Virology - Knowledge

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monolayers are infected with various dilutions of the virus sample and allowed to incubate for a relatively brief incubation period (e.g., 24–72 hours) under a semisolid overlay medium that restricts the spread of infectious virus, creating localized clusters (foci) of infected cells. Plates are subsequently probed with fluorescently labeled antibodies against a viral antigen, and fluorescence microscopy is used to count and quantify the number of foci. The FFA method typically yields results in less time than plaque or fifty-percent-tissue-culture-infective-dose (TCID

807: 468: 866: 857:, despite the centrifugal force the virus particles cannot sink into solutions that are more dense than they are and they form discrete layers of, often visible, concentrated viruses in the tube. Caesium chloride is often used for these solutions as it is relatively inert but easily self-forms a gradient when centrifuged at high speed in an ultracentrifuge. Buoyant density centrifugation can also be used to purify the components of viruses such as their nucleic acids or proteins. 531: 5431: 5930: 739: 277:, would produce areas of dead bacteria. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all the bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. Phages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as 711: 488: 853:, is used. In this method the viruses recovered from differential centrifugation are centrifuged again at very high speed for several hours in dense solutions of sugars or salts that form a density gradient, from low to high, in the tube during the centrifugation. In some cases, preformed gradients are used where solutions of steadily decreasing density are carefully overlaid on each other. Like an object in the 5942: 5345: 557: 44: 1480: 994:– in particular are useful in virology and biology in general. Bacteriophages were some of the first viruses to be discovered, early in the twentieth century, and because they are relatively easy to grow quickly in laboratories, much of our understanding of viruses originated by studying them. Bacteriophages, long known for their positive effects in the environment, are used in 767:) assays, but it can be more expensive in terms of required reagents and equipment. Assay completion time is also dependent on the size of area that the user is counting. A larger area will require more time but can provide a more accurate representation of the sample. Results of the FFA are expressed as focus forming units per milliliter, or FFU/ 916:

of emerging viral infections, molecular epidemiology of viral pathogens, and drug-resistance testing. There are more than 2.3 million unique viral sequences in GenBank. NGS has surpassed traditional Sanger as the most popular approach for generating viral genomes. Viral genome sequencing as become a central method in viral

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As most viruses are too small to be seen by a light microscope, sequencing is one of the main tools in virology to identify and study the virus. Traditional Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) are used to sequence viruses in basic and clinical research, as well as for the diagnosis

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When an assay for measuring the infective virus particle is done (Plaque assay, Focus assay), viral titre often refers to the concentration of infectious viral particles, which is different from the total viral particles. Viral load assays usually count the number of viral genomes present rather than

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The ICTV developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established. Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has

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system has come to be used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy. Starting in 2018, the ICTV began to acknowledge deeper evolutionary relationships between viruses that have been discovered over time and adopted a 15-rank classification system ranging from realm to species. Additionally, some

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tests as allowed for most of these tests to be automated, Despite its specificity and sensitivity, PCR has a disadvantage in that it does not differentiate infectious and non-infectious viruses and "tests of cure" have to be delayed for up to 21 days to allow for residual viral nucleic acid to clear

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PCR is a mainstay method for detecting viruses in all species including plants and animals. It works by detecting traces of virus specific RNA or DNA. It is very sensitive and specific, but can be easily compromised by contamination. Most of the tests used in veterinary virology and medical virology

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and these antibodies can be used in laboratories to study viruses. Related viruses often react with each other's antibodies and some viruses can be named based on the antibodies they react with. The use of the antibodies which were once exclusively derived from the serum (blood fluid) of animals is

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Thi Nhu Thao T, Labroussaa F, Ebert N, V'kovski P, Stalder H, Portmann J, Kelly J, Steiner S, Holwerda M, Kratzel A, Gultom M, Schmied K, Laloli L, Hüsser L, Wider M, Pfaender S, Hirt D, Cippà V, Crespo-Pomar S, Schröder S, Muth D, Niemeyer D, Corman VM, Müller MA, Drosten C, Dijkman R, Jores J,

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to help visualise viruses. In this procedure, the viruses are suspended in a solution of metal salts such as uranium acetate. The atoms of metal are opaque to electrons and the viruses are seen as suspended in a dark background of metal atoms. This technique has been in use since the 1950s. Many

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Infectivity assays measure the amount (concentration) of infective viruses in a sample of known volume. For host cells, plants or cultures of bacterial or animal cells are used. Laboratory animals such as mice have also been used particularly in veterinary virology. These are assays are either

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was used to quickly confirm viral infections. It is an infectivity assay that is virus species specific because antibodies are used. The antibodies are tagged with a dye that is luminescencent and when using an optical microscope with a modified light source, infected cells glow in the dark.

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to detect infected host cells and infectious virus particles before an actual plaque is formed. The FFA is particularly useful for quantifying classes of viruses that do not lyse the cell membranes, as these viruses would not be amenable to the plaque assay. Like the plaque assay, host cell

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production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use

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repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing, but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles, he called it a

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of DNA or RNA molecules, as opposed to the full molecules, are joined during the RNA or DNA replication cycle. Recombination is not as common as reassortment in nature but it is a powerful tool in laboratories for studying the structure and functions of viral genes.

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instead of light, which have a much shorter wavelength and can detect objects that cannot be seen using light microscopes. The highest magnification obtainable by electron microscopes is up to 10,000,000 times whereas for light microscopes it is around 1,500 times.

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is a powerful research method in virology. In this procedure complementary DNA (cDNA) copies of virus genomes called "infectious clones" are used to produce genetically modified viruses that can be then tested for changes in say, virulence or transmissibility.

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Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and because they only reproduce inside the living cells of a host these cells are needed to grow them in the laboratory. For viruses that infect animals (usually called "animal viruses") cells grown in laboratory

1136:(ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was initially not accepted by the ICTV because the small genome size of viruses and their high rate of mutation made it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the 395:

showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its protein coat can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses, suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells.

553:, the bacteria growing in test tubes can be used directly. For plant viruses, the natural host plants can be used or, particularly when the infection is not obvious, so-called indicator plants, which show signs of infection more clearly. 842:. In this method the larger and heavier contaminants are removed from a virus mixture by low speed centrifugation. The viruses, which are small and light and are left in suspension, are then concentrated by high speed centrifugation. 814:. Following centrifugation at 100 g a density gradient forms in the CsCl solution and the virus particles separate according to their densities. The tube is 10 cm tall. The viruses are the two "milky" zones close together. 731:. Infective bacteriophages can be counted by seeding them onto "lawns" of bacteria in culture dishes. When at low concentrations, the viruses form holes in the lawn that can be counted. The number of viruses is then expressed as 818:

For further study, viruses grown in the laboratory need purifying to remove contaminants from the host cells. The methods used often have the advantage of concentrating the viruses, which makes it easier to investigate them.

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are used. In the past, fertile hens' eggs were used and the viruses were grown on the membranes surrounding the embryo. This method is still used in the manufacture of some vaccines. For the viruses that infect bacteria, the

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The general taxonomic structure of taxon ranges and the suffixes used in taxonomic names are shown hereafter. As of 2021, the ranks of subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are unused, whereas all other ranks are in use.

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Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, et al. (May 1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)".

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In laboratories many of the diagnostic test for detecting viruses are nucleic acid amplification methods such as PCR. Some tests detect the viruses or their components as these include electron microscopy and

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virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue. In 1928, H. B. Maitland and M. C. Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens' kidneys. Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s when

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is the switching of genes from different parents and it is particularly useful when studying the genetics of viruses that have segmented genomes (fragmented into two or more nucleic acid molecules) such as

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and quantal assays give a statistical probability such as the volume of the test sample needed to ensure 50% of the hosts cells, plants or animals are infected. This is called the median infectious dose or

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is measured. There are two basic methods: those that count the fully infective virus particles, which are called infectivity assays, and those that count all the particles including the defective ones.

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The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery, and most of the documented species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years. In 1957

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examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein. A short time later, this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts. The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to be

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cause red blood cells from chickens to firmly attach to the infected cells. This is called "haemadsorption" or "hemadsorption". Some viruses produce localised "lesions" in cell layers called

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produced by bacteria, but he did not pursue the idea. At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium—this was part of the

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for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy.

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Traditional electron microscopy has disadvantages in that viruses are damaged by drying in the high vacuum inside the electron microscope and the electron beam itself is destructive. In

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Virology began when there were no methods for propagating or visualizing viruses or specific laboratory tests for viral infections. The methods for separating viral nucleic acids (

978:(small circular molecules of DNA produced by bacteria). The viral nucleic acid, or a part of it, is inserted in the plasmid, which is the copied many times over by bacteria. This 1096:

but it is based shared or distinguishing properties of viruses. It seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962,

161:, or animals. Viruses that infect humans are now studied by medical virologists. Virology is a broad subject covering biology, health, animal welfare, agriculture and ecology. 5915: 118:

One main motivation for the study of viruses is because they cause many infectious diseases of plants and animals. The study of the manner in which viruses cause disease is

216:: crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remained infectious even after filtration to remove bacteria. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a 897:

for nucleic acids. In some instances the viral components are rendered radioactive before electrophoresis and are revealed using photographic film in a process known as

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Choo QL, Kuo G, Weiner AJ, Overby LR, Bradley DW, Houghton M (April 1989). "Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome".

