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678:, as well as explicit explanations of words and/or events in the story. This may be done using illustrations in the book to guide explanation and provide a visual reference or comparisons, usually to prior knowledge and past experiences. Interactions between the adult and the child often include the child's repetition of the new word back to the adult. When a child begins to learn to read, their print vocabulary and oral vocabulary tend to be the same, as children use their vocabulary knowledge to match verbal forms of words with written forms. These two forms of vocabulary are usually equal up until grade 3. Because written language is much more diverse than spoken language, print vocabulary begins to expand beyond oral vocabulary. By age 10, children's vocabulary development through reading moves away from learning concrete words to learning abstract words.
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from the onset of word learning, but do not explain how children develop into expert speakers who are not limited by constraints. Additionally, some argue that domain-general perspectives do not fully address the question of how children sort through numerous potential referents in order to correctly sort out meaning. Lastly, social pragmatic theories claim that social encounters guide word learning. Although these theories describe how children become more advanced word learners, they seem to tell us little about children's capacities at the start of word learning. According to its proponents, the emergentist coalition model incorporates constraints/principles, but argues for the development and change in these principles over time, while simultaneously taking into consideration social aspects of word learning alongside other cues, such as salience.
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either explicitly, when a new word is defined using old words, or implicitly, when the word is set in the context of old words so that the meaning of the new word is constrained. When children reach school-age, context and implicit learning are the most common ways in which their vocabularies continue to develop. By this time, children learn new vocabulary mostly through conversation and reading. Throughout schooling and adulthood, conversation and reading are the main methods in which vocabulary develops. This growth tends to slow once a person finishes schooling, as they have already acquired the vocabulary used in everyday conversation and reading material and generally are not engaging in activities that require additional vocabulary development.
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whole objects, instead of salient parts of these objects? However, domain-general perspectives do not dismiss the notion of biases. Rather, they suggest biases develop through learning strategies instead of existing as built-in constraints. For instance, the whole object bias could be explained as a strategy that humans use to reason about the world; perhaps we are prone to thinking about our environment in terms of whole objects, and this strategy is not specific to the language domain. Additionally, children may be exposed to cues associated with categorization by shape early in the word learning process, which would draw their attention to shape when presented with novel objects and labels. Ordinary learning could, then, lead to a shape bias.
650:(e.g. "love", "freedom", "success"). This broadens the vocabulary available for children to learn, which helps to account for the increase in word learning evident at school age. By age 5, children tend to have an expressive vocabulary of 2,100–2,200 words. By age 6, they have approximately 2,600 words of expressive vocabulary and 20,000–24,000 words of receptive vocabulary. Some claim that children experience a sudden acceleration in word learning, upwards of 20 words per day, but it tends to be much more gradual than this. From age 6 to 8, the average child in school is learning 6–7 words per day, and from age 8 to 10, approximately 12 words per day.
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focused on what is in their immediate environment. As well, conversational co-presence is likely to occur; the caregiver and child typically talk together about whatever is taking place at their locus of joint attention. Social pragmatic perspectives often present children as covariation detectors, who simply associate the words that they hear with whatever they are attending to in the world at the same time. The co-variation detection model of joint attention seems problematic when we consider that many caregiver utterances do not refer to things that occupy the immediate attentional focus of infants. For instance, caregivers among the
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learning, it may be the case that not all cues are utilized by the infant when they begin the word learning process. While younger children may only be able to detect a limited number of cues, older, more experienced word learners may be able to make use of a range of cues. For instance, young children seem to focus primarily on perceptual salience, but older children attend to the gaze of caregivers and use the focus of caregivers to direct their word mapping. Therefore, this model argues that principles or cues may be present from the onset of word learning, but the use of a wide range of cues develops over time.
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words are related to each other through connections, such as "is a part of", "is a kind of", "belongs to", or "is used for". These pragmatic directions provide children with essential information about language, allowing them to make inferences about possible meanings for unfamiliar words. This is also called inclusion. When children are provided with two words related by inclusion, they hold on to that information. When children hear an adult say an incorrect word, and then repair their mistake by stating the correct word, children take into account the repair when assigning meanings to the two words.
438:. According to conventionality, infants believe that for a particular meaning that they wish to convey, there is a term that everyone in the community would expect to be used. According to contrast, infants act according to the notion that differences in form mark differences in meaning. Children's attention to conventionality and contrast is demonstrated in their language use, even before the age of 2 years; they direct their early words towards adult targets, repair mispronunciations quickly if possible, ask for words to relate to the world around them, and maintain contrast in their own word use.
100:, such as "no" and "dada". By 12 to 18 months of age, children's vocabularies often contain words such as "kitty", "bottle", "doll", "car" and "eye". Children's understanding of names for objects and people usually precedes their understanding of words that describe actions and relationships. "One" and "two" are the first number words that children learn between the ages of one and two. Infants must be able to hear and play with sounds in their environment, and to break up various phonetic units to discover words and their related meanings.
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more clearly. They often challenge children to improve their communication skills, therefore preparing them to communicate with strangers about unfamiliar topics. Fathers have more breakdowns when communicating with infants, and spend less time focused on the same objects or actions as infants. Siblings are more directive and less responsive to infants, which motivates infants to participate in conversations with their older siblings. There are limitations to studies that focus on the influences of fathers and siblings, as most research is
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an
English-speaking tradition, "please" and "thank you" are taught to children at a very early age, so they are very familiar to the child by school-age. For example, if a group of people is eating a meal with the child present and one person says, "give me the bread" and another responds with, "that was rude. What do you say?", and the person responds with "please", the child may not know the meaning of "rude", but can infer its meaning through social context and understanding the necessity of saying "please".
