407:
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886:. This high-volume, mass-production car was introduced in 1934 and sold 760,000 units over the next 23 years of production. This application was the first iteration of the modern structural integration of body and chassis, using spot welded deeply stamped steel sheets into a structural cage, including sills, pillars, and roof beams. In addition to a unitary body with no separate frame, the Traction Avant also featured other innovations such as
25:
418:
Initially seen on almost all vehicles, the ladder frame was gradually phased out on cars in favor of perimeter frames and unitized body construction. It is now seen mainly on large trucks. This design offers good beam resistance because of its continuous rails from front to rear, but poor resistance to torsion or warping if simple, perpendicular cross-members are used. The vehicle's overall height will be greater due to the
262:
2511:
897:(1934–1937), Budd supplied a variation – three main sections from the Airflow's body were welded into what Chrysler called a bridge-truss construction. Unfortunately, this method was not ideal because the panel fits were poor. To convince a skeptical public of the strength of unibody, both Citroën and Chrysler created advertising films showing cars surviving after being pushed off a cliff.
1779:
475:
of the increase in the size of the transmission and propeller shaft humps since each row had to cover frame rails as well. Several models had the differential located not by the customary bar between axle and frame, but by a ball joint atop the differential connected to a socket in a wishbone hinged onto a crossmember of the frame.
474:
in the late 1950s and early 1960s in which the rails from alongside the engine seemed to cross in the passenger compartment, each continuing to the opposite end of the crossmember at the extreme rear of the vehicle. It was specifically chosen to decrease the overall height of the vehicles regardless
377:
Another feature are the tapered rails that narrow vertically or horizontally in front of a vehicle's cabin. This is done mainly on trucks to save weight and slightly increase room for the engine since the front of the vehicle does not bear as much load as the back. Design developments include frames
361:
While appearing at first glance as a simple form made of metal, frames encounter significant stress and are built accordingly. The first issue addressed is "beam height", or the height of the vertical side of a frame. The taller the frame, the better it can resist vertical flex when force is applied
647:
In a (tubular) spaceframe chassis, the suspension, engine, and body panels are attached to a three-dimensional skeletal frame of tubes, and the body panels have limited or no structural function. To maximize rigidity and minimize weight, the design frequently makes maximum use of triangles, and all
447:
A backbone chassis is a type of automotive construction with chassis that is similar to the body-on-frame design. Instead of a relatively flat, ladder-like structure with two longitudinal, parallel frame rails, it consists of a central, strong tubular backbone (usually rectangular in cross-section)
822:
Integral frame and body construction requires more than simply welding an unstressed body to a conventional frame. In a fully integrated body structure, the entire car is a load-carrying unit that handles all the loads experienced by the vehicle – forces from driving and cargo loads. Integral-type
1080:
A subframe is a distinct structural frame component, to reinforce or complement a particular section of a vehicle's structure. Typically attached to a unibody or a monocoque, the rigid subframe can handle great forces from the engine and drive train. It can transfer them evenly to a wide area of
497:
Similar to a ladder frame, but the middle sections of the frame rails sit outboard of the front and rear rails, routed around the passenger footwells, inside the rocker and sill panels. This allowed the floor pan to be lowered, especially the passenger footwells, lowering the passengers' seating
417:
Named for its resemblance to a ladder, the ladder frame is one of the oldest, simplest, and most frequently used under-body, separate chassis/frame designs. It consists of two symmetrical beams, rails, or channels, running the length of the vehicle, connected by several transverse cross-members.
311:
By far the most common, the C-channel rail has been used on nearly every type of vehicle at one time or another. It is made by taking a flat piece of steel (usually ranging in thickness from 1/8" to 3/16", but up to 1/2" or more in some heavy-duty trucks) and rolling both sides over to form a
535:
In addition to a lowered roof, the perimeter frame allows lower seating positions when that is desirable, and offers better safety in the event of a side impact. However, the design lacks stiffness because the transition areas from front to center and center to rear reduce beam and torsional
1685:
1606:
348:
Originally, boxed frames were made by welding two matching C-rails together to form a rectangular tube. Modern techniques, however, use a process similar to making C-rails in that a piece of steel is bent into four sides and then welded where both ends meet.