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In 1887, Buist visualised one of the largest, Vaccinia virus, by optical microscopy after staining it. Vaccinia was not known to be a virus at that time. (Buist J.B.

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Gauger PC, Vincent AL (2014). "Serum Virus Neutralization Assay for Detection and Quantitation of Serum-Neutralizing Antibodies to Influenza a Virus in Swine".

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grew poliovirus in cultured cells from aborted human embryonic tissue, the first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs. This work enabled

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Gorbalenya AE, Lauber C. Phylogeny of Viruses. Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences. 2017;B978-0-12-801238-3.95723-4. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.95723-4

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When purified viruses or viral components are needed for diagnostic tests or vaccines, cloning can be used instead of growing the viruses. At the start of the

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RNA sequence enabled tests to be manufactured quickly. There are several proven methods for cloning viruses and their components. Small pieces of DNA called

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The focus forming assay (FFA) is a variation of the plaque assay, but instead of relying on cell lysis in order to detect plaque formation, the FFA employs

519:. This allows the determination of biomolecular structures at near-atomic resolution, and has attracted wide attention to the approach as an alternative to 1881:

Goodpasture EW, Woodruff AM, Buddingh GJ (October 1931). "The cultivation of vaccine and other viruses in the chorioallantoic membrane of chick embryos".

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Counting viruses (quantitation) has always had an important role in virology and has become central to the control of some infections of humans where the

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have all proven useful in virology. Their small sizes and relatively simple structures make viruses an ideal candidate for study by these techniques.

967: 208:(or Pasteur-Chamberland filter) with pores small enough to remove all bacteria from a solution passed through it. In 1892, the Russian biologist 4547: 3244:

Burrell CJ, Howard CR, Murphy FA (2017-01-01), Burrell CJ, Howard CR, Murphy FA (eds.), "Chapter 10 - Laboratory Diagnosis of Virus Diseases",

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viruses were discovered using this technique and negative staining electron microscopy is still a valuable weapon in a virologist's arsenal.

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Nichols BE, Girdwood SJ, Crompton T, Stewart-Isherwood L, Berrie L, Chimhamhiwa D, Moyo C, Kuehnle J, Stevens W, Rosen S (September 2019).

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Dimitrova K, Mendoza EJ, Mueller N, Wood H (2020). "A Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test for the Detection of ZIKV-Specific Antibodies".

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quantitative where the results are on a continuous scale or quantal, where an event either occurs or it does not. Quantitative assays give

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Novella IS, Presloid JB, Taylor RT (December 2014). "RNA replication errors and the evolution of virus pathogenicity and virulence".

300:, their ability to pass filters, and their requirement for living hosts. Viruses had been grown only in plants and animals. In 1906 5420: 5387: 3926:

Su Q, Sena-Esteves M, Gao G (May 2019). "Purification of the Recombinant Adenovirus by Cesium Chloride Gradient Centrifugation".

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Zainol Rashid Z, Othman SN, Abdul Samat MN, Ali UK, Wong KK (April 2020). "Diagnostic performance of COVID-19 serology assays".

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Viruses that have grown in cell cultures can be indirectly detected by the detrimental effect they have on the host cell. These

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pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941. Based on her X-ray crystallographic pictures,

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Stanley WM, Loring HS (January 1936). "The Isolation of Crystalline Tobacco Mosaic Virus Protein From Diseased Tomato Plants".

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The viruses that reproduce in bacteria, archaea and fungi are informally called "phages", and the ones that infect bacteria –

786:. Viral load tests are an important in the control of infections by HIV. This versatile method can be used for plant viruses. 6569: 5326: 5307: 4676: 4523: 3261: 2817: 2776: 1935: 1759:"On an invisible microbe antagonistic toward dysenteric bacilli: brief note by Mr. F. D'Herelle, presented by Mr. Roux. 1917" 1732: 6373: 2925:

Swack NS, Gahan TF, Hausler WJ (August 1992). "The present status of the complement fixation test in viral serodiagnosis".

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Viruses were seen for the first time in the 1930s when electron microscopes were invented. These microscopes use beams of

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that focuses on their detection, structure, classification and evolution, their methods of infection and exploitation of

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Domingo-Calap P, Georgel P, Bahram S (March 2016). "Back to the future: bacteriophages as promising therapeutic tools".

616:. Once an antibody–reaction has taken place in a test, other methods are needed to confirm this. Older methods included 475:

There are several approaches to detecting viruses and these include the detection of virus particles (virions) or their

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Khan MK, Alam MM (July 2021). "Norovirus Gastroenteritis Outbreaks, Genomic Diversity and Evolution: An Overview".

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Creager AN, Morgan GJ (June 2008). "After the double helix: Rosalind Franklin's research on Tobacco mosaic virus".

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Yokota I, Hattori T, Shane PY, Konno S, Nagasaka A, Takeyabu K, Fujisawa S, Nishida M, Teshima T (February 2021).

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Moon K, Cho JC (March 2021). "Metaviromics coupled with phage-host identification to open the viral "black box"".

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Brenner S, Horne RW (July 1959). "A negative staining method for high resolution electron microscopy of viruses".

735:. For the bacteriophages that reproduce in bacteria that cannot be grown in cultures, viral load assays are used. 5905: 5627: 2351: 932:

Data from the sequencing of viral genomes can be used to determine evolutionary relationships and this is called

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Following differential centrifugation, virus suspensions often remain contaminated with debris that has the same

107:, but something completely different. Beijerinck used the word "virus" to describe the mysterious agent in his ' 5946: 5910: 5089:"HIV types, groups, subtypes and recombinant forms: errors in replication, selection pressure and quasispecies" 3969:

Klepárník K, Boček P (March 2010). "Electrophoresis today and tomorrow: Helping biologists' dreams come true".

2710:"The Potential of Molecular Indicators of Plant Virus Infection: Are Plants Able to Tell Us They Are Infected?" 850: 794:

Molecular virology is the study of viruses at the level of nucleic acids and proteins. The methods invented by

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Often confused with reassortment, recombination is also the mixing of genes but the mechanism differs in that

5754: 5521: 512: 448: 5216:"The Baltimore Classification of Viruses 50 Years Later: How Does It Stand in the Light of Virus Evolution?" 6094: 2408:"Magnification - Microscopy, size and magnification (CCEA) - GCSE Biology (Single Science) Revision - CCEA" 1154:

been studied. As of 2021, 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders,

5966: 5744: 5380: 3633:"Equivalent SARS-CoV-2 viral loads by PCR between nasopharyngeal swab and saliva in symptomatic patients" 1927:

Growing Pathogens in Tissue Cultures: Fifty Years in Academic Tropical Medicine, Pediatrics, and Virology

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Ibrahim B, McMahon DP, Hufsky F, Beer M, Deng L, Mercier PL, Palmarini M, Thiel V, Marz M (June 2018).

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Beards GM (August 1982). "A method for the purification of rotaviruses and adenoviruses from faeces".

5415: 5349: 3386:"The Effects of Statistical Multiplicity of Infection on Virus Quantification and Infectivity Assays" 1371: 1101: 846: 783: 636: 174: 2319: 5771: 5450: 5410: 3500:

Cutler TD, Wang C, Hoff SJ, Kittawornrat A, Zimmerman JJ (August 2011). "Median infectious dose (ID

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Stanley WM, Lauffer MA (April 1939). "Disintegration of Tobacco Mosaic Virus in Urea Solutions".

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Viruses growing in cell cultures are used to measure their susceptibility to validated and novel

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Cytopathic effect of herpes simplex virus. The infected cells have become round and balloon-like.

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Liu JZ, Richerson K, Nelson RS (August 2009). "Growth conditions for plant virus-host studies".

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techniques for screening proteins DNA sequences. They are a powerful tool in molecular biology.

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with a top speed of around 100,000 rpm, are and this difference is used in a method called

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that retroviruses use to make DNA copies of their RNA, was first described in 1970 by Temin and

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Harada LK, Silva EC, Campos WF, Del Fiol FS, Vila M, Dąbrowska K, Krylov VN, Balcão VM (2018).

3504:) of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolate MN-184 via aerosol exposure". 2314: 1076: 831: 830:

are often used to purify viruses. Low speed centrifuges, i.e. those with a top speed of 10,000

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Mahony JB, Petrich A, Smieja M (2011). "Molecular diagnosis of respiratory virus infections".

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Payne S. Methods to Study Viruses. Viruses. 2017;37-52. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803109-4.00004-0

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and are not removed by the procedure. In these cases a modification of centrifugation, called

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Electron micrographs of viruses. A, rotavirus; B, adenovirus; C, norovirus; and D, astrovirus.

6268: 6243: 6223: 1925: 1367: 1163: 933: 625: 520: 428: 404: 388: 312:, and in 1913 E. Steinhardt, C. Israeli, and R.A. Lambert used this method to grow 197:

and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected by microscopes. In 1884, the French

3877:"Purification Methods and the Presence of RNA in Virus Particles and Extracellular Vesicles" 1104:, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the 270: 6488: 6298: 6248: 5864: 5727: 5591: 5541: 4187: 3644: 3407: 2528: 2407: 2306: 2263: 2070: 2027: 1991: 1890: 1159: 1089: 1083: 921: 732: 692: 647: 585: 569: 337: 333: 329: 213: 242:. Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by 8: 6403: 6273: 6015: 5749: 5732: 5712: 5692: 5013:"The New Scope of Virus Taxonomy: Partitioning the Virosphere Into 15 Hierarchical Ranks" 714:

Plaques in cells caused herpes simplex virus. The cells have been fixed and stained blue.