229:. This suggests that there is a vocabulary spurt between the time that the child's first word appears, and when the child is able to form more than two words, and eventually, sentences. However, there have been arguments as to whether or not there is a spurt in acquisition of words. In one study of 38 children, only five of the children had an inflection point in their rate of word acquisition as opposed to a quadratic growth.
569:. Caregivers find many ways to help infants interact and respond. As children advance and participate more actively in interactions, caregivers adapt their interactions accordingly. Caregivers also prompt children to produce correct pragmatic behaviours. They provide input about what children are expected to say, how to speak, when they should speak, and how they can stay on topic. Caregivers may
252:. This is likely due to fine motor control not having fully developed yet. The sign's movement is also often proximalized: the child will articulate the sign with a body part that is closer to the torso. For example, a sign that requires bending the elbow might be produced by using the shoulder instead. This simplification is systematic in that these errors are not random, but predictable.
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exposed. Among six-month-old infants, seen articulations (i.e. the mouth movements they observe others make while talking) actually enhance their ability to discriminate sounds, and may also contribute to infants' ability to learn phonemic boundaries. Infants' phonological register is completed between the ages of 18 months and 7 years.
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school-age children, especially when learning rare or infrequently used words. Physical context may include props such as in toy play. When engaging in play with an adult, a child's vocabulary is developed through discussion of the toys, such as naming the object (e.g. "dinosaur") or labeling it with the use of a rare word (e.g.,
612:, which is also common across many genetically unrelated East Asian languages. In Cantonese, classifiers are obligatory and specific in more situations than in Mandarin. This accounts for the research found on Mandarin-speaking children outperforming Cantonese-speaking children in relation to the size of their vocabulary.
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support is the most obvious method of vocabulary development in school-age children. It involves giving direct verbal information of the meaning of a word. By the time children are in school, they are active participants in conversation, so they are very capable and willing to ask questions when they
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is often called upon in conversation, so it is a useful context for children to learn words. Recalling past experiences allows the child to call upon their own visual, tactical, oral, and/or auditory references. For example, if a child once went to a zoo and saw an elephant, but did not know the word
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learners. This early noun bias in
English learners is caused by the culturally reinforced tendency for English speaking caregivers to engage in a significant amount of ostensive labelling as well as noun-friendly activities such as picture book reading. Adult speech provides children with grammatical
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In word learning, the mapping problem refers to the question of how infants attach the forms of language to the things that they experience in the world. There are infinite objects, concepts, and actions in the world that words could be mapped onto. Many theories have been proposed to account for the
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is an important aspect of vocabulary development in infants, since it appears to help practice producing speech sounds. Babbling begins between five and seven months of age. At this stage, babies start to play with sounds that are not used to express their emotional or physical states, such as sounds
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At each stage mentioned above, children play with sounds and learn methods to help them learn words. There is a relationship between children's prelinguistic phonetic skills and their lexical progress at age two: failure to develop the required phonetic skills in their prelinguistic period results in
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encodes, maintains and manipulates speech-based information that a person encounters. This information is then stored in the phonological memory, a part of short-term memory. Research shows that children's capacities in the area of phonological memory are linked to vocabulary knowledge when children
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involves pointing out social norms and violations of these norms. This form of context is most commonly found in conversation, as opposed to reading or other word learning environments. A child's understanding of social norms can help them to infer the meaning of words that occur in conversation. In
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are more frequently used as children get older. When giving and responding to feedback, preschoolers are inconsistent, but around the age of six, children can mark corrections with phrases and head nods to indicate their continued attention. As children continue to age they provide more constructive
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develop as they grow older. Communication skills aid in word learning. Infants learn to take turns while communicating with adults. While preschoolers lack precise timing and rely on obvious speaker cues, older children are more precise in their timing and take fewer long pauses. Children get better
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process, some theorists argue that infants also play an important role in their own word learning, actively avoiding mapping errors. When infants are in situations where their own attentional focus differs from that of a speaker, they seek out information about the speaker's focus, and then use that
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Pragmatic directions provide children with additional information about the speaker's intended meaning. Children's learning of new word meanings is guided by the pragmatic directions that adults offer, such as explicit links to word meanings. Adults present young children with information about how
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Family members contribute to pragmatic development in different ways. Fathers often act as secondary caregivers, and may know the child less intimately. Older siblings may lack the capacity to acknowledge the child's needs. As a result, both fathers and siblings may pressure children to communicate
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Both linguistic and socio-cultural factors affect the rate at which vocabulary develops. Children must learn to use their words appropriately and strategically in social situations. They have flexible and powerful social-cognitive skills that allow them to understand the communicative intentions of
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Supporters of the emergentist coalition model argue that, as a hybrid, this model moves towards a more holistic explanation of word learning that is not captured by models with a singular focus. For instance, constraints theories typically argue that constraints/principles are available to children
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reflects the belief that speakers use words to refer to categories that are internally consistent. Labels to pick out coherent categories of objects, rather than those objects and the things that are related to them. For example, children assume that the word "dog" refers to the category of "dogs",
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Vocabulary development during the school years builds upon what the child already knows, and the child uses this knowledge to broaden their vocabulary. Once children have gained a level of vocabulary knowledge, new words are learned through explanations using familiar, or "old" words. This is done