823:
bodies for wheeled vehicles are typically manufactured by welding preformed metal panels and other components together, by forming or casting whole sections as one piece, or by combining these techniques. Although this is sometimes also referred to as a
298:
There are three main designs for these. If the material is folded twice, an open-ended cross-section, either C-shaped or hat-shaped (U-shaped), results. "Boxed" frames contain closed chassis rails, either by welding them up or by using premanufactured
374:, arched frames sit lower—roughly level with their axles—and curve up over the axles and then back down on the other side for bumper placement. Kick-ups do the same thing without curving down on the other side and are more common on the front ends.
550:
This is a modification of the perimeter frame, or of the backbone frame, in which the passenger compartment floor, and sometimes the luggage compartment floor, have been integrated into the frame as loadbearing parts for strength and rigidity. The
1846:
710:
a space-frame chassis. Using a three-dimensional frame that consists of a cage of narrow tubes that, besides being under the body, run up the fenders and over the radiator, cowl, and roof, and under the rear window, it resembles a
352:
In the 1960s, the boxed frames of conventional
American cars were spot-welded in multiple places down the seam; when turned into NASCAR "stock car" racers, the box was continuously welded from end to end for extra strength.
983:
The unibody is now the preferred construction for mass-market automobiles. This design provides weight savings, improved space utilization, and ease of manufacture. Acceptance grew dramatically in the wake of the two
810:
A type of body/frame construction in which the body of the vehicle, its floor plan and chassis form a single structure. Such a design is generally lighter and more rigid than a vehicle having a separate body and
320:
Hat frames resemble a "U" and may be either right-side-up or inverted, with the open area facing down. They are not commonly used due to weakness and a propensity to rust. However, they can be found on 1936–1954
996:
after 2005 (by the late 2000s truck-based compact SUVs were phased out and replaced with crossovers). An additional advantage of a strong-bodied car lies in the improved crash protection for its passengers.
268:
frame, with heavy c-shaped longitudinal rails (slightly arced over the rear axle), a similarly sized c-shaped crossmember just forward of the axle, and a tophat-shaped smaller gauge crossmember towards the
945:
Since then, more cars were redesigned to the unibody structure, which is now "considered standard in the industry". By 1960, the unitized body design was used by
Detroit's Big Three on their compact cars
684:
was the first mass-market car with an aluminium chassis, made feasible by integrating an aluminium space-frame into the bodywork. Audi A8 models have since used this construction method co-developed with
369:
As looks, ride quality, and handling became more important to consumers, new shapes were incorporated into frames. The most visible of these are arches and kick-ups. Instead of running straight over both
381:
On perimeter frames, the areas where the rails connect from front to center and center to rear are weak compared to regular frames, so that section is boxed in, creating what are called "torque boxes".
378:
that use multiple shapes in the same frame rail. For example, some pickup trucks have a boxed frame in front of the cab, shorter, narrower rails underneath the cab, and regular C-rails under the bed.
1438:
969:
had a weaker-than-usual frame and body framework welded to the chassis to provide stiffness, in 1960, Chrysler moved from body-on-frame construction to a unit-body design for most of its cars.
478:
The X-frame was claimed to improve on previous designs, but it lacked side rails and thus did not provide adequate side impact and collision protection. Perimeter frames replaced this design.
911:
went into production in 1938, although its front longitudinal beams were stamped separately and then attached to the main body. It was so successful that the Soviet post-war mass produced
1025:
with the weight advantages of
Unibody construction." This design was also used with the XJC concept developed by American Motors before its absorption by Chrysler, which later became the
827:
structure, because the car's outer skin and panels are made load-bearing, there are still ribs, bulkheads, and box sections to reinforce the body, making the description
806:
The terms "unibody" and "unit-body" are short for "unitized body", "unitary construction", or alternatively (fully) integrated body and frame/chassis. It is defined as:
1013:
platform using the manufacturing principles (unisides, floorplan with integrated frame rails and crumple zones, and roof panel) used in its passenger cars, such as the
448:
that carries the power-train and connects the front and rear suspension attachment structures. Although the backbone is frequently drawn upward into, and mostly
406:
332:
Abandoned for a while, the hat frame regained popularity when companies started welding it to the bottom of unibody cars, effectively creating a boxed frame.