680: 360: 228: 201: 183: 170: 89: 85: 4191: 3648: 3411: 2532: 2310: 2267: 2074: 2031: 1995: 1894: 944:. This analysis is also used in studying the spread of viral infections in communities ( 6564: 6518: 6498: 6483: 6308: 6303: 6068: 5759: 5505: 5256: 5243: 5162: 5137: 5118: 5037: 5012: 4988: 4961: 4875: 4850: 4826: 4807: 4780: 4726: 4701: 4636: 4611: 4587: 4562: 4541: 4496: 4444: 4417: 4393: 4366: 4344: 4257: 4232: 4213: 4150: 4125: 4092: 4067: 4043: 4016: 3994: 3951: 3903: 3876: 3814: 3787: 3763: 3738: 3714: 3689: 3665: 3632: 3608: 3583: 3564: 3477: 3452: 3428: 3397: 3385: 3361: 3336: 3312: 3287: 3272: 3253: 3221: 3196: 3172: 3145: 3121: 3096: 3072: 3045: 3026: 2978: 2953: 2875: 2850: 2831: 2736: 2709: 2686: 2606: 2581: 2557: 2516: 2492: 2467: 2181: 2129: 1823: 1626: 1591: 1532: 1507: 941: 886: 806: 640: 452: 247: 205: 119: 33: 5958: 3044:

AbuSalah MA, Gan SH, Al-Hatamleh MA, Irekeola AA, Shueb RH, Yean Yean C (March 2020).

2221: 1662: 6595: 6503: 6383: 6238: 6039: 5884: 5879: 5834: 5657: 5531: 5322: 5303: 5284: 5260: 5248: 5167: 5110: 5069: 5042: 4993: 4942: 4907: 4880: 4831: 4811: 4784: 4772: 4731: 4682: 4672: 4641: 4592: 4529: 4519: 4488: 4449: 4398: 4336: 4289: 4262: 4217: 4205: 4155: 4097: 4048: 3986: 3955: 3943: 3908: 3857: 3853: 3819: 3768: 3719: 3670: 3613: 3568: 3556: 3521: 3482: 3433: 3366: 3317: 3257: 3226: 3177: 3126: 3077: 3018: 2983: 2934: 2907: 2880: 2835: 2823: 2813: 2782: 2772: 2741: 2678: 2674: 2611: 2562: 2544: 2497: 2448: 2444: 2373: 2332: 2279: 2235: 2225: 2173: 2121: 2086: 2043: 1968: 1951:

Rosen FS (October 2004). "Isolation of poliovirus--John Enders and the Nobel Prize".

1931: 1906: 1815: 1780: 1728: 1666: 1631: 1613: 1572: 1537: 1191: 1105: 963: 795: 584:, which are useful in quantitation assays and in identifying the species of virus by 565: 444: 384: 380: 341: 112: 55: 4500: 4468: 4348: 3998: 3030: 2690: 2185: 2133: 1827: 1014:. All the techniques used in molecular biology, such as cloning, creating mutations 467: 6600: 6228: 5814: 5781: 5536: 5238: 5230: 5157: 5149: 5122: 5100: 5032: 5024: 4983: 4973: 4934: 4870: 4862: 4821: 4803: 4762: 4721: 4713: 4702:"Development and application of reverse genetic technology for the influenza virus" 4664: 4631: 4623: 4582: 4574: 4484: 4480: 4439: 4429: 4388: 4378: 4326: 4316: 4252: 4244: 4233:"New tools for recombinant protein production in Escherichia coli: A 5-year update" 4195: 4145: 4137: 4087: 4079: 4038: 4028: 3978: 3935: 3898: 3888: 3849: 3809: 3799: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3709: 3701: 3660: 3652: 3603: 3595: 3548: 3513: 3472: 3464: 3423: 3415: 3356: 3348: 3307: 3299: 3267: 3249: 3216: 3208: 3167: 3157: 3116: 3108: 3067: 3057: 3010: 2973: 2965: 2870: 2862: 2805: 2764: 2731: 2721: 2670: 2638: 2601: 2593: 2552: 2536: 2487: 2479: 2440: 2363: 2324: 2271: 2217: 2165: 2113: 2078: 2035: 1960: 1898: 1854: 1807: 1770: 1658: 1621: 1603: 1564: 1527: 1519: 1259: 1208: 1174: 1121: 1063: 894: 524: 345: 209: 135: 37: 4017:"The effect of variant interference on de novo assembly for viral deep sequencing" 3352: 2352:"The long and winding road leading to the identification of the hepatitis C virus" 2208:

Temin HM, Baltimore D (1972). "RNA-directed DNA synthesis and RNA tumor viruses".

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can then be used to produce viral components without the need for native viruses.

6513: 6478: 5647: 5642: 5632: 4962:"International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses and the 3,142 unassigned species" 4938: 4321: 4308: 3517: 3146:"Microfluidics-based strategies for molecular diagnostics of infectious diseases" 3014: 2969: 2768: 2705: 1775: 1758: 1568: 1523: 1351: 1242: 1225: 1117: 1113: 1031: 979: 898: 878: 835: 436: 416: 392: 262: 243: 131: 4668: 2809: 2082: 1902: 6368: 6178: 5819: 5796: 5702: 5697: 5637: 5622: 5586: 5471: 5011:

International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses Executive Committee (May 2020).

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grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chicken eggs. In 1949,

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Gamma phage, an example of virus particles (visualised by electron microscopy)

6589: 6448: 6343: 6233: 6208: 6203: 6027: 5717: 5672: 5581: 5396: 4418:"Phage Display Technology as a Powerful Platform for Antibody Drug Discovery" 3062: 2548: 1617: 1093: 1015: 995: 865: 515:

the structure of viruses is preserved by embedding them in an environment of

353: 190: 158: 4578: 3804: 3737:

Shirima RR, Maeda DG, Kanju E, Ceasar G, Tibazarwa FI, Legg JP (July 2017).

2328: 2275: 1374:(+) or antisense (−). This classification places viruses into seven groups: 6493: 6473: 6438: 6433: 6423: 6418: 6398: 6378: 6288: 6258: 6218: 6198: 6188: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6073: 6051: 6010: 5993: 5869: 5854: 5766: 5707: 5606: 5576: 5485: 5252: 5171: 5114: 5073: 5046: 4997: 4978: 4946: 4911: 4884: 4835: 4776: 4735: 4686: 4645: 4596: 4492: 4453: 4402: 4340: 4293: 4266: 4209: 4159: 4101: 4052: 3990: 3982: 3947: 3939: 3912: 3823: 3772: 3723: 3674: 3617: 3560: 3525: 3486: 3437: 3370: 3321: 3230: 3181: 3130: 3081: 3022: 2987: 2911: 2884: 2827: 2786: 2745: 2726: 2682: 2615: 2566: 2501: 2452: 2377: 2177: 2125: 2090: 2047: 1972: 1910: 1819: 1784: 1670: 1635: 1576: 1541: 1469: 1428: 1026: 945: 917: 658: 581: 545: 530: 420: 93: 63: 5234: 3861: 3112: 2954:"Structural studies on antibody recognition and neutralization of viruses" 2938: 2336: 2283: 2239: 487: 6543: 6538: 6508: 6463: 6408: 6348: 6333: 6328: 6293: 6253: 6143: 6133: 6128: 5859: 5849: 5844: 3599: 3095:

Zhu H, Zhang H, Xu Y, Laššáková S, Korabečná M, Neužil P (October 2020).

2483: 1590:

Sales RK, Oraño J, Estanislao RD, Ballesteros AJ, Gomez MI (2021-04-29).

1508:"Common origins and host-dependent diversity of plant and animal viromes" 1447: 1424: 1409: 1398: 1387: 1379: 1075:

For how viruses are classified with relation to other living things, see

577: 456: 412: 400: 364: 297: 251: 5430: 4176:"Rapid reconstruction of SARS-CoV-2 using a synthetic genomics platform" 3687: 3337:"Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 viral load: current status and future prospects" 3303: 1964: 1342:

The Baltimore Classification of viruses is based on the method of viral

648:

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and other nucleic acid detection methods

6528: 6523: 6468: 6453: 6393: 6358: 6353: 6323: 6283: 6263: 6193: 6173: 5786: 5739: 5662: 5571: 4627: 4172: 3705: 1458: 1402: 1383: 827: 776: 755: 738: 698: 683:. These are also used in agriculture, food and environmental sciences. 608: 573: 424: 408: 379:

and its structure could, therefore, be elucidated in detail. The first

349: 318: 296:

By the end of the 19th century, viruses were defined in terms of their

286: 274: 6086: 5105: 5088: 4434: 4383: 4331: 3893: 3584:"Single-Particle Detection of Transcription following Rotavirus Entry" 1811: 387:

discovered the full structure of the virus in 1955. In the same year,

6443: 6428: 6413: 6363: 6338: 6061: 5989: 4248: 3197:"Current methods for diagnosis of human coronaviruses: pros and cons" 1432: 1361:

The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of

1035: 877:

The separation of molecules based on their electric charge is called

870: 811: 743: 710: 368: 123: 104: 97: 5153: 1842: 572:

produce a characteristic "ballooning" of the cells, typically human

6458: 6388: 6318: 6313: 6138: 6056: 6002: 5791: 4900:

Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences

4309:"Biotechnological applications of bacteriophages: State of the art" 3402: 3144:

Wang X, Hong XZ, Li YW, Li Y, Wang J, Chen P, Liu BF (March 2022).