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help expose children to multi-party conversations. This allows children to hear a greater variety of speech, and to observe different conversational roles. Peers may be uncooperative conversation partners, which pressures the children to communicate more effectively. Speaking to peers is different
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in which the infant is embedded. According to this approach, environmental input removes the ambiguity of the word learning situation. Cues such as the caregiver's gaze, body language, gesture, and smile help infants to understand the meanings of words. Social pragmatic theories stress the role of
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Domain-general views have been criticized for not fully explaining how children manage to avoid mapping errors when there are numerous possible referents to which objects, actions, or events might point. For instance, if biases are not present from birth, why do infants assume that labels refer to
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Throughout their school years, children continue to build their vocabulary. In particular, children begin to learn abstract words. Beginning around age 3–5, word learning takes place both in conversation and through reading. Word learning often involves physical context, builds on prior knowledge,
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is an important mechanism through which children learn to map words-to-world, and vice versa. Adults commonly make an attempt to establish joint attention with a child before they convey something to the child. Joint attention is often accompanied by physical co-presence, since children are often
217:. Young toddlers acquire one to three words per month. A vocabulary spurt often occurs over time as the number of words learned accelerates. It is believed that most children add about 10 to 20 new words a week. Between the ages of 18 and 24 months, children learn how to combine two words such as
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As children get older their rate of vocabulary growth increases. Children probably understand their first 50 words before they produce them. By the age of eighteen months, children typically attain a vocabulary of 50 words in production, and between two and three times greater in comprehension. A
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Infants begin to understand words such as "Mommy", "Daddy", "hands" and "feet" when they are approximately 6 months old. Initially, these words refer to their own mother or father or hands or feet. Infants begin to produce their first words when they are approximately one year old. Infants' first
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is the process of learning a new concept upon a single exposure and is used in word learning not only by infants and toddlers, but by preschool children and adults as well. This principle is very useful for word learning in conversational settings, as words tend not to be explained explicitly in
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Critics argue that theories of constraints focus on how children learn nouns, but ignore other aspects of their word learning. Although constraints are useful in explaining how children limit possible meanings when learning novel words, the same constraints would eventually need to be overridden
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is a process by which people acquire words. Babbling shifts towards meaningful speech as infants grow and produce their first words around the age of one year. In early word learning, infants build their vocabulary slowly. By the age of 18 months, infants can typically produce about 50 words and
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coalition model suggests that children make use of multiple cues to successfully attach a novel label to a novel object. The word learning situation may offer an infant combinations of social, perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic cues. While a range of cues are available from the start of word
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Hirsh-Pasek, K.; Golinkoff, R. M.; Hollich, G. (2000). "An emergentist coalition model for word learning: Mapping words to objects is a product of the interaction of multiple cues". In
Golinkoff, R. M.; Hirsh-Pasek, K.; Bloom, L.; Smith, L. B.; Woodward, A. L.; Akhtar, N.; Hollich, G. (eds.).
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during infancy. Infants' perception of speech is distinct. Between six and ten months of age, infants can discriminate sounds used in the languages of the world. By 10 to 12 months, infants can no longer discriminate between speech sounds that are not used in the language(s) to which they are
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Physical context involves the presence of an object or action that is also the topic of conversation. With the use of physical context, the child is exposed to both the words and a visual reference of the word. This is frequently used with infants and toddlers, but can be very beneficial for
192:. Babies begin to babble in real syllables such as "ba-ba-ba, neh-neh-neh, and dee-dee-dee," between the ages of seven and eight months; this is known as canonical babbling. Jargon babbling includes strings of such sounds; this type of babbling uses intonation but doesn't convey meaning. The
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and other family members use language to teach children how to act in society. In their interactions with peers, children have the opportunity to learn about unique conversational roles. Through pragmatic directions, adults often offer children cues for understanding the meaning of words.
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argue for biases or default assumptions that guide the infant through the word learning process. Constraints are outside of the infant's control and are believed to help the infant limit their hypotheses about the meaning of words that they encounter daily. Constraints can be considered
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accounts, which stress the role of caregivers in guiding infants through the word learning process. According to some research, however, children are active participants in their own word learning, although caregivers may still play an important role in this process. Recently, an
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increases, phonological representations have to become more precise to determine the differences between similar sound words (i.e. "calm", "come"). In this theory, the specific order or sequence of phonological events is used to learn new words, rather than phonology as a whole.
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at initiating and sustaining coherent conversations as they age. Toddlers and preschoolers use strategies such as repeating and recasting their partners' utterances to keep the conversation going. Older children add new relevant information to conversations. Connectives such as
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children's delay in producing words. Environmental influences may affect children's phonological development, such as hearing loss as a result of ear infections. Deaf infants and children with hearing problems due to infections are usually delayed in the beginning of vocal
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coalition model has also been proposed to suggest that word learning cannot be fully attributed to a single factor. Instead, a variety of cues, including salient and social cues, may be utilized by infants at different points in their vocabulary development.
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has been considered to be one of the most critical properties for identifying members of an object category. Infants assume that objects that have the same shape also share a name. Shape plays an important role in both appropriate and inappropriate
259:. Children start fingerspelling as early as the age of 2. However, they are not aware of the association between fingerspelling and alphabet. It is not until the age of 4 that they realize that fingerspelling consists of a fixed sequence of units.
382:, the rapid learning that children display after a single exposure to new information, is not specific to word learning. Children can also successfully fast map when exposed to a novel fact, remembering both words and facts after a time delay.