1256:
1286:
1719:
1752:
1194:
1081:
relatively thin sheet metal of a unitized body shell. Subframes are often found at the front or rear end of cars and are used to attach the
1021:
for a new type of frame called the "Uniframe a robust stamped steel frame welded to a strong unit-body structure, giving the strength of a
930:
utilized a unibody structure. By 1941, unit construction was no longer a new idea for cars, "but it was unheard of in the low-price field
1481:
528:, discontinued in 2011, was one of the last perimeter frame passenger car platforms in the United States. The fourth to seventh generation
1311:
277:
for strength or aluminum alloys to achieve a more lightweight construction. In the case of a separate chassis, the frame is made up of
1046:
619:
Where the
Volkswagen frame design relies heavily on a strong backbone, the Renault design is much closer to a typical perimeter frame
903:
was the second
European and the first German car manufacturer to produce a car with a unibody structure – production of the compact
1660:
1175:
1042:
1907:
1348:
927:
737:
498:
height and thereby reducing both the roof-line and overall vehicle height, as well as the center of gravity, thus improving
312:
C-shaped beam running the length of the vehicle. C-channel is typically more flexible than (fully) boxed of the same gauge.
89:
1227:
61:
2379:
1108:
that incorporated a front subframe to isolate the passenger compartment from the engine, suspension, and steering loads.
167:
Until the 1930s, virtually every car had a structural frame separate from its body. This construction design is known as
1365:
177:
in passenger cars had become common, and the trend to unibody for passenger cars continued over the ensuing decades.
2545:
1823:
1789:
1729:
1616:
1448:
1204:
108:
68:
648:
the forces in each strut are either tensile or compressive, never bending, so they can be kept as thin as possible.
2550:
1813:
1104:, GM's M/L platform vans (Chevrolet Astro/GMC Safari, which included an all-wheel drive variant), and the unibody
2555:
452:
the floor of the vehicle, the body is still placed on or over (sometimes straddling) this structure from above.
2404:
1068:
993:
677:
utilized a lightweight, multi-tubular, triangulated frame over which an aerodynamic aluminum body was crafted.
509:
cars in the United States, but not in the rest of the world, until the unibody gained popularity. For example,
75:
46:
42:
1525:
715:. A skin is attached to the outside of the frame, often made of aluminum. This body construction is, however,
2482:
2399:
2316:
134:
2514:
57:
2263:
1900:
959:
947:
1503:
2560:
2465:
1034:
1409:
570:
cars of the 1950s and 1960s, where it was called a "frame floor" in
English-language advertisements.
300:
1038:
883:
743:
514:
1090:
1076:
has a carbon fibre central monocoque, with front and rear steel subframes, mounting the mechanicals
1026:
510:
204:
521:, and lower cars, introduced in the 1950s to increase sales – without costly structural changes.
2220:
556:
35:
849:
A key role in developing the unitary body was played by the
American firm the Budd Company, now
819:
architecture to the lighter unitized/integrated body structure that is now used for most cars.
667:) who understood the theory of the true spaceframe from either architecture or aircraft design.
174:
2565:
2437:
2083:
1893:
656:
1645:
1093:. It normally has pressed or box steel construction but may be tubular and/or other material.
1958:
1073:
919:
of 1950 introduced unibody design to automobiles with a wheelbase as long as 3.2 m (126 in).
525:
876:, an engineer with Budd, designed an automobile prototype with a full unitary construction.
2384:
1101:
1082:
962:, its Rambler-badged automobiles continued exclusively building variations of the unibody.
567:
227:
Transverse lateral forces caused by road conditions, side wind, and steering of the vehicle
82:
992:
in which compact SUVs using a truck platform (primarily the USA market) were subjected to
8:
2477:
2371:
2346:
2326:
2278:
2046:
1030:
989:
761:
712:
703:
532:
used a perimeter frame integrated with an internal skeleton that serves as a clamshell.
2283:
2157:
1633:
1152:
1010:
858:
850:
652:
529:
278:
1875:
577:, of which over eight million were made, also used a platform frame. The frame of the
536:
resistance and is used in combination with torque boxes and soft suspension settings.