2855:

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases

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Collier L, Balows A, Sussman M (1998). Mahy B, Collier LA (eds.).

2703: 1457:(+ strand or sense) RNA with DNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. 6548: 6278: 6148: 6044: 5829: 5722: 5500: 5495: 4802:. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 123. pp. 45–66. 3046:"Recent Advances in Diagnostic Approaches for Epstein-Barr Virus" 2897: 2763:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1161. pp. 313–24. 1293: 1129: 882: 759: 447:

in France, first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV. In 1989

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proposed the full structure of the tobacco mosaic virus in 1955.

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Norrby E (2008). "Nobel Prizes and the emerging virus concept".

974:

are often used and the most common ones are laboratory modified

810:

Caesium chloride (CsCl) solution and two morphological types of

359:

The first images of viruses were obtained upon the invention of

324:

Another breakthrough came in 1931 when the American pathologist

6213: 5874: 5466: 5344: 5188: 3457:

The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Exotic Animal Practice

1589: 1109: 937: 556: 432: 293:

has renewed interest in the therapeutic use of bacteriophages.

269:(or commonly 'phages'), and the French-Canadian microbiologist 265:

discovered a group of viruses that infect bacteria, now called

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Pellett PE, Mitra S, Holland TC (2014). "Basics of virology".

3195:

Benzigar MR, Bhattacharjee R, Baharfar M, Liu G (April 2021).

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List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization

5776: 5357: 3690:"Monitoring viral load for the last mile: what will it cost?" 2468:"Modern uses of electron microscopy for detection of viruses" 1276: 1125: 675:. The so-called "home" or "self"-testing gadgets are usually 672: 629: 568:

are often characteristic of the type of virus. For instance,

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Lwoff A, Horne R, Tournier P (1962). "A system of viruses".

4751:"Virus taxonomy and classification: naming of virus species" 1479: 889:. The separated molecules are revealed using stains such as 5490: 4364: 2799: 1880: 1362: 1343: 1092:. It is artificial in that it is not based on evolutionary 1007: 90:

official beginning of the field of virology as a discipline

4561:

McDonald SM, Nelson MI, Turner PE, Patton JT (July 2016).

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Topley and Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections

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Salgado EN, Upadhyayula S, Harrison SC (September 2017).

3451:

Kashuba C, Hsu C, Krogstad A, Franklin C (January 2005).

1108:

hierarchical system. This system based classification on

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Cheng Y, Grigorieff N, Penczek PA, Walz T (April 2015).

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Stone E, Campbell K, Grant I, McAuliffe O (June 2019).

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4367:"Understanding and Exploiting Phage-Host Interactions" 3785: 2582:"A primer to single-particle cryo-electron microscopy" 261:

In the early 20th century, the English bacteriologist

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of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses

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Fenner F (2009). Mahy BW, Van Regenmortal MH (eds.).

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Bordenave G (May 2003). "Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)".

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Rosano GL, Morales ES, Ceccarelli EA (August 2019).

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Vaccinia and Variola: a study of their life history