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such as "car", "bottle", "dog", "cat". By age 3, children are likely able to learn these concrete words without the need for a visual reference, so word learning tends to accelerate around this age. Once children reach school-age, they learn
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is the belief that labels refer to whole objects instead of parts or properties of those objects. Children are believed to hold this assumption because they typically label whole objects first, and parts of properties of objects later in
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is considered to be a key element of vocabulary development in school-age children. Before children are able to read on their own, children can learn from others reading to them. Learning vocabulary from these experiences includes using
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seem to use the same production strategies for talking about actions. Sometimes children use a highly specific verb instead of a general purpose verb. In both cases children stretch their resources to communicate what they want to say.
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because they are not utilized in adult language. For instance, adult speakers often use several terms, each term meaning something slightly different, when referring to one entity, such as a family pet. This practice would violate the
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views of vocabulary development argue that children do not need principles or constraints in order to successfully develop word-world mappings. Instead, word learning can be accounted for through general learning mechanisms such as
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Generally, both conversation and reading involve at least one of the four principles of context that are used in word learning and vocabulary development: physical context, prior knowledge, social context and semantic support.
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words are normally used in reference to things that are of importance to them, such as objects, body parts, people, and relevant actions. Also, the first words that infants produce are mostly single-syllabic or repeated single
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to refer to the animal. Calling upon prior knowledge is used not only in conversation, but often in book reading as well to help explain what is happening in a story by relating it back to the child's own experiences.
585:. In reality, there are many variations of family configurations, and context influences parent behaviour more than parent gender does. The majority of research in this field is conducted with mother/child pairs.
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depending on the language that is linked in some way to the word for location. Children's earliest words for actions usually encode both the action and its result. Children use a small number of general purpose
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Bloom, L. (2000). "The intentionality model of word learning: How to learn a word, any word". In
Golinkoff, R. M.; Hirsh-Pasek, K.; Bloom, L.; Smith, L. B.; Woodward, A. L.; Akhtar, N.; Hollich, G. (eds.).
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of words has proven to be beneficial to vocabulary development when children begin school. Once children have developed a vocabulary, they utilize the sounds that they already know to learn new words. The
487:, which is most often pointing, to pick out specific objects. Children also stretch already known or partly known words to cover other objects that appear similar to the original. This can result in word
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from speaking to adults, but children may still correct their peers. Peer interaction provides children with a different experience filled with special humour, disagreements and conversational topics.
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Culture and context in infants' linguistic environment shape their vocabulary development. English learners have been found to map novel labels to objects more reliably than to actions compared to
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perspectives argue that word learning can be accounted for by general cognitive processes, such as learning and memory, which are not specific to language. Yet other theorists have proposed social
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first begin school at age 4–5 years old. As memory capabilities tend to increase with age (between age 4 and adolescence), so does an individual's ability to learn more complex vocabulary.
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and an oral language are generally the same. Deaf babies who are exposed to sign language from birth will start babbling with their hands from 10 to 14 months. Just as in oral languages,
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Smith, L. B. (2000). "Learning how to learn words: An associative crane". In
Golinkoff, R. M.; Hirsh-Pasek, K.; Bloom, L.; Smith, L. B.; Woodward, A. L.; Akhtar, N.; Hollich, G. (eds.).
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From early on, children also assume that language is designed for communication. Infants treat communication as a cooperative process. Specifically, infants observe the principles of
712:, an adult could later help the child recall this event, describing the size and color of the animal, how big its ears were, its trunk, and the sound it made, then using the word
225:. Three-word and four-word combinations appear when most of the child's utterances are two-word productions. In addition, children are able to form conjoined sentences, using
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Gathercole, S. E.; Willis, C. S.; Emslie, H.; Baddeley, A. D. (1992). "Phonological memory and vocabulary development during the early school years: A longitudinal study".
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Chan, C.Y.; Tardif, T.; Chen, J.; Meng, X.; Zhu, Liqi; Meng, Xiangzhi (2011). "English- and
Chinese-learning infants map novel labels to objects and actions differently".
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Sabbagh, M. A.; Baldwin, D. (2005). "Understanding the role of communicative intentions in word learning". In Elain, N.; Hoerl, C.; McCormack, T.; et al. (eds.).
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in context, and then to associate them with the words that are most frequently used in their presence. Additionally, research on word learning suggests that
495:. Misuses of words indirectly provide ways of finding out which meanings children have attached to particular words. When children come into contact with
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Tabors, P. O.; Beals, D. E.; Weizman, Z. O. (2001). "'You know what oxygen is?': Learning new words at home". In
Dickinson, D. K.; Tabor, P. O. (eds.).
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Fagan, M. (June 2009). "Mean length of utterance before words and grammar: Longitudinal trends and developmental implications of infant vocalizations".
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This article is about learning vocabulary during childhood, as part of a first language. For learning vocabulary while learning a second language, see
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the appropriate behaviour, using verbal reinforcement, posing a hypothetical situation, addressing children's comments, or evaluating another person.
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Kamil, M. L.; Hiebert, E. H. (2005). "Teaching and learning vocabulary: Perspectives and persistent issues". In
Hiebert, E. H.; Kamil, M. L. (eds.).
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or "there" for location, or they name both the object located and its location. They can also use a general purpose locative marker, which is a
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in French and
Japanese babies) though most of their sounds are similar. There is a shift from babbling to the use of words as the infant grows.
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information. They learn structure of conversations from early interactions with caregivers. Actions and speech are organized in games, such as
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Memory plays an important role in vocabulary development, however the exact role that it plays is disputed in the literature. Specifically,
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achievement, as children who are pragmatically skilled often function better in school. These children are also generally better liked.
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Children use words differently for objects, spatial relations and actions. Children ages one to three often rely on general purpose
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The learning mechanisms involved in language acquisition are not specific to oral languages. The developmental stages in learning a
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for the first time and ask, "what is that?" and the parent might respond, "that is a minivan. It is a car with extra seats in it".