2520:
2185:
1916:
1819:
1785:
1725:
1612:
1444:
1344:
1200:
955:
887:
674:
563:
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2000:
1990:
1953:
1147:
1137:
966:
951:
894:
545:
499:
441:
431:
411:
286:
130:
pickup truck chassis holds the vehicle's engine, drivetrain, suspension, and wheels
1383:
842:
body. The Lambda had an open layout with unstressed roof, which made it less of a
2394:
2321:
2137:
2066:
939:
873:
853:. Budd supplied pressed-steel bodywork, fitted to separate frames, to automakers
589:
566:, where it was called "body-on-pan" construction. Another German example are the
562:
Platform chassis were used on several successful
European cars, most notably the
464:
1880:
1482:"From the Carriage Trade to Carbon Fiber All about an automobile's body/chassis"
1437:
Genta, Giancarlo; Morello, Lorenzo; Cavallino, Francesco; Filtri, Luigi (2014).
934:
wanted a bigger share of that market." The single unit-body construction of the
908:
486:
253:
2341:
2243:
2147:
2142:
1336:
923:
915:
of 1946 copied unibody structure from the Opel Kapitän. Later Soviet limousine
912:
828:
789:
471:
976:
in their vehicle design to reduce vibrations and chassis flex, except for the
631:
578:
2539:
2504:
2293:
2258:
2253:
2205:
2177:
2152:
2078:
2061:
2010:
1973:
1963:
1122:
1117:
1097:
1022:
1009:) during the late 1970s incorporated unibody construction when designing the
985:
839:
835:
816:
772:
754:
671:
640:
604:
506:
396:
273:
Typically, the material used to construct vehicle chassis and frames include
234:
169:
157:
1029:. The design is still used in modern-day sport utility vehicles such as the
980:, which had a bolt-on front apron (erroneously referred to as a subframe).
2470:
2427:
2409:
2200:
2195:
2162:
2056:
2051:
2032:
2017:
2005:
1995:
1980:
1968:
1936:
1132:
973:
904:
698:
664:
660:
490:
366:
have taller frame rails than other vehicles instead of just being thicker.
265:
185:
890:. The result was a low-slung vehicle with an open, flat-floored interior.
2524:
2336:
2331:
2268:
2248:
2119:
931:
552:
436:
2298:
2215:
2167:
2114:
2027:
2022:
1014:
916:
518:
460:
340:
326:
1086:
879:
866:
636:
123:
2444:
2098:
2071:
2041:
1312:"Thread: Mercedes Benz 190SL, the 'Teutonic T-bird' is born, 1954..."
1142:
1105:
1018:
834:
The first attempt to develop such a design technique was on the 1922
824:
778:
610:
595:
574:
419:
322:
221:
1885:
581:
used a minimal interpretation of a platform chassis under its body.
274:
24:
2389:
2273:
2129:
2088:
1579:
1063:
977:
935:
796:
237:
from starting and acceleration, as well as compression from braking
161:
344:
High-performance custom frame, using boxed rails and tube sections
2210:
2093:
1985:
1287:"Automotive History: An X-Ray Look At GM's X Frame (1957 – 1970)"
1127:
1006:
681:
261:
152:
838:
to provide structural stiffness and a lower body height for its
651:
The first true spaceframe chassis were produced in the 1930s by
1580:"The Designs of John Tjaarda Result in the 1936 Lincoln Zephyr"
1600:
160:
to which all other components are attached, comparable to the
1549:, "Avtolegendy SSSR" Nr 23, DeAgostini, 2009, ISSN 2071-095X
862:
854:
799:
shows underfloor welded reinforcements, but no distinct frame
719:
stress-bearing and still requires the addition of a chassis.
686:
470:
This is the design used for the full-size
American models of
363:
181:
1565:, "Avtolegendy SSSR" Nr.3, DeAgostini, 2009, ISSN 2071-095X
2288:
1436:
972:
Most of the
American-manufactured unibody automobiles used
900:
371:
1753:"Chrysler moves to Unibody (unit-body construction): 1960"
1927:
942:
was convinced "that unibody was the wave of the future."
846:
shell and more like a bowl. One thousand were produced.
295:
sections by folding, rolling, or pressing steel plate.
200:
To support the vehicle's mechanical components and body
1526:"20 Cars that Changed the Automotive Industry Forever"
196:
The main functions of a frame in a motor vehicle are:
938:
provided weight savings and Nash's Chairman and CEO,
513:
introduced this construction on their 3rd generation
1661:"Great American Cars Of The Forties – 1941 Nash 600"
1096:
Examples of passenger car use include the 1967–1981
203:
To deal with static and dynamic loads without undue
815:Vehicle structure has shifted from the traditional
188:continue to use a separate frame as their chassis.