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In addition, ssRNA viruses may be either 968:severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 686: 250:and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus, 5214:Koonin EV, Krupovic M, Agol VI (August 2021). 4699: 4415: 3968: 3835: 3833: 2207: 2060: 1468:DNA with RNA intermediate in life-cycle (e.g. 1134:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses 904: 371:. In 1935, American biochemist and virologist 6102: 5974: 5381: 5086: 4609: 3384:Mistry BA, D'Orsogna MR, Chou T (June 2018). 2758: 2103: 2017: 1990:. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. 1756: 76:The identification of the causative agent of 5207: 5080: 5053: 4953: 4918: 4891: 4842: 4791: 4742: 4693: 4652: 4603: 4554: 4460: 4409: 4355: 4300: 4273: 4224: 4166: 4117: 4059: 3962: 3919: 3868: 3779: 3730: 3681: 3624: 3575: 3532: 3493: 3444: 3377: 3328: 3279: 3248:, London: Academic Press, pp. 135–154, 3188: 3143: 3137: 3088: 3037: 2994: 2945: 2891: 2842: 2793: 2752: 2697: 2658: 2459: 2430: 2424: 2343: 2149: 2097: 1841:Steinhardt E, Israeli C, Lambert RA (1913). 1791: 653:are based on PCR or similar methods such as 5183: 5181: 3830: 2918: 2201: 1548: 1505: 1499: 1327: 1038:. The genes that encode properties such as 6109: 6095: 5981: 5967: 5388: 5374: 5283:. Virology. Vol. 1 (Ninth ed.). 5223:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 4546:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2704:Valmonte-Cortes GR, Lilly ST, Pearson MN, 1691: 1689: 1166:of viruses have been defined by the ICTV. 6575:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 5298:Dimmock NJ, Easton AJ, Leppard K (2007). 5242: 5161: 5104: 5036: 4987: 4977: 4874: 4825: 4766: 4725: 4635: 4586: 4443: 4433: 4392: 4382: 4330: 4320: 4256: 4199: 4149: 4091: 4042: 4032: 3902: 3892: 3813: 3803: 3786:Rubio L, Galipienso L, Ferriol I (2020). 3762: 3713: 3694:Journal of the International AIDS Society 3664: 3607: 3476: 3427: 3401: 3360: 3311: 3271: 3220: 3171: 3161: 3120: 3071: 3061: 2977: 2874: 2735: 2725: 2642: 2605: 2556: 2517:"An Improved Cryogen for Plunge Freezing" 2491: 2367: 2318: 1774: 1648: 1625: 1607: 1583: 1531: 479:or nucleic acids and infectivity assays. 193:was unable to find a causative agent for 5421:Competitions and prizes in biotechnology 5302:(Sixth ed.). Blackwell Publishing. 5178: 5059: 4748: 4279: 4065: 2628: 2622: 2466:Goldsmith CS, Miller SE (October 2009). 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2349: 1337: 927: 864: 805: 737: 709: 679:, which detect the virus using a tagged 555: 529: 486: 466: 178: 88:(1898) is now acknowledged as being the 42: 6116: 5135: 4849:Simmonds P, Aiewsakun P (August 2018). 3538: 2848: 1686: 1070: 754:techniques using fluorescently labeled 96:. He realized the source was neither a 14: 6588: 4960:Fauquet CM, Fargette D (August 2005). 3839: 3541:Journal of Microbiology (Seoul, Korea) 3341:Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 3201:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 2155: 1930:. Boston Medical Library. p. 57. 1722: 1698: 1148: 869:Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of 802:Purifying viruses and their components 742:Immunoflourescence: Cells infected by 534:Cryoelectron micrograph of a rotavirus 482: 6570:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 6090: 5962: 5369: 5316: 4612:"Engineering influenza viral vectors" 4416:Nagano K, Tsutsumi Y (January 2021). 4010: 4008: 2951: 2384: 2246: 1986:Frängsmyr T, Ekspång G, eds. (1993). 1950: 1725:Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology 1506:Dolja VV, Koonin EV (November 2011). 705: 538: 5941: 4123: 3286:Koczula KM, Gallotta A (June 2016). 2290: 873:proteins stained with Coomassie blue 789: 770: 655:transcription mediated amplification 462: 4658: 4469:"A new era of virus bioinformatics" 3334: 1953:The New England Journal of Medicine 1058: 746:(top) and uninfected cells (bottom) 665: 291:bacterial resistance to antibiotics 126:. These fields of study are called 24: 4808:10.1016/B978-0-444-53488-0.00002-X 4126:"A platform for RNA virus cloning" 4066:Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL (March 2019). 4005: 3254:10.1016/b978-0-12-375156-0.00010-2 2900:The Malaysian Journal of Pathology 1847:The Journal of Infectious Diseases 1596:Health Research Policy and Systems 1442:(− strand or antisense) RNA (e.g. 1350:The Nobel Prize-winning biologist 860: 227:In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist 25: 6612: 5395: 5337: 5321:. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 4610:Li J, Arévalo MT, Zeng M (2013). 2667:Current Protocols in Microbiology 1988:Nobel Lectures, Physics 1981–1990 985: 822: 5940: 5929: 5928: 5429: 5343: 4749:Hull R, Rima B (November 2020). 4514:Bamford D, Zuckerman MA (2021). 2708:, MacDiarmid RM (January 2022). 2675:10.1002/9780471729259.mc16a01s14 1478: 1401:(+ strand or "sense") DNA (e.g. 1045: 662:from the site of the infection. 363:in 1931 by the German engineers 111:' ('contagious living fluid'). 5906:Index of biotechnology articles 5300:Introduction to Modern Virology 5271: 5129: 5004: 4108: 3237: 2573: 2508: 2400: 2192: 2140: 2054: 2011: 1979: 1944: 1874: 1865: 1834: 1750: 1741: 1042:can be identified in this way. 1021: 411:) were discovered. In 1963 the 5911:List of biotechnology articles 5189:"Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release" 4485:10.1016/j.virusres.2018.05.009 3842:Journal of Virological Methods 3755:10.1016/j.jviromet.2017.03.003 3743:Journal of Virological Methods 3097:"PCR past, present and future" 1757:D'Herelle F (September 2007). 1707: 1677: 1642: 1423:(+ strand or sense) RNA (e.g. 1088:A major branch of virology is 851:buoyant density centrifugation 607:that induce the production of 13: 1: 5755:Genetically modified organism 5522:Biotechnology industrial park 3353:10.1080/14737159.2021.1962709 2927:Infectious Agents and Disease 2472:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 2433:Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 2222:10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60749-6 1924:Thomas Huckle Weller (2004). 1663:10.1016/S1286-4579(03)00075-3 1492: 1156:233 families, 168 subfamilies 513:cryogenic electron microscopy 258:), through a similar filter. 5087:Eberle J, Gürtler L (2012). 4939:10.1101/sqb.1962.027.001.008 4567:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 4322:10.1016/j.micres.2018.04.007 4072:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 3928:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols 3854:10.1016/0166-0934(82)90059-3 3518:10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.03.003 3015:10.3109/10408363.2011.640976 2970:10.1016/j.coviro.2011.05.020 2769:10.1007/978-1-4939-0758-8_26 2521:Microscopy and Microanalysis 2445:10.1016/0006-3002(59)90237-9 2350:Houghton M (November 2009). 1776:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.005 1569:10.1016/j.coviro.2014.09.017 1524:10.1016/j.coviro.2011.09.007 1018:are used in viral genetics. 687:Quantitation and viral loads 7: 5745:Environmental biotechnology 5142:Reviews in Medical Virology 4669:10.1007/978-1-4939-0758-8_4 2958:Current Opinion in Virology 2810:10.1007/978-1-0716-0581-3_5 2629:Stoddart C (1 March 2022). 2083:10.1126/science.89.2311.345 1903:10.1126/science.74.1919.371 1557:Current Opinion in Virology 1512:Current Opinion in Virology 1001: 905:Sequencing of viral genomes 840:differential centrifugation 622:hemagglutination inhibition 598: 10: 6617: 5062:Mymensingh Medical Journal 4768:10.1007/s00705-020-04748-7 4718:10.1007/s11262-020-01822-9 4034:10.1186/s12864-020-06801-w 3792:Frontiers in Plant Science 3657:10.1038/s41598-021-84059-2 3469:10.1016/j.cvex.2004.09.004 3213:10.1007/s00216-020-03046-0 3163:10.1186/s40779-022-00374-3 2867:10.1007/s10096-020-03840-9 2598:10.1016/j.cell.2015.03.050 2369:10.1016/j.jhep.2009.08.004 2210:Advances in Virus Research 2040:10.1126/science.83.2143.85 1609:10.1186/s12961-021-00723-z 1331: 1160:2,606 genera, 84 subgenera 1081: 1074: 955: 951: 908: 774: 690: 326:Ernest William Goodpasture 168: 164: 31: 6557: 6124: 6000: 5924: 5898: 5805: 5685: 5615: 5564: 5555: 5514: 5459: 5438: 5427: 5416:Timeline of biotechnology 5403: 5029:10.1038/s41564-020-0709-x 4867:10.1007/s00705-018-3938-z 4201:10.1038/s41586-020-2294-9 4142:10.1038/s41576-020-0246-8 4084:10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9 3553:10.1007/s12275-021-1016-9 3420:10.1016/j.bpj.2018.05.005 3150:Military Medical Research 2669:. Chapter 16: Unit16A.1. 2644:10.1146/knowable-022822-1 2541:10.1017/S1431927608080781 2170:10.1007/s00705-008-0088-8 847:sedimentation coefficient 618:complement fixation tests 186:in his laboratory in 1921 175:Social history of viruses 5772:Microbial biodegradation 5451:Industrial biotechnology 5411:History of biotechnology 4516:Encyclopedia of virology 4313:Microbiological Research 4130:Nature Reviews. Genetics 3063:10.3390/pathogens9030226 2952:Smith TJ (August 2011). 1763:Research in Microbiology 1356:Baltimore classification 1334:Baltimore classification 1328:Baltimore classification 1138:Baltimore classification 1010:which are studied using 966:the availability of the 576:. Some viruses, such as 373:Wendell Meredith Stanley 5446:Colors of biotechnology 4579:10.1038/nrmicro.2016.46 3805:10.3389/fpls.2020.01092 3506:Veterinary Microbiology 3453:"Small mammal virology" 3335:Lee MJ (October 2021). 2849:Lampejo T (July 2020). 2329:10.1126/science.2523562 2276:10.1126/science.6189183 1859:10.1093/infdis/13.2.294 586:plaque reduction assays 439:independently. In 1983 352:, to make an effective 302:Ross Granville Harrison 235:contagium vivum fluidum 109:contagium vivum fluidum 6184:Biological engineering 5840:Biomedical engineering 5547:Pharmaceutical company 5527:Biotechnology products 4979:10.1186/1743-422X-2-64 4661:Animal Influenza Virus 3983:10.1002/bies.200900152 3940:10.1101/pdb.prot095547 3292:Essays in Biochemistry 2761:Animal Influenza Virus 2727:10.3390/plants11020188 1651:Microbes and Infection 1347: 1077:Tree of life (biology) 874: 832:revolutions per minute 815: 747: 715: 570:herpes simplex viruses 561: 535: 503:Virologists often use 492: 472: 471:An electron microscope 405:bovine virus diarrhoea 304:invented a method for 256:foot-and-mouth disease 222:germ theory of disease 187: 78:tobacco mosaic disease 62:. It is a subfield of 48: 32:For the journals, see 6269:Developmental biology 6244:Computational biology 6224:Cellular microbiology 5319:Understanding Viruses 5235:10.1128/MMBR.00053-21 4174:Thiel V (June 2020). 