499:, they talk about the location of one object with respect to another. They name the object located and use a deictic term, such as
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Tardif, T.; Fletcher, P.; Liang, W.; Kaciroti, N. (2009). "Early vocabulary development in
Mandarin (Putonghua) and Cantonese".
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Teinonen, T.; Aslin, R.; Alku, P.; Csibra, G. (2008). "Visual speech contributes to phonetic learning in 6-month-old infants".
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Hoff, E. (2006). "Language Experience and Language Milestones During Early Childhood". In McCartney, K.; Phillips, D. (eds.).
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mappings. Joint attention can be created through infant agency, in an attempt to gather information about a speaker's intent.
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others in a wide variety of interactive situations. Children learn new words in communicative situations. Children rely on
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consists of a syllabic structure and is often reduplicated. The first symbolic sign is produced around the age of 1 year.
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Baldwin, D. (1995). "Understanding the link between joint attention and language". In Moore, C.; Dunham, P. J. (eds.).
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or misuses of words. Word overextension is governed by the perceptual similarities children notice among the different
695:). These sorts of interactions expose the child to words they may not otherwise encounter in day-to-day conversation.
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is the notion that a word symbolizes or stands in for an object, action, or event. Words consistently stand for their
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Studies related to vocabulary development show that children's language competence depends upon their ability to hear
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520:, such as "do" and "make" for a large variety of actions because their resources are limited. Children acquiring a
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Merriman, W. E.; Bowman, L. L.; MacWhinney, B. (1989). "The mutual exclusivity bias in children's word learning".
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Clark, E. V.; Andrew, D.-W., W. (2002). "Pragmatic directions about language use: Offers of words and relations".
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Nippold, M. (2004). "Research on later language development:International perspectives". In Berman, R. A. (ed.).
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patterns produced by infants begin to be distinctive to particular languages during this period (e.g., increased
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Waxman, S. R.; Booth, A. E. (2000). "Principles that are invoked in the acquisition of words, but not facts".
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switch from an early stage of slow vocabulary growth to a later stage of faster growth is referred to as the
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Tincoff, Ruth; Jusczyk, Peter W. (2012). "Six-Month-Olds Comprehend Words That Refer to Parts of the Body".
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use language to help children become competent members of society and culture. From birth, infants receive
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374:, association, and frequency. Children are thought to notice the objects, actions, or events that are most
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accounts of word learning argue for innate constraints that limit infants' hypotheses about word meanings,
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way in which the language learner successfully maps words onto the correct objects, concepts, and actions.
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do not understand a word or concept. For example, a child might see a zebra for the first time and ask,
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the caregiver in talking about objects, actions, or events that the infant is already focused-in upon.
2473:"Serial-order short-term memory predicts vocabulary development: Evidence from a longitudinal study"
414:, a group of indigenous peoples living in New Guinea, rarely provide labels in the context of their
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Tincoff, Ruth; Jusczyk, Peter W. (1999). "Some Beginnings of Word Comprehension in 6-Month-Olds".
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Clark, E. V.; Grossman, J. B. (1998). "Pragmatics directions and children's word learning".
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to build more extensive vocabularies. Some aspects of pragmatic behaviour can predict later
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and how its capacities work with vocabulary development is questioned by many researchers.
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is the assumption that each object in the world can only be referred to by a single label.
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that words carry. The mapping problem asks how infants correctly learn to attach words to
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Barner, D.; Zapf, J.; Lui, T. (2012). "Is two a plural marker in early child language?".
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conversation, but may be referred to frequently throughout the span of a conversation.
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and engaging in conversation with others help school-age children develop vocabulary.
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Evidence-based instruction in reading: A professional development guide to vocabulary
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that is a zebra. It is like a horse with stripes and it is wild so you cannot ride it
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Joint Attention: Communication and Other Minds: Issues in Philosophy and Psychology
2588:
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Nagy, W. E.; Herman, P. A.; Anderson, R. C. (1985). "Learning words from context".
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Young children will simplify complex adult signs, especially those with difficult
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418:. While the covariation detection model emphasizes the caregiver's role in the
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2284:
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Language, cognition, and the brain : insights from sign language research
2220:
2177:
86:
Reading is an important means through which children develop their vocabulary.
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2828:
Pragmatics: Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association
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short-term memory may both play an important role in vocabulary development.
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2014:
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152:: Phonological processes (deformations of target sounds) become systematic
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1977:
Vocabulary acquisition: Synthesis of the research. Technical Report No. 13
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short-term memory may be critical to the development of vocabulary. As
588:
558:
465:
395:
280:
201:
55:
coalition model have been proposed to account for the mapping problem.
48:
2600:
2496:
2429:"From phonetics to phonology: The emergence of first words in Italian"
2069:
Bryant, J. B. (2009). "Pragmatic development". In Bavin, E. L. (ed.).
2032:
Bloom, P.; Markson, L. (1998). "Capacities underlying word learning".
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Below, the most prominent constraints in the literature are detailed:
2488:
2308:
Ganger, J.; Brent, M. R. (2004). "Reexamining the vocabulary spurt".
2091:
2006:
1781:
1222:
769:
737:
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languages have a category of grammatical function word called a noun
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interpretations back to listeners, which helps prompt conversations.