142:- for the unitized body - is also a form of a frame
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1686:"My Mother's Compact Car: Twenty Years Of Rambler"
1335:
706:for lightweight sports-car body construction that
224:twisting transmitted by going over uneven surfaces
1811:
1037:. This design is also used in large vans such as
882:purchased this fully unitary body design for the
2537:
1228:"Kenworth Heavy Duty Body Builder Manual - 2012"
1085:to the vehicle. A subframe may also contain the
958:). After Nash merged with Hudson Motors to form
217:Weight of the body, passengers, and cargo loads.
1781:Jeep: The History of America's Greatest Vehicle
1170:
1168:
410:Ladder chassis with diagonal cross-bracing and
422:sitting above the frame instead of inside it.
1901:
1100:, the numerous years and models built on the
559:with ridges and hollows to give it strength.
1165:
555:used to assemble the components needs to be
362:to the top of the frame. This is the reason
16:Main supporting structure of a motor vehicle
1284:
702:(meaning 'super-light') was trademarked by
1908:
1894:
1812:Burger, Gerry; Hendrickson, Steve (2000).
1479:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1176:"Body on frame vs. Unibody: Pros and cons"
1611:. Skokie, Ill.: Louis Weber. p. 54.
390:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1713:
1711:
1506:. Hagley Museum and Library. 29 May 2013
1432:
1430:
1067:
635:
485:
459:
435:
405:
339:
260:
252:
156:, is the main supporting structure of a
133:
122:
1464:
1357:
1343:. Haynes Publishing. pp. 150–164.
230:Torque from the engine and transmission
2538:
1777:
1440:The Motor Car Past, Present and Future
1407:
1363:
1192:
781:"safety cell" in red and orange (2005)
1915:
1889:
1717:
1708:
1480:Simanaitis, Dennis (5 October 2011).
1427:
1410:"Shift to Unitized Body No Slam Dunk"
1364:Ulrich, Lawrence (12 November 2010).
1285:Niedermeyer, Paul (19 January 2012).
928:front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
517:in 1948. This frame type allowed for
505:This became the prevalent design for
291:. These are ordinarily made of steel
2510:
1818:. MBI Publishing. pp. 123–124.
1196:A textbook of automobile engineering
502:and road-holding in passenger cars.
257:A ladder frame, named for its shape
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
2483:Vehicle identification number (VIN)
1658:
1341:Colin Chapman: Inside the Innovator
1199:. Laxmi Publications. p. 410.
13:
1237:. PACCAR. August 2012. p. 203
1005:American Motors (with its partner
481:
356:
14:
2577:
1869:
1582:. The Old Motor. 27 December 2014
1408:Visnic, Bill (1 September 2008).
1052:
539:
150:, also historically known as its
127:
2519:
2509:
2500:
2499:
1926:Part of a series of articles on
1853:. Vol. 22. 1977. p. 24
1724:. New Albany Books. p. 27.
788:
771:
753:
736:
603:
588:
425:
23:
1839:
1805:
1771:
1745:
1678:
1652:
1594:
1572:
1556:
1540:
1528:. Magic Online. 13 October 2014
1518:
1496:
1401:
401:
34:needs additional citations for
1376:
1329:
1304:
1278:
1249:
1220:
1186:
625:
493:prototype with perimeter frame
248:
240:Sudden impacts from collisions
1:
2317:Approach and departure angles
1876:What Is the A-Frame on a Car?
1366:"Speaking of Understatements"
1158:
988:of the 1970s and that of the
440:Backbone chassis of the 1962
1659:Ted, Tidious (8 July 2014).
1443:. Springer. pp. 23–26.
191:
139:
7:
2380:Automotive light bulb types
1784:. Motorbooks. p. 124.
1778:Foster, Patrick R. (2014).
1111:
1057:
1000:
960:American Motors Corporation
730:Integrated unibody examples
306:
10:
2582:
1388:engineering-dictionary.org
1061:
907:started in 1935. A larger
865:, and the French company,
722:
629:
543:
455:
429:
394:
2495:
2458:
2420:
2370:
2359:
2309:
2236:
2176:
2128:
2107:
1944:
1935:
1923:
1861:– via Google Books.