3934:(5): pdb.prot095547. 3288:"Lateral flow assays" 3113:10.2144/btn-2020-0057 2356:Journal of Hepatology 1368:reverse transcriptase 1341: 934:phylogenetic analysis 928:Phylogenetic analysis 868: 809: 758:specific for a viral 741: 713: 559: 533: 521:X-ray crystallography 490: 470: 429:Reverse transcriptase 389:Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat 289:. The development of 182: 46: 6489:Reproductive biology 6374:Mathematical biology 6299:Evolutionary biology 6249:Conservation biology 5865:Chemical engineering 5728:Reproductive cloning 5592:Hybridoma technology 5542:Human Genome Project 5352:at Wikimedia Commons 5138:"Viral metagenomics" 4855:Archives of Virology 4755:Archives of Virology 4124:Koch L (July 2020). 3600:10.1128/JVI.00651-17 2484:10.1128/CMR.00027-09 2158:Archives of Virology 1090:virus classification 1084:Virus classification 1071:Virus classification 936:. Software, such as 922:viral classification 796:molecular biologists 733:plaque forming units 693:Virus quantification 635:In the years before 628:. Newer methods use 626:virus neutralisation 423:described the first 334:John Franklin Enders 330:Alice Miles Woodruff 214:tobacco mosaic virus 6274:Ecological genetics 6118:Branches of biology 5750:Genetic engineering 5733:Therapeutic cloning 5713:Bionic architecture 5693:Animal cell culture 5460:Biological concepts 5193:talk.ictvonline.org 5136:Delwart EL (2007). 4282:Rivista di Biologia 4192:2020Natur.582..561T 3649:2021NatSR..11.4500Y 3588:Journal of Virology 3412:2018BpJ...114.2974M 3390:Biophysical Journal 3304:10.1042/EBC20150012 2533:2008MiMic..14..375T 2311:1989Sci...244..359C 2268:1983Sci...220..868B 2075:1939Sci....89..345S 2032:1936Sci....83...85S 1996:1993nlp..book.....F 1965:10.1056/NEJMp048202 1895:1931Sci....74..371G 1149:ICTV classification 893:, for proteins, or 887:polyacrylamide gels 681:monoclonal antibody 673:enzyme-immunoassays 630:enzyme immunoassays 483:Electron microscopy 361:electron microscopy 229:Martinus Beijerinck 202:Charles Chamberland 184:Martinus Beijerinck 171:History of virology 86:Martinus Beijerinck 6565:History of biology 6499:Structural biology 6484:Relational biology 6309:Generative biology 6304:Freshwater biology 5990:Infectious disease 5806:Interdisciplinary 5760:Molecular genetics 5506:Selective breeding 4628:10.4161/bioe.21950 4315:. 212–213: 38–58. 3706:10.1002/jia2.25337 3637:Scientific Reports 2006:Churchill, London) 1348: 942:phylogenetic trees 940:, is used to draw 875: 816: 748: 716: 706:Infectivity assays 677:lateral flow tests 641:immunofluorescence 566:cytopathic effects 562: 539:Growth in cultures 536: 493: 473: 453:Chiron Corporation 415:was discovered by 401:equine arterivirus 248:Friedrich Loeffler 206:Chamberland filter 188: 120:viral pathogenesis 49: 34:Virology (journal) 6583: 6582: 6504:Synthetic biology 6384:Molecular biology 6239:Cognitive biology 6084: 6083: 5956: 5955: 5885:Nanobiotechnology 5880:Molecular biology 5681: 5680: 5532:Biotechnology law 5348:Media related to 5328:978-1-284-02592-7 5309:978-1-4051-3645-7 5106:10.1159/000331993 4761:(11): 2733–2736. 4678:978-1-4939-0757-1 4525:978-0-12-814516-6 4435:10.3390/v13020178 4384:10.3390/v11060567 4186:(7813): 561–565. 3894:10.3390/v12090917 3396:(12): 2974–2985. 3347:(10): 1017–1023. 3263:978-0-12-375156-0 2819:978-1-0716-0580-6 2778:978-1-4939-0757-1 2635:Knowable Magazine 1937:978-0-88135-380-8 1812:10.1111/tan.12742 1734:978-0-12-375146-1 1683:Shors pp. 74, 827 1032:influenza viruses 1006:All viruses have 964:COVID-19 pandemic 790:Molecular biology 771:Viral load assays 505:negative staining 463:Detecting viruses 445:Pasteur Institute 413:hepatitis B virus 403:and the cause of 385:Rosalind Franklin 381:X-ray diffraction 342:Frederick Robbins 113:Rosalind Franklin 80:(TMV) as a novel 16:(Redirected from 6608: 6229:Chemical biology 6111: 6104: 6097: 6088: 6087: 6001:Disciplines and 5983: 5976: 5969: 5960: 5959: 5944: 5943: 5932: 5931: 5782:Pharmacogenomics 5562: 5561: 5556:Basic techniques 5537:Green Revolution 5515:General concepts 5433: 5390: 5383: 5376: 5367: 5366: 5361: 5360: 5358:Official website 5347: 5332: 5317:Shors T (2017). 5313: 5294: 5265: 5264: 5246: 5220: 5211: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5200: 5185: 5176: 5175: 5165: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5108: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5057: 5051: 5050: 5040: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4991: 4981: 4966:Virology Journal 4957: 4951: 4950: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4895: 4889: 4888: 4878: 4861:(8): 2037–2046. 4846: 4840: 4839: 4829: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4770: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4729: 4697: 4691: 4690: 4656: 4650: 4649: 4639: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4590: 4558: 4552: 4551: 4545: 4537: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4447: 4437: 4413: 4407: 4406: 4396: 4386: 4362: 4353: 4352: 4334: 4324: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4260: 4249:10.1002/pro.3668 4243:(8): 1412–1422. 4228: 4222: 4221: 4203: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4153: 4121: 4115: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4095: 4063: 4057: 4056: 4046: 4036: 4012: 4003: 4002: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3906: 3896: 3872: 3866: 3865: 3837: 3828: 3827: 3817: 3807: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3766: 3734: 3728: 3727: 3717: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3668: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3611: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3536: 3530: 3529: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3480: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3431: 3405: 3381: 3375: 3374: 3364: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3315: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3275: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3224: 3207:(9): 2311–2330. 3192: 3186: 3185: 3175: 3165: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3124: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3075: 3065: 3041: 3035: 3034: 2998: 2992: 2991: 2981: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2922: 2916: 2915: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2878: 2861:(7): 1201–1208. 2846: 2840: 2839: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2739: 2729: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2662: 2656: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2646: 2626: 2620: 2619: 2609: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2560: 2512: 2506: 2505: 2495: 2463: 2457: 2456: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2419: 2418: 2404: 2398: 2395: 2382: 2381: 2371: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2322: 2305:(4902): 359–62. 2294: 2288: 2287: 2262:(4599): 868–71. 2250: 2244: 2243: 2205: 2199: 2196: 2190: 2189: 2153: 2147: 2144: 2138: 2137: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2069:(2311): 345–47. 2058: 2052: 2051: 2015: 2009: 1999: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1948: 1942: 1941: 1921: 1915: 1914: 1889:(1919): 371–72. 1878: 1872: 1869: 1863: 1862: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1778: 1754: 1748: 1745: 1739: 1738: 1720: 1714: 1711: 1705: 1702: 1696: 1693: 1684: 1681: 1675: 1674: 1646: 1640: 1639: 1629: 1611: 1587: 1581: 1580: 1552: 1546: 1545: 1535: 1503: 1488: 1483: 1482: 1466:dsDNA-RT viruses 1455:ssRNA-RT viruses 1444:Orthomyxoviruses 1440:(−)ssRNA viruses 1421:(+)ssRNA viruses 1064:Reverse genetics 1059:Reverse genetics 895:ethidium bromide 836:ultracentrifuges 666:Diagnostic tests 525:NMR spectroscopy 449:Michael Houghton 346:Hilary Koprowski 210:Dmitri Ivanovsky 136:medical virology 56:scientific study 38:Virology Journal 27:Study of viruses 21: 6616: 6615: 6611: 6610: 6609: 6607: 6606: 6605: 6586: 6585: 6584: 6579: 6553: 6514:Systems biology 6479:Quantum biology 6120: 6115: 6085: 6080: 5996: 5987: 5957: 5952: 5920: 5894: 5835:Biopharmacology 5807: 5801: 5677: 5648:Electrophoresis 5643:Kidney dialysis 5633:Crystallization 5611: 5557: 5551: 5510: 5455: 5434: 5425: 5399: 5394: 5356: 5355: 5340: 5335: 5329: 5310: 5291: 5274: 5269: 5268: 5229:(3): e0005321. 5218: 5212: 5208: 5198: 5196: 5187: 5186: 5179: 5154:10.1002/rmv.532 5134: 5130: 5085: 5081: 5058: 5054: 5009: 5005: 4958: 4954: 4923: 4919: 4896: 4892: 4847: 4843: 4818: 4796: 4792: 4747: 4743: 4698: 4694: 4679: 4657: 4653: 4608: 4604: 4559: 4555: 4539: 4538: 4526: 4512: 4508: 4465: 4461: 4414: 4410: 4363: 4356: 4305: 4301: 4278: 4274: 4237:Protein Science 4229: 4225: 4171: 4167: 4122: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4064: 4060: 4013: 4006: 3967: 3963: 3924: 3920: 3873: 3869: 3838: 3831: 3784: 3780: 3735: 3731: 3686: 3682: 3629: 3625: 3580: 3576: 3537: 3533: 3512:(3–4): 229–37. 3503: 3498: 3494: 3449: 3445: 3382: 3378: 3333: 3329: 3284: 3280: 3264: 3242: 3238: 3193: 3189: 3142: 3138: 3093: 3089: 3042: 3038: 3009:(5–6): 217–49. 2999: 2995: 2950: 2946: 2923: 2919: 2896: 2892: 2847: 2843: 2820: 2798: 2794: 2779: 2757: 2753: 2702: 2698: 2663: 2659: 2649: 2647: 2627: 2623: 2578: 2574: 2513: 2509: 2464: 2460: 2429: 2425: 2416: 2414: 2406: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2385: 2348: 2344: 2320:10.1.1.469.3592 2295: 2291: 2251: 2247: 2232: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2154: 2150: 2145: 2141: 2102: 2098: 2059: 2055: 2016: 2012: 1984: 1980: 1959:(15): 1481–83. 