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40:
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In order to build their vocabularies, infants must learn about the
1744:
1742:
1649:
957:
122:
Children's phonological development normally proceeds as follows:
71:
takes place in social context, and includes semantic support. The
1979:. Eugene, OR.: National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
1873:
1858:
1829:
1793:
1688:
785:
750:
484:
398:
theories, also in contrast to the constraints view, focus on the
193:
1754:
1632:
2420:
Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice
2248:. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 190–191.
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Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
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During the first few years of life, children are mastering
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Children in school share an interactive reading experience.
517:
1817:
1712:
1340:
1012:
1010:
1008:
326:, even if referents are not physically present in context.
2159:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 283–300.
2073:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 339–357.
1605:
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1533:
1521:
1494:
900:
898:
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Infants use words to communicate early in life and their
2674:
Becoming a word learner: A debate on lexical acquisition
2541:
2361:
Becoming a word learner: A debate on lexical acquisition
2140:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–66.
2025:
Becoming a word learner: A debate on lexical acquisition
1805:
1673:
1228:
1171:
910:
483:
words such as "here", "that" or "look" accompanied by a
2726:
2514:
Vocabulary development: Super duper handouts number 149
2427:
Keren-Portnoy, T.; Majorano, M.; Vihman, M. M. (2009).
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1975:
Baker, S. K.; Simmons, D. C.; Kameenui, E. J. (1995).
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255:
Signers can represent the alphabet through the use of
2619:
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2107:
Clark, E. V. (1978). "Strategies for communicating".
1581:
1545:
1509:
1461:
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565:
to provide children with information about words and
2676:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 51–80.
2628:
The language instinct: How the mind creates language
2027:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 19–50.
1986:
Joint attention: Its origins and role in development
1974:
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2685:. Baltimore, ML: Paul H. Brookes. pp. 93–110.
2680:
2608:Newton, E.; Padak, N. D.; Rasinski, T. V. (2008).
2578:
2396:
2077:
1950:The linguistics of sign languages: an introduction
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2370:Blackwell Handbook of Early Childhood Development
1473:
1041:
981:
922:
357:not to "dogs with bones", or "dogs chasing cats".
2915:
2422:. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 1–26.
1952:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
1931:Vocabulary Development: A Morphological Analysis
232:
103:
2649:. New York: Clarendon/Oxford University Press.
2470:
1912:
860:
2824:"The social-pragmatic theory of word learning"
2792:
2763:
2644:
1353:
854:
842:
441:
2630:. New York: Morrow and Co. pp. 262–296.
2522:
2206:
1992:
1929:Anglin, Jeremy M.; Miller, George A. (2000).
1823:
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1614:
916:
146:: First words use a limited sound repertoire
2417:
2198:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2031:
1928:
1811:
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1186:
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140:: Reduplicated (canonical) babbling appears
2875:
2516:. Greenville, SC: Super Duper Publications.
2394:
2307:
2163:
1626:
1016:
951:
904:
58:From an early age, infants use language to
2621:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 1–8.
1933:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 131–132, 136.
292:
2866:
2851:"Variable paths to early word production"
2839:
2821:
2655:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245635.001.0001
1467:
1429:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
1417:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
1400:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
1303:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
1217:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
1154:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
1124:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
1103:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
976:Keren-Portnoy, Majorano & Vihman 2009
831:Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff & Hollich 2000
624:
2511:
2157:The Cambridge Handbook of Child Language
2071:The Cambridge Handbook of Child Language
1733:
628:
458:
81:
2616:
2243:
1988:. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA. pp. 131–158.
1983:
1706:
1138:
1035:
615:
549:
361:
2916:
2848:
2625:
2523:McKeown, M. G.; Curtis, M. E. (1987).
2068:
1587:
1575:
1563:
1551:
1539:
1527:
1515:
1503:
1455:
1229:Merriman, Bowman & MacWhinney 1989
999:
939:
423:information to establish correct word-
302:domain-specific (unique to language).
90:
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1947:
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1317:
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1243:
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1047:
987:
2525:The nature of vocabulary acquisition
2395:Hulit, L. M.; Howard, M. R. (2002).
2367:
883:
158:: Phonological inventory completion
732:
685:
207:
13:
2527:. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2471:Leclercq, A.; Majerus, S. (2010).
1644:Baker, Simmons & Kameenui 1995
698:
262:
14:
2950:
1853:Newton, Padak & Rasinski 2008
1749:Newton, Padak & Rasinski 2008
1656:Newton, Padak & Rasinski 2008
720:
134:: Laughter and vocal play appear
32:begin to make word combinations.
2807:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2011.00084.x
2683:Beginning literacy with language
2612:. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
1883:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
1868:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
1841:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
1800:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
1788:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
1776:Nagy, Herman & Anderson 1985
1764:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
1695:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
1668:Tabors, Beals & Weizman 2001
2741:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.05.009
2372:. Blackwell. pp. 233–251.
1921:
745:and the parent might respond,
1:
2890:10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00103-7
2868:10.1016/S0095-4470(19)31321-X
2550:(3–4, Serial No. 220): 1–30.
2046:10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01121-8
809:
233:Development in sign languages
104:Development in oral languages
2403:. Toronto: Allyn and Bacon.
