia
1474:Illyria
1399:Nuragic
1394:Torrean
1389:Argaric
1374:Dacians
1299:Phrygia
1284:Chaldea
1229:Mitanni
1199:Assyria
1189:Berbers
1102:Culture
1056:Jainism
1017:Mathura
1013:Yadavas
1005:Magadha
965:Brahmin
926:Vaishya
845:Brahmin
828:Magadha
806:Rigveda
752:Rigveda
731:mridhra
715:Rigveda
657:Rigveda
633:samhita
629:Rigveda
579:). The
573:(after
540:Bactria
530:at the
500:Yamnaya
470:culture
423:Origins
418:History
414:(PGW).
366:Jainism
362:śramaṇa
332:Plain.
317:Around
302:were a
226:of the
9642:
9601:
9580:
9548:
9472:
9451:
9424:
9414:
9396:
9373:
9350:
9332:
9308:
9289:
9268:
9248:
9210:
9167:
9125:
9094:
9076:
9055:
9038:
9028:
9020:
8974:
8942:
8894:
8866:
8856:
8826:
8803:
8782:
8761:
8744:
8734:
8670:
8628:
8598:
8575:
8534:
8514:
8494:
8473:
8450:
8418:
8342:
8323:
8296:
8272:
8229:
7814:p. 509
7798:698 f.
7750:491 f.
7564:
6528:favors
6082:Odisha
6077:Punjab
6022:Bengal
5967:Bhutan
4180:, the
4164:, the
4125:, the
4121:, the
4067:MaitrU
4061:(e.g.
4051:Śrauta
4041:Videha
4003:: The
3995:Ganges
3980:Black
3938:vishva
3915:, the
3892:mantra
3862:: The
3846:. The
3735:Aditya
3703:Varuna
3668:Dharma
3658:peepul
3639:Samans
3604:rishis
3593:Śrauta
3493:Ganges
3381:Hawaii
3354:sangha
3341:samiti
3325:samrat
3315:. The
3309:Śrauta
3289:senani
3265:samiti
3245:samiti
3156:varnas
3138:varnas
3120:varnas
3056:aghnya
3028:Shudra
2978:castes
2821:Brunei
2776:Chenla
2766:Melayu
2726:Arakan
2711:Lâm Ấp
2706:Champa
2666:Chi Tu
2661:Nanyue
2656:Âu Lạc
2651:Thaton
2557:Takrur
2443:Arawak
2438:Kalina
2368:Chavín
2338:Toltec
2323:Nicoya
2308:Diquis
2243:Mixtec
2218:Olmecs
2193:Glades
1963:Kangju
1959:Sogdia
1889:Shiwei
1884:Khitan
1879:Rouran
1859:Wuhuan
1814:Yuezhi
1809:Donghu
1659:Cyrene
1609:Essina
1584:Toniki
1579:Mundus
1454:Iberia
1364:Greece
1352:Europe
1319:Arabia
1289:Urartu
1279:Himyar
1249:Canaan
1244:Ugarit
1224:Urkesh
1219:Yamhad
1214:Amurru
1174:Dilmun
1092:Kushan
1086:, and
1040:Pāṇini
1033:Deccan
1027:. The
979:, and
961:Janaka
949:Videha
930:Shudra
889:Śrauta
873:Śrauta
824:Kosala
778:Punjab
727:avrata
723:akratu
522:. The
439:, and
406:, the
402:, the
330:Ganges
308:Punjab
249:and a
149:Period
117:Videha
57:Period
9566:. In
9525:(PDF)
9510:(PDF)
9495:(PDF)
9165:S2CID
9123:JSTOR
8968:(PDF)
8842:(PDF)
8707:(PDF)
8647:(PDF)
6530:it."