1949: 1945: 1938: 1922: 1918: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1866: 1839: 1835: 1796: 1792: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1735: 1721: 1717: 1713:Dimmock pp. 4–5 1712: 1708: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1647: 1643: 1588: 1584: 1553: 1549: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1484: 1477: 1352:David Baltimore 1336: 1330: 1151: 1086: 1080: 1073: 1061: 1048: 1024: 1004: 988: 980:recombinant DNA 972:cloning vectors 960: 954: 930: 913: 907: 899:autoradiography 879:electrophoresis 863: 861:Electrophoresis 825: 804: 792: 779: 773: 766: 729: 721:absolute values 708: 695: 689: 668: 650: 601: 593:antiviral drugs 541: 485: 465: 443:'s team at the 437:David Baltimore 417:Baruch Blumberg 393:Robley Williams 271:Félix d'Herelle 263:Frederick Twort 244:Wendell Stanley 177: 169:Main articles: 167: 132:animal virology 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6614: 6604: 6603: 6598: 6581: 6580: 6578: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6369:Marine biology 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6179:Bioinformatics 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6125: 6122: 6121: 6114: 6113: 6106: 6099: 6091: 6082: 6081: 6079: 6078: 6077: 6076: 6066: 6065: 6064: 6059: 6049: 6048: 6047: 6037: 6036: 6035: 6030: 6020: 6019: 6018: 6007: 6005: 5998: 5997: 5986: 5985: 5978: 5971: 5963: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5950: 5938: 5925: 5922: 5921: 5919: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5902: 5900: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5825:Bioengineering 5822: 5820:Bioelectronics 5817: 5811: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5799: 5797:Tissue culture 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5730: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5703:Bioinformatics 5700: 5698:Biofabrication 5695: 5689: 5687: 5683: 5682: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5638:Chromatography 5635: 5630: 5625: 5623:Centrifugation 5619: 5617: 5616:Chemical field 5613: 5612: 5610: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5587:Flow cytometry 5584: 5579: 5574: 5568: 5566: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5518: 5516: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5474: 5469: 5463: 5461: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5453: 5448: 5442: 5440: 5436: 5435: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5400: 5393: 5392: 5385: 5378: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5353: 5339: 5338:External links 5336: 5334: 5333: 5327: 5314: 5308: 5295: 5289: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5206: 5177: 5128: 5079: 5068:(3): 863–873. 5052: 5023:(5): 668–674. 5003: 4952: 4917: 4890: 4841: 4816: 4790: 4741: 4712:(2): 151–163. 4692: 4677: 4651: 4602: 4553: 4524: 4506: 4473:Virus Research 4459: 4408: 4354: 4299: 4272: 4223: 4165: 4116: 4107: 4078:(3): 181–192. 4058: 4004: 3977:(3): 218–226. 3961: 3918: 3867: 3829: 3778: 3729: 3680: 3623: 3574: 3547:(3): 311–323. 3531: 3501: 3492: 3443: 3376: 3327: 3278: 3262: 3236: 3187: 3136: 3107:(4): 317–325. 3087: 3036: 2993: 2944: 2917: 2890: 2841: 2818: 2792: 2777: 2751: 2696: 2657: 2621: 2592:(3): 438–449. 2572: 2527:(5): 375–379. 2507: 2458: 2423: 2399: 2383: 2342: 2289: 2245: 2230: 2200: 2198:Collier p. 745 2191: 2164:(6): 1109–23. 2148: 2139: 2118:10.1086/588626 2096: 2053: 2010: 2008: 2007: 1978: 1943: 1936: 1916: 1873: 1864: 1853:(2): 294–300. 1833: 1790: 1749: 1740: 1733: 1715: 1706: 1697: 1685: 1676: 1641: 1582: 1547: 1497: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1490: 1489: 1486:Viruses portal 1474: 1473: 1470:Hepadnaviruses 1462: 1451: 1436: 1429:Picornaviruses 1417: 1406: 1395: 1332:Main article: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1324: 1323: 1322: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1300: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1296: 1164:10,434 species 1150: 1147: 1082:Main article: 1072: 1069: 1060: 1057: 1047: 1044: 1023: 1020: 1003: 1000: 992:bacteriophages 987: 986:Phage virology 984: 958:Cloning vector 956:Main article: 953: 950: 929: 926: 911:DNA sequencing 909:Main article: 906: 903: 862: 859: 824: 823:Centrifugation 821: 803: 800: 791: 788: 775:Main article: 772: 769: 764: 752:immunostaining 727: 707: 704: 691:Main article: 688: 685: 667: 664: 649: 646: 600: 597: 551:bacteriophages 540: 537: 517:vitreous water 484: 481: 464: 461: 441:Luc Montagnier 419:, and in 1965 306:growing tissue 267:bacteriophages 254:(the agent of 199:microbiologist 166: 163: 159:microorganisms 128:plant virology 92:distinct from 58:of biological 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6613: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6556: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6449:Phylogenetics 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6344:Human biology 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6234:Chronobiology 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6209:Biotechnology 6207: 6205: 6204:Biostatistics 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6126: 6123: 6119: 6112: 6107: 6105: 6100: 6098: 6093: 6092: 6089: 6075: 6074:ectoparasites 6072: 6071: 6070: 6067: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6046: 6043: 6042: 6041: 6038: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6025: 6024: 6021: 6017: 6014: 6013: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6004: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5984: 5979: 5977: 5972: 5970: 5965: 5964: 5961: 5949: 5948: 5939: 5937: 5936: 5927: 5926: 5923: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5804: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5718:Cell immunity 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5684: 5674: 5673:Sedimentation 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5614: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5582:Cultured meat 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5565:Biology field 5563: 5560: 5554: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5437: 5432: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5397:Biotechnology 5391: 5386: 5384: 5379: 5377: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5359: 5354: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5341: 5330: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5311: 5305: 5301: 5296: 5292: 5290:0-340-66316-2 5286: 5282: 5277: 5276: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5217: 5210: 5194: 5190: 5184: 5182: 5173: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5148:(2): 115–31. 5147: 5143: 5139: 5132: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5093:Intervirology 5090: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5056: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5017:Nat Microbiol 5014: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4956: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4921: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4902:(in French). 4901: 4894: 4886: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4819: 4817:9780444534880 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4800:Neurovirology 4794: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4745: 4737: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4696: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4655: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4616:Bioengineered 4613: 4606: 4598: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4573:(7): 448–60. 4572: 4568: 4564: 4557: 4549: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4521: 4518:. Amsterdam. 4517: 4510: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4463: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4361: 4359: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4303: 4295: 4291: 4288:(1): 103–29. 4287: 4283: 4276: 4268: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4227: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4169: 4161: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4120: 4111: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4062: 4054: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4009: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3965: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3871: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3848:(6): 343–52. 3847: 3843: 3836: 3834: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3733: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3700:(9): e25337. 3699: 3695: 3691: 3684: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3619: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3463:(1): 107–22. 3462: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3439: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3372: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3331: 3323: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3298:(1): 111–20. 3297: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3140: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3101:BioTechniques 3098: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2997: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2971: 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2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2152: 2146:Dimmock p. 12 2143: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2112:(2): 239–72. 2111: 2107: 2100: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2057: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2014: 2005: 2001: 2000: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1982: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1947: 1939: 1933: 1929: 1928: 1920: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1877: 1868: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1837: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1806:(3): 133–40. 1805: 1801: 1794: 1786: 1782: 1777: 1772: 1769:(7): 553–54. 1768: 1764: 1760: 1753: 1744: 1736: 1730: 1726: 1719: 1710: 1701: 1692: 1690: 1680: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1657:(6): 553–60. 1656: 1652: 1645: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1586: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1551: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1518:(5): 322–31. 