2034:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
7:
1913:Leclercq & Majerus 2010
917:Barner, Zapf & Lui 2012
799:Semantic mapping (literacy)
792:
442:Emergentist coalition model
343:The Whole Object Assumption
169:
10:
2955:
2581:Reading Research Quarterly
2378:10.1002/9780470757703.ch12
2351:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.887
2322:10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.621
2138:The lexicon in acquisition
1354:Sabbagh & Baldwin 2005
855:Tincoff & Jusczyk 2012
843:Tincoff & Jusczyk 1999
173:
107:
20:
2704:10.1017/S0305000908009185
2692:Journal of Child Language
2448:10.1017/S0305000908008933
2436:Journal of Child Language
2285:10.1017/S0305000908009070
2273:Journal of Child Language
2221:10.1017/S0305000997003309
2209:Journal of Child Language
2178:10.1017/s0047404501020152
1824:McKeown & Curtis 1987
1719:McKeown & Curtis 1987
1615:Clark & Grossman 1998
756:
749:. Or a child might see a
390:Social pragmatic theories
299:word-learning constraints
16:Process of learning words
2924:Developmental psychology
2477:Developmental Psychology
2339:Developmental Psychology
2310:Developmental Psychology
2080:Developmental Psychology
1995:Developmental Psychology
1812:Kamil & Hiebert 2005
1683:Anglin & Miller 2000
1187:Bloom & Markson 1998
653:
110:Phonological development
43:. Constraints theories,
2841:10.1075/prag.10.4.01tom
2778:10.1111/1467-9280.00127
2244:Emmorey, Karen (2001).
1627:Clark & Andrew 2002
1017:Ganger & Brent 2004
952:Waxman & Booth 2000
905:Hulit & Howard 2002
293:Theories of constraints
2822:Tomasello, M. (2000).
1898:Gathercole et al. 1992
634:
625:In school-age children
87:
29:Vocabulary development
2766:Psychological Science
2512:Lorraine, S. (2008).
2136:Clark, E. V. (1993).
632:
459:Pragmatic development
85:
2934:Language acquisition
2855:Journal of Phonetics
1948:Baker, Anne (2016).
964:Teinonen et al. 2008
703:Past experiences or
616:Pragmatic directions
550:Pragmatic influences
530:communication skills
362:Domain-general views
2939:Lexis (linguistics)
2849:Vihman, M. (1993).
2626:Pinker, S. (1994).
2166:Language in Society
1790:, pp. 101–103.
1578:, pp. 350–351.
1566:, pp. 348–349.
1542:, pp. 343–345.
1530:, pp. 342–343.
1506:, pp. 352–353.
804:Vocabulary learning
91:Early word learning
23:Vocabulary learning
1670:, pp. 93–110.
1444:Tardif et al. 2009
635:
330:Mutual Exclusivity
308:mutual exclusivity
88:
2929:Child development
2637:978-0-688-12141-9
2534:978-0-89859-548-2
2147:978-0-521-48464-0
2109:Child Development
1940:978-0-631-22443-3
786:lexical knowledge
775:phonological loop
763:short-term memory
705:general knowledge
497:spatial relations
156:18 months–7 years
128:: Cooing appears
73:phonological loop
51:accounts, and an
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2092:10.1037/a0024049
2086:(5): 1459–1471.
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2018:
2007:10.1037/a0025283
1989:
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733:Semantic support
686:Physical context
466:pragmatic skills
215:vocabulary spurt
208:Vocabulary spurt
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699:Prior knowledge
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522:second language
461:
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432:conventionality
407:Joint attention
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273:domain-specific
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263:Mapping problem
243:manual babbling
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5:
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2884:(2): B33–B43.
2873:
2861:(1–2): 61–82.
2846:
2834:(4): 401–413.
2819:
2801:(4): 432–444.
2790:
2772:(2): 172–175.
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2587:(2): 233–253.
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2483:(2): 417–427.
2468:
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2424:
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2386:
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2355:
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2334:
2316:(4): 621–632.
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2279:(3): 495–527.
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2204:
2172:(2): 181–212.
2161:
2152:
2146:
2133:
2115:(4): 953–959.
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2019:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1958:
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1939:
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1887:
1872:
1870:, p. 106.
1857:
1845:
1843:, p. 105.
1828:
1816:
1804:
1802:, p. 101.
1792:
1780:
1768:
1753:
1738:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1697:, p. 103.
1687:
1672:
1660:
1648:
1631:
1619:
1604:
1592:
1590:, p. 351.
1580:
1568:
1556:
1554:, p. 348.
1544:
1532:
1520:
1518:, p. 342.
1508:
1493:
1472:
1468:Tomasello 2000
1460:
1458:, p. 339.
1448:
1433:
1431:, p. 160.
1421:
1419:, p. 159.
1404:
1402:, p. 146.
1392:
1377:
1375:, p. 286.
1358:
1339:
1337:, p. 285.
1322:
1307:
1305:, p. 144.
1292:
1275:
1260:
1248:
1233:
1221:
1219:, p. 139.
1206:
1191:
1170:
1158:
1156:, p. 142.
1143:
1128:
1126:, p. 141.
1107:
1105:, p. 143.
1088:
1086:, p. 284.
1067:
1052:
1040:
1021:
1004:
992:
980:
968:
956:
944:
921:
909:
888:
859:
847:
835:
833:, p. 145.
813:
811:
808:
807:
806:
801:
794:
791:
758:
755:
734:
731:
726:Social context
722:
721:Social context
719:
700:
697:
687:
684:
655:
652:
648:abstract words
643:concrete words
626:
623:
617:
614:
551:
548:
460:
457:
443:
440:
420:meaning-making
400:social context
391:
388:
367:Domain-general
363:
360:
359:
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347:
340:
333:
327:
294:
291:
277:domain-general
264:
261:
257:fingerspelling
234:
231:
209:
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174:Main article:
171:
168:
108:Main article:
105:
102:
92:
89:
47:views, social-
45:domain-general
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2158:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2139:
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2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
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2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
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2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1959:9789027212306
1955:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1914:
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1907:
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1833:
1825:
1820:
1813:
1808:
1801:
1796:
1789:
1784:
1777:
1772:
1766:, p. 97.