1847:"AMC Pacer station wagon"
1835:– via Google Books.
1801:– via Google Books.
1718:Narus, Donald J. (2012).
1608:Great cars of the forties
1257:"International HX Series"
2546:Automotive chassis types
2400:high-intensity discharge
1027:Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)
1023:conventional heavy frame
613:"platform frame" chassis
598:"platform frame" chassis
385:
335:
2551:Automotive technologies
1264:internationaltrucks.com
632:Space frame § Cars
465:Rolling X-frame chassis
2556:Structural engineering
2084:Stressed member engine
1077:
884:Citroën Traction Avant
813:
744:Citroën Traction Avant
689:, and marketed as the
657:William Bushnell Stout
644:
568:Mercedes-Benz "Ponton"
494:
467:
444:
414:
391:Full under-body frames
345:
315:
270:
258:
143:
131:
2216:Windshield/windscreen
1193:Rajput, R.K. (2007).
1074:Lamborghini Aventador
1071:
922:The streamlined 1936
808:
639:
526:Ford Panther platform
489:
463:
439:
409:
343:
264:
256:
137:
126:
2385:Daytime running lamp
1690:Automobile Quarterly
1102:GM X platform (1962)
1017:and all-wheel-drive
746:unitized body (1934)
519:annual model changes
175:unibody construction
43:improve this article
2347:Weight distribution
2279:Omniview technology
1035:Land Rover Defender
1031:Jeep Grand Cherokee
762:Nash Ambassador 600
704:Carrozzeria Touring
279:structural elements
2466:Registration plate
1881:What Is Car frame?
1815:Hot rodder's bible
1644:has generic name (
1370:The New York Times
1078:
1011:Jeep Cherokee (XJ)
965:Although the 1934
926:with conventional
831:more appropriate.
713:geodesic structure
653:Buckminster Fuller
645:
530:Chevrolet Corvette
495:
468:
445:
415:
346:
271:
259:
184:, buses, and most
144:
132:
2561:Structural system
2533:
2532:
2491:
2490:
2355:
2354:
2186:Glass run channel
2120:Trunk/boot/dickie
1917:Automotive design
1759:. 14 January 2021
1504:"Joseph Ledwinka"
1350:978-1-84425-413-2
1291:Curb Side Classic
1047:Mercedes Sprinter
956:Chevrolet Corvair
888:front-wheel drive
851:ThyssenKrupp Budd
696:The Italian term
675:racing sports car
564:Volkswagen Beetle
119:
118:
111:
93:
2573:
2523:
2513:
2512:
2503:
2502:
2450:Window deflector
2433:Side-view mirror
2368:
2367:
1991:Continental tire
1954:Backbone chassis
1942:
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1547:GAZ-M20 «Pobeda»
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1500:
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1484:. Road and Track
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1266:. Navistar. 2018
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1190:
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1172:
1148:Motorcycle frame
1138:Locomotive frame
967:Chrysler Airflow
952:Plymouth Valiant
895:Chrysler Airflow
792:
775:
757:
740:
691:Audi Space Frame
607:
592:
546:Platform chassis
515:Commodore models
432:Backbone chassis
412:lightening holes
173:. By the 1960s,
164:of an organism.
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
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1337:Ludvigsen, Karl
1334:
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1317:. February 2010
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1182:. 23 June 2017.