1517: 1513: 1509: 1502: 1498: 1487: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1449: 1448:Rhabdoviruses 1445: 1441: 1437: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1425:Coronaviruses 1422: 1418: 1415: 1411: 1410:dsRNA viruses 1407: 1404: 1400: 1399:ssDNA viruses 1396: 1393: 1389: 1388:Herpesviruses 1385: 1381: 1380:dsDNA viruses 1377: 1376: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1250: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1207: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1189: 1187: 1183: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1146: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1094:phylogenetics 1091: 1085: 1078: 1068: 1065: 1056: 1053: 1046:Recombination 1043: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1019: 1017: 1016:RNA silencing 1013: 1009: 999: 997: 996:phage display 993: 983: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 959: 949: 947: 943: 939: 935: 925: 923: 919: 912: 902: 900: 896: 892: 891:coomasie blue 888: 884: 880: 872: 867: 858: 856: 852: 848: 843: 841: 837: 833: 829: 820: 813: 808: 799: 797: 787: 785: 778: 768: 761: 757: 753: 745: 740: 736: 734: 730: 722: 712: 703: 700: 694: 684: 682: 678: 674: 663: 660: 656: 645: 642: 639:was invented 638: 633: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 610: 606: 596: 594: 589: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 558: 554: 552: 547: 546:cell cultures 532: 528: 526: 522: 518: 514: 509: 506: 501: 498: 489: 480: 478: 469: 460: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 397: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 357: 355: 354:polio vaccine 351: 347: 343: 339: 338:Thomas Weller 335: 331: 327: 322: 320: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 294: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 259: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 236: 230: 225: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 204:invented the 203: 200: 196: 192: 191:Louis Pasteur 185: 181: 176: 172: 162: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 139: 137: 134:and human or 133: 129: 125: 121: 116: 114: 110: 106: 103: 99: 95: 91: 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Retrieved 5192: 5145: 5141: 5131: 5099:(2): 79–83. 5096: 5092: 5082: 5065: 5061: 5055: 5020: 5016: 5006: 4969: 4965: 4955: 4930: 4926: 4920: 4903: 4899: 4893: 4858: 4854: 4844: 4799: 4793: 4758: 4754: 4744: 4709: 4705: 4695: 4660: 4654: 4619: 4615: 4605: 4570: 4566: 4556: 4515: 4509: 4476: 4472: 4462: 4425: 4421: 4411: 4374: 4370: 4312: 4302: 4285: 4281: 4275: 4240: 4236: 4226: 4183: 4179: 4168: 4133: 4129: 4119: 4110: 4075: 4071: 4061: 4024: 4021:BMC Genomics 4020: 3974: 3970: 3964: 3931: 3927: 3921: 3884: 3880: 3870: 3845: 3841: 3795: 3791: 3781: 3746: 3742: 3732: 3697: 3693: 3683: 3640: 3636: 3626: 3591: 3587: 3577: 3544: 3540: 3534: 3509: 3505: 3495: 3460: 3456: 3446: 3393: 3389: 3379: 3344: 3340: 3330: 3295: 3291: 3281: 3245: 3239: 3204: 3200: 3190: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3104: 3100: 3090: 3053: 3049: 3039: 3006: 3002: 2996: 2964:(2): 150–6. 2961: 2957: 2947: 2930: 2926: 2920: 2906:(1): 13–21. 2903: 2899: 2893: 2858: 2854: 2844: 2801: 2795: 2760: 2754: 2717: 2713: 2699: 2666: 2660: 2648:. 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510: 502: 494: 474: 421:Howard Temin 398: 377:crystallised 358: 323: 295: 260: 239: 233: 226: 189: 140: 117: 94:bacteriology 75: 64:microbiology 51: 50: 29: 6544:Xenobiology 6539:Virophysics 6509:Systematics 6464:Primatology 6409:Ornithology 6349:Ichthyology 6334:Herpetology 6329:Gerontology 6294:Epigenetics 6254:Cryobiology 6144:Agrostology 6134:Aerobiology 6129:Abiogenesis 5860:Biorobotics 5850:Biomimetics 5845:Biomedicine 4906:: 4225–27. 4706:Virus Genes 4622:(1): 9–14. 3643:(1): 4500. 1433:Togaviruses 1269:Subfamily ( 1220:-viricotina 1218:Subphylum ( 1098:André Lwoff 1036:rotaviruses 828:Centrifuges 578:mumps virus 574:fibroblasts 457:hepatitis C 455:discovered 451:'s team at 365:Ernst Ruska 348:, and then 298:infectivity 252:aphthovirus 6590:Categories 6529:Toxicology 6524:Teratology 6469:Proteomics 6454:Physiology 6394:Neontology 6359:Lipidology 6354:Immunology 6324:Geobiology 6284:Embryology 6264:Dendrology 6194:Biophysics 6174:Biogeology 6069:Entomology 5815:Bioeconomy 5787:Stem cells 5740:Embryology 5663:Filtration 5653:Extraction 5572:Bioreactor 4534:1240584737 4428:(2): 178. 4377:(6): 567. 4332:1822/54758 4136:(7): 388. 4027:(1): 421. 3887:(9): 917. 3403:1805.02810 3056:(3): 226. 2802:Zika Virus 2720:(2): 188. 2706:Higgins CM 2439:: 103–10. 2417:2023-01-02 2216:: 129–86. 1493:References 1414:Reoviruses 1392:Poxviruses 1346:synthesis. 1286:Subgenus ( 1252:Suborder ( 1235:Subclass ( 1230:-viricetes 1184:Subrealm ( 777:Viral load 756:antibodies 699:viral load 609:antibodies 425:retrovirus 409:pestivirus 350:Jonas Salk 319:poliovirus 287:penicillin 275:agar plate 157:and other 18:Virologist 6444:Phycology 6429:Pathology 6414:Osteology 6404:Nutrition 6364:Mammalogy 6339:Histology 6062:helminths 6003:pathogens 5658:Fed Batch 5558:and tools 5261:235821748 4933:: 51–55. 4785:220907379 4542:cite book 4479:: 86–90. 4218:213516085 3971:BioEssays 3956:143423942 3569:232023531 3156:(1): 11. 3050:Pathogens 2836:218504421 2549:1431-9276 2315:CiteSeerX 1618:1478-4505 1602:(1): 70. 1563:: 143–7. 1254:-virineae 1213:-viricota 1143:genogroup 1052:stretches 871:rotavirus 812:rotavirus 744:rotavirus 497:electrons 369:Max Knoll 124:virulence 105:infection 98:bacterial 6596:Virology 6558:See also 6534:Virology 6519:Taxonomy 6459:Pomology 6389:Mycology 6319:Genomics 6314:Genetics 6139:Agronomy 6057:protozoa 6040:Mycology 6023:Virology 6016:bacteria 5935:Category 5890:Virology 5792:Telomere 5439:Branches 5350:Virology 5253:34259570 5172:17295196 5115:22286874 5074:34226482 5047:32341570 4998:16105179 4947:13931895 4912:14467544 4885:30039318 4836:25015480 4777:32740831 4736:33528730 4687:24899418 4646:22922205 4597:27211789 4501:21736957 4493:29751021 4454:33504115 4403:31216787 4349:46921731 4341:29853167 4294:16791793 4267:31219641 4210:32365353 4160:32404960 4102:30531947 4053:32571214 3999:41587013 3991:20127703 3948:31043560 3913:32825599 3824:32765569 3798:: 1092. 3773:28315718 3749:: 5–13. 3724:31515967 3675:33627730 3618:28701394 3561:33624268 3526:21474258 3487:15585191 3438:29925033 3371:34369836 3322:27365041 3231:33219449 3182:35300739 3131:32815744 3082:32197545 3031:24960083 3023:22185616 2988:21887208 2912:32342927 2885:32056049 2828:32367358 2787:24899440 2746:35050076 2691:41236532 2683:19653216 2650:25 March 2616:25910204 2567:18793481 2502:19822888 2453:13804200 2378:19781804 2186:10595263 2178:18446425 2134:25741967 2126:18702397 2091:17788438 2048:17756690 1973:15470207 1911:17810781 1828:29223662 1820:26891965 1785:17855060 1671:12758285 1636:33926472 1577:25462446 1542:22408703 1358:system. 1271:-virinae 1264:-viridae 1247:-virales 1203:-virites 1106:Linnaean 1040:serotype 1012:genetics 1002:Genetics 976:plasmids 855:Dead Sea 614:serology 605:antigens 599:Serology 477:antigens 314:vaccinia 155:bacteria 151:proteins 82:pathogen 52:Virology 6601:Viruses 6549:Zoology 6279:Ecology 6149:Anatomy 6028:viruses 5947:Commons 5830:Biology 5723:Cloning 5501:Protein 5496:Plasmid 5404:History 5244:8483701 5199:4 April 5163:7169062 5123:5642060 5038:7186216 4989:1208960 4876:6096723 4827:7152233 4727:7851324 4637:3566024 4588:5119462 4445:7912188 4422:Viruses 4394:6630733 4371:Viruses 4258:6635841 4188:Bibcode 4151:7220607 4093:7097006 4044:7306937 3904:7552034 3881:Viruses 3862:6290520 3815:7380168 3764:5429390 3715:6742838 3666:7904914 3645:Bibcode 3609:5571246 3478:7110861 3429:6026352 3408:Bibcode 3362:8425446 3313:4986465 3273:7149825 3222:7679240 3173:8930194 3122:7439763 3073:7157745 2979:3163491 2939:1365549 2876:7223162 2737:8777591 2607:4409659 2558:3058946 2529:Bibcode 2493:2772359 2337:2523562 2307:Bibcode 2299:Science 2284:6189183 2264:Bibcode 2256:Science 2240:4348509 2071:Bibcode 2063:Science 2028:Bibcode 2020:Science 1992:Bibcode 1891:Bibcode 1883:Science 1627:8082216 1533:3293486 1294:Species 1192:Kingdom 1130:species 952:Cloning 883:agarose 760:antigen 632:(EIA). 612:called 582:plaques 283:cholera 279:typhoid 165:History 60:viruses 54:is the 6214:Botany 6033:prions 5875:Mining 5808:fields 5467:Allele 5325: 5306: 5287: 5259: 5251: 5241: 5170: 5160: 5121: 5113: 5072: 5045: 5035: 4996: 4986: 4972:: 64. 4945: 4910: 4883: 4873: 4834: 4824: 4814: 4783: 4775: 4734: 4724: 4685: 4675: 4644: 4634: 4595: 4585: 4532: 4522: 4499: 4491: 4452: 4442: 4401: 4391: 4347: 4339: 4292: 4265: 4255: 4216: 4208: 4180:Nature 4158: 4148: 4100: 4090: 4051: 4041: 3997: 3989: 3954: 3946: 3911: 3901: 3860: 3822: 3812: 3771: 3761: 3722: 3712: 3673: 3663: 3616: 3606: 3594:(18). 3567: 3559: 3524: 3485: 3475: 3436: 3426: 3369: 3359: 3320: 3310: 3270: 3260: 3229: 3219: 3180: 3170: 3129: 3119: 3080: 3070: 3029: 3021: 2986: 2976: 2937: 2910: 2883: 2873: 2834: 2826: 2816: 2785: 2775: 2744: 2734: 2714:Plants 2689: 2681: 2614: 2604: 2565: 2555: 2547: 2500: 2490: 2451: 2376: 2335: 2317: 2282: 2238: 2228: 2184: 2176: 2132: 2124: 2089: 2046: 1971: 1934: 1909: 1826: 1818: 1783: 1731: 1669: 1634: 1624: 1616: 1575: 1540: 1530: 1412:(e.g. 1382:(e.g. 1288:-virus 1281:-virus 1260:Family 1209:Phylum 1196:-virae 1179:-viria 1162:, and 1128:, and 1122:family 1110:phylum 938:PHYLIP 433:enzyme 431:, the 340:, and 195:rabies 149:) and 102:fungal 100:nor a 6045:fungi 5899:Lists 5777:Omics 5257:S2CID 5219:(PDF) 5119:S2CID 4781:S2CID 4497:S2CID 4345:S2CID 4214:S2CID 3995:S2CID 3952:S2CID 3565:S2CID 3398:arXiv 3027:S2CID 2832:S2CID 2687:S2CID 2182:S2CID 2130:S2CID 1824:S2CID 1464:VII: 1408:III: 1372:sense 1277:Genus 1243:Order 1226:Class 1186:-vira 1175:Realm 1126:genus 1118:order 1114:class 1008:genes 310:lymph 240:virus 218:toxin 71:cells 5992:and 5628:CSTR 5597:HPLC 5491:Gene 5472:Cell 5323:ISBN 5304:ISBN 5285:ISBN 5249:PMID 5201:2022 5168:PMID 5111:PMID 5070:PMID 5043:PMID 4994:PMID 4943:PMID 4908:PMID 4881:PMID 4832:PMID 4812:ISBN 4773:PMID 4732:PMID 4683:PMID 4673:ISBN 4642:PMID 4593:PMID 4548:link 4530:OCLC 4520:ISBN 4489:PMID 4450:PMID 4399:PMID 4337:PMID 4290:PMID 4263:PMID 4206:PMID 4156:PMID 4098:PMID 4049:PMID 3987:PMID 3944:PMID 3932:2019 3909:PMID 3858:PMID 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