6491:See:
6456:Indra
6364:See:
6332:See:
6292:Notes
6102:Tibet
6087:Sindh
6042:Kabul
6027:Bihar
6012:Assam
5982:Nepal
5972:India
4186:kalpa
4063:KathU
4055:Grhya
4009:Vedas
3950:krno-
3946:kuru-
3942:sarva
3842:) in
3826:Vedas
3794:Vedas
3762:Satya
3758:Vedas
3731:Aditi
3727:Ushas
3715:Surya
3711:Bhaga
3699:Mitra
3689:(the
3683:Indra
3676:Vedas
3672:Karma
3643:Yajus
3627:Yajna
3619:Śruti
3585:Vedas
3564:Vedas
3507:Panis
3346:rajya
3337:Sabha
3317:rajan
3297:spash
3293:dutas
3281:rajan
3269:Rajan
3261:sabha
3249:rajan
3241:sabha
3237:rajan
3233:rajan
3130:varna
3092:varna
3087:rajan
3019:varna
3002:dasyu
2986:rājan
2831:Timor
2731:Kutai
2676:Funan
2537:Bantu
2512:Serer
2383:Moche
2378:Nazca
2351:Andes
2258:Izapa
2138:Adena
2063:Tibet
2053:Korea
2048:Japan
2043:China
2013:Dahae
1899:Turks
1834:Hunas
1819:Wusun
1804:Qiang
1744:Libya
1614:Rauso
1604:Nicon
1569:Malao
1564:Opone
1519:Nubia
1489:Malta
1484:Dacia
1459:Italy
1449:Slavs
1439:Celts
1324:Egypt
1294:Media
1274:Sabaʾ
1209:Qatna
1194:Akkad
1184:Nubia
1179:Magan
1169:Hatti
1144:Egypt
1134:Sumer
1072:Cyrus
1044:Sutra
1021:Vatsa
957:Nepal
953:Bihar
914:varna
854:Hindu
836:varna
770:Sudas
740:Dahae
719:Dasas
674:Indra
643:Vedas
326:Aryan
232:Vedas
159:Dates
67:Dates
9640:ISBN
9599:ISBN
9578:ISBN
9546:ISBN
9470:ISBN
9449:ISBN
9422:OCLC
9412:ISBN
9394:ISBN
9371:ISBN
9348:ISBN
9330:ISBN
9306:ISBN
9287:ISBN
9266:ISBN
9246:ISBN
9208:ISBN
9092:ISBN
9074:ISBN
9053:ISBN
9036:PMID
9018:ISSN
8940:ISBN
8892:ISBN
8864:OCLC
8854:ISBN
8824:ISBN
8801:ISBN
8780:ISBN
8759:ISBN
8742:OCLC
8732:ISBN
8668:ISBN
8626:ISBN
8596:ISBN
8573:ISBN
8532:ISBN
8512:ISBN
8492:ISBN
8471:ISBN
8448:ISBN
8416:ISBN
8340:ISBN
8321:ISBN
8294:ISBN
8270:ISBN
8227:ISBN
8036:ix-x
7943:help
7562:ISBN
7493:help
7474:help
6476:Soma
6460:Soma
4182:Manu
4156:The
4053:and
3904:and
3880:and
3810:Gita
3800:and
3788:and
3786:Yoga
3764:and
3747:Soma
3719:Vayu
3695:Soma
3687:Agni
3647:Agni
3614:Veda
3602:The
3528:dasi
3524:dasa
3514:the
3463:ayas
3457:and
3455:dham
3451:ayas
3447:ayas
3443:ayas
3435:dana
3431:bali
3350:gana
3339:and
3333:bali
3243:and
3107:and
3076:vina
3072:vana
3068:soma
3064:sura
3062:and
3060:Soma
3044:soma
3040:soma
3026:and
3008:and
3000:and
2998:dāsa
2796:Laos
2756:Lavo
2736:Xitu
2582:and
2542:Bura
2502:Ekoi
2468:and
2398:Wari
2388:Lima
2233:Maya
1829:Huns
1794:Mohe
1464:Gaul
1424:Rome
1329:Iran
1164:Armi
1159:Mari
1154:Ebla
1149:Elam
1139:Kish
1094:and
1074:and
1058:and
1001:Anga
928:and
883:The
826:and
782:Kuru
760:Ravi
713:The
678:Soma
638:i.e.
607:and
587:and
585:BMAC
576:EIEC
368:and
199:The
9445:119
9157:doi
9026:PMC
9008:doi
9004:365
8982:doi
8250:doi
6627:Ṛta
4037:BSS
4029:JUB
4025:ChU
4021:BAU
3812:of
3766:Rta
3499:or
3352:or
2994:viś
2646:Pyu
2641:Mon
2497:Sao
2492:Nok
609:PGW
597:GGC
589:Yaz
554:at
391:".
72:BCE
9677::
9531:.
9527:.
9501:,
9497:,
9447:.
9441:92
9420:.
9163:.
9153:66
9151:.
9147:.
9119:39
9117:.
9034:.
9024:.
9016:.
9002:.
8998:.
8980:,
8970:,
8919:68
8917:,
8862:.
8740:.
8709:,
8694:,
8655:34
8653:.
8649:.
8319:.
8315:.
8244:,
8156:^
8135:^
8116:^
8091:^
8060:^
8043:^
7972:11
7857:^
7812:,
7764:,
7726:^
7625:^
7588:^
7448:^
7397:^
7382:^
7245:^
7182:^
7167:^
7138:^
7075:^
7048:^
7021:^
6966:11
6906:^
6865:^
6838:^
6775:^
6754:^
6739:^
6724:^
6709:^
6694:^
6667:^
6564:11
6443:^
5412:c.
5151:c.
5124:c.
5023:c.
5002:c.
4925:c.
4864:c.
4793:c.
4776:c.
4759:c.
4742:c.
4725:c.
4704:c.
4619:c.
4602:c.
4356:c.
4209:.
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4069:).
4065:,
4027:,
4023:,
3876:,
3753:.
3709:,
3705:,
3685:,
3678:.
3670:,
3616:,
3599:.
3571:,
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3103:,
3099:,
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