1174:
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940:George W. Mason
874:Joseph Ledwinka
804:
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776:
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766:
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764:cutaway drawing
758:
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484:
482:Perimeter frame
458:
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388:
359:
357:Design features
338:
318:
309:
251:
212:These include:
194:
115:
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98:
95:
58:"Vehicle frame"
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2421:Other elements
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2342:Turning radius
2339:
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2329:
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2256:
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2246:
2244:Bumper sticker
2240:
2238:
2237:Other elements
2234:
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2198:
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2020:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2008:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
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1966:
1961:
1956:
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1939:
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1924:
1921:
1920:
1913:
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1898:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1871:
1870:External links
1868:
1865:
1864:
1851:Car and Driver
1838:
1824:
1804:
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1730:
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1603:Consumer Guide
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1062:Main article:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1053:Partial frames
1051:
1002:
999:
994:CAFE standards
924:Lincoln-Zephyr
913:GAZ-M20 Pobeda
829:semi-monocoque
794:
787:
786:
785:
777:
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769:
768:
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752:
751:
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742:
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708:only resembles
630:Main article:
627:
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618:
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609:
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594:
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583:
544:Main article:
541:
540:Platform frame
538:
483:
480:
472:General Motors
457:
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430:Main article:
427:
424:
403:
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395:Main article:
392:
389:
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358:
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325:cars and some
317:
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235:tensile forces
231:
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117:
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31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2578:
2567:
2566:Vehicle parts
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2259:Hood ornament
2257:
2255:
2254:Front-end bra
2252:
2250:
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2239:
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2227:
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2206:Quarter glass
2204:
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2062:Quarter panel
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2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
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1972:
1971:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1964:Body-on-frame
1962:
1960:
1957:
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1827:
1825:9780760307670
1821:
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1793:
1791:9781627882187
1787:
1783:
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1748:
1733:
1731:9781467521246
1727:
1723:
1722:
1714:
1712:
1696:(2): 33. 1994
1695:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1666:
1665:Retrorambling
1662:
1655:
1647:
1642:|author=
1635:
1620:
1618:9780881762808
1614:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1597:
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1564:
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1527:
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1505:
1499:
1483:
1476:
1474:
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1450:9789400785519
1446:
1442:
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1433:
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1258:
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1229:
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1208:
1206:9788170089919
1202:
1198:
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1177:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1154:
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1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1123:Body-on-frame
1121:
1119:
1118:Bicycle frame
1116:
1115:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1098:GM F platform
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
998:
995:
991:
987:
986:energy crises
981:
979:
975:
970:
968:
963:
961:
957:
953:
949:
943:
941:
937:
933:
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920:
918:
914:
910:
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902:
898:
896:
891:
889:
885:
881:
877:
875:
870:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
847:
845:
841:
837:
836:Lancia Lambda
832:
830:
826:
820:
818:
817:body-on-frame
812:
807:
798:
791:
780:
774:
763:
756:
745:
739:
720:
718:
714:
709:
705:
701:
700:
694:
692:
688:
683:
680:In 1994, the
678:
676:
673:
672:Jaguar C-Type
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
649:
642:
641:Jaguar C-Type
638:
633:
612:
606:
597:
591:
582:
580:
576:
571:
569:
565:
560:
558:
554:
547:
537:
533:
531:
527:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
507:body-on-frame
503:
501:
492:
488:
479:
476:
473:
466:
462:
453:
451:
443:
438:
433:
426:Backbone tube
423:
421:
413:
408:
398:
397:Body-on-frame
383:
379:
375:
373:
367:
365:
354:
350:
342:
333:
330:
328:
324:
313:
304:
302:
296:
294:
290:
289:
284:
280:
276:
267:
263:
255:
239:
236:
233:Longitudinal
232:
229:
226:
223:
220:Vertical and
219:
216:
215:
214:
213:
211:
210:
207:or distortion
206:
202:
199:
198:
197:
189:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
171:
170:body-on-frame
165:
163:
159:
158:motor vehicle
155:
154:
149:
148:vehicle frame
141:
136:
129:
125:
121:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2471:vanity plate
2410:trafficators
2221:washer fluid
2201:Power window
2196:Opera window
2108:Compartments
1996:Crumple zone
1981:Cabrio coach
1945:
1925:
1855:. Retrieved
1850:
1841:
1829:. Retrieved
1814:
1807:
1795:. Retrieved
1780:
1773:
1761:. Retrieved
1756:
1747:
1735:. Retrieved
1720:
1698:. Retrieved
1693:
1689:
1680:
1668:. Retrieved
1664:
1654:
1622:. Retrieved
1607:
1602:
1596:
1584:. Retrieved
1574:
1567:(in Russian)
1562:
1558:
1551:(in Russian)
1546:
1542:
1530:. Retrieved
1520:
1508:. Retrieved
1498:
1486:. Retrieved
1454:. Retrieved
1439:
1417:. Retrieved
1413:
1403:
1391:. Retrieved
1387:
1378:
1369:
1359:
1340:
1331:
1319:. Retrieved
1315:vwvortex.com
1314:
1306:
1294:. Retrieved
1290:
1280:
1268:. Retrieved
1263:
1251:
1239:. Retrieved
1235:kenworth.com
1234:
1222:
1210:. Retrieved
1195:
1188:
1180:autonews.com
1179:
1133:Coachbuilder
1095:
1091:transmission
1079:
1039:Ford Transit
1004:
982:
974:torque boxes
971:
964:
944:
921:
899:
892:
878:
871:
848:
843:
833:
821:
814:
809:
805:
716:
707:
699:Superleggera
697:
695:
690:
679:
669:
665:Stout Scarab
650:
646:
572:
561:
549:
534:
523:
504:
496:
491:Bertone FW11
477:
469:
449:
446:
416:
402:Ladder frame
380:
376:
368:
360:
351:
347:
331:
319:
310:
301:metal tubing
297:
292:
287:
282:
275:carbon steel
272:
266:Pickup truck
195:
179:
168:
166:
151:
147:
145:
128:Ladder frame
120:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2405:sealed beam
2337:Roll center
2332:Ride height
2269:Japan black
2264:Instruments
2249:Curb feeler
2115:Hood/bonnet
1384:"unit body"
1321:28 February
1296:28 February
1212:28 February
948:Ford Falcon
840:torpedo car
626:Space frame
579:Citroën 2CV
573:The French
553:sheet metal
364:semi-trucks
327:Studebakers
281:called the
249:Frame rails
180:Nearly all
2540:Categories
2191:Greenhouse
1757:allpar.com
1414:Wards Auto
1159:References
1083:suspension
1043:VW Crafter
917:GAZ-12 ZIM
442:Lotus Elan
205:deflection
69:newspapers
2445:Tow hitch
2363:equipment
2289:Tire/tyre
2148:Gull-wing
2138:Butterfly
2099:Trunk lid
2042:Monocoque
1946:Framework
1857:2 January
1831:2 January
1797:2 January
1763:2 January
1634:cite book
1532:10 August
1510:10 August
1488:10 August
1153:C-channel
1143:Monocoque
1106:AMC Pacer
872:In 1930,
844:monocoque
825:monocoque
797:Fiat 126p
779:Saab 9000
670:The 1951
611:Renault 4
596:VW Beetle
575:Renault 4
420:floor pan
323:Chevrolet
222:torsional
192:Functions
2505:Category
2390:Headlamp
2372:Lighting
2361:Exterior
2327:Overhang
2310:Geometry
2294:run-flat
2274:Nerf bar
2089:Subframe
2057:Platform
2047:Overhang
1959:Beltline
1737:28 March
1700:28 March
1670:28 March
1624:28 March
1605:(1985).
1586:28 March
1553:, p. 3-4
1456:28 March
1419:28 March
1393:28 March
1339:(2010).
1270:14 April
1241:14 April
1112:See also
1064:Subframe
1058:Subframe
1001:Uniframe
978:Chevy II
936:Nash 600
893:For the
663:and the
661:Dymaxion
500:handling
307:C-Shaped
162:skeleton
99:May 2013
2515:Commons
2211:Sunroof
2163:Suicide
2158:Sliding
2153:Scissor
2094:Tonneau
2079:Spoiler
1986:Chassis
1128:Chassis
1015:Hornets
1007:Renault
909:Kapitän
905:Olympia
880:Citroën
867:Citroën
795:Polski
723:Unibody
682:Audi A8
557:stamped
456:X-frame
293:channel
186:pickups
153:chassis
140:unibody
83:scholar
2525:Portal
2395:hidden
2143:Canopy
2052:Pillar
2033:shaker
2018:Grille
2011:skirts
2006:ponton
2001:Fender
1974:Dagmar
1969:Bumper
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1569:, p. 3
1563:ZIM-12
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1019:Eagles
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511:Hudson
182:trucks
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2478:Theft
2459:Legal
2438:power
2299:spare
2284:Parts
2226:wiper
2178:Glass
2130:Doors
2028:scoop
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1231:(PDF)
990:2000s
863:Buick
855:Dodge
760:1942
687:Alcoa
659:(the
643:frame
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386:Types
372:axles
336:Boxed
288:beams
283:rails
90:JSTOR
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2428:Horn
2168:Swan
2072:rack
2067:Roof
2023:Hood
1937:Body
1928:cars
1859:2023
1833:2023
1820:ISBN
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1765:2023
1739:2016
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1672:2016
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1534:2016
1512:2016
1490:2016
1458:2016
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