1765:
1760:
1758:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1735:
1734:Lorraine 2008
1730:
1728:
1720:
1715:
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1696:
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1684:
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1445:
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1438:
1430:
1425:
1418:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1401:
1396:
1390:, p. 64.
1389:
1384:
1382:
1374:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1336:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1320:, p. 55.
1319:
1314:
1312:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1290:, p. 52.
1289:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1273:, p. 50.
1272:
1267:
1265:
1258:, p. 52.
1257:
1252:
1246:, p. 45.
1245:
1240:
1238:
1230:
1225:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1204:, p. 53.
1203:
1198:
1196:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1168:, p. 20.
1167:
1162:
1155:
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1148:
1140:
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1133:
1125:
1120:
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1104:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1085:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1065:, p. 22.
1064:
1059:
1057:
1049:
1044:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1028:
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805:
802:
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797:
796:
790:
787:
783:
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771:
766:
764:
754:
752:
748:
744:
743:what is that?
739:
730:
727:
718:
715:
711:
706:
696:
694:
683:
679:
677:
672:
668:
665:
661:
660:conversations
651:
649:
644:
639:
631:
622:
613:
611:
607:
603:
598:
593:
590:
586:
584:
583:correlational
580:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
547:
544:
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536:
531:
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523:
519:
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510:
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489:overextension
486:
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467:
456:
452:
449:
439:
437:
433:
428:
426:
421:
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401:
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368:
355:
353:
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269:
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239:sign language
230:
228:
224:
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216:
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199:
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187:
182:
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167:
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101:
99:
84:
80:
78:
74:
68:
65:
61:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
33:
30:
24:
19:
2881:
2877:
2858:
2854:
2831:
2827:
2798:
2794:
2769:
2765:
2732:
2728:
2695:
2691:
2682:
2673:
2646:
2627:
2618:
2609:
2584:
2580:
2547:
2543:
2524:
2513:
2480:
2476:
2439:
2435:
2419:
2399:Born to talk
2398:
2369:
2360:
2342:
2338:
2313:
2309:
2276:
2272:
2245:
2212:
2208:
2194:cite journal
2169:
2165:
2156:
2137:
2112:
2108:
2083:
2079:
2070:
2040:(2): 67–73.
2037:
2033:
2024:
2001:(1): 10–17.
1998:
1994:
1985:
1976:
1949:
1930:
1922:Bibliography
1848:
1826:, p. 8.
1819:
1807:
1795:
1783:
1771:
1721:, p. 7.
1714:
1707:Nippold 2004
1702:
1690:
1663:
1651:
1622:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1559:
1547:
1535:
1523:
1511:
1463:
1451:
1424:
1395:
1251:
1231:, p. 3.
1224:
1161:
1139:Baldwin 1995
1043:
1036:Emmorey 2001
995:
983:
971:
959:
947:
912:
850:
838:
782:Serial-order
780:
767:
760:
746:
742:
736:
724:
713:
709:
702:
692:
689:
680:
669:
664:Fast mapping
658:Exposure to
657:
640:
636:
619:
600:input. Both
594:
587:
575:
553:
542:
538:
534:
527:
509:postposition
500:
488:
478:
474:mathematical
462:
453:
445:
429:
405:
393:
384:
380:fast mapping
365:
349:
346:development.
342:
335:
329:
317:
312:
310:constraint.
304:
297:Theories of
296:
270:
266:
254:
247:
236:
226:
222:
218:
214:
211:
179:
160:
155:
154:
149:
148:
143:
142:
137:
136:
131:
130:
125:
124:
121:
113:
94:
77:serial order
69:
57:
34:
28:
27:
18:
2215:(1): 1–18.
1588:Bryant 2009
1576:Bryant 2009
1564:Bryant 2009
1552:Bryant 2009
1540:Bryant 2009
1528:Bryant 2009
1516:Bryant 2009
1504:Bryant 2009
1456:Bryant 2009
1000:Vihman 1993
940:Pinker 1994
693:stegosaurus
579:descriptive
505:preposition
448:emergentist
339:extensions.
286:emergentist
223:more please
202:nasal stops
60:communicate
53:emergentist
2918:Categories
2497:2268/29034
2255:0585390606
1489:Clark 1978
1388:Clark 1993
1373:Clark 2009
1335:Clark 2009
1318:Smith 2000
1288:Clark 1993
1271:Clark 1993
1256:Smith 2000
1244:Clark 1993
1202:Clark 1993
1166:Bloom 2000
1084:Clark 2009
1063:Bloom 2000
1048:Baker 2016
988:Fagan 2009
810:References
610:classifier
555:Caregivers
354:Assumption
250:handshapes
219:no bye-bye
186:consonants
138:6–9 months
64:Caregivers
2878:Cognition
2786:143425608
2729:Cognition
2186:145266963
1968:932169688
884:Hoff 2006
770:phonology
606:Cantonese
559:pragmatic
493:referents
416:referents
396:pragmatic
352:Taxonomic
324:referents
319:Reference
281:pragmatic
150:18 months
144:12 months
126:6–8 weeks
98:syllables
49:pragmatic
41:referents
2906:17009990
2898:10986366
2815:32693484
2749:18590910
2720:22135359
2712:19435545
2505:20210500
2456:18789180
2330:15238048
2301:41964944
2293:18922207
2264:49570210
2237:40731908
2100:21744954
2062:18751927
2054:21227068
2015:21928879
793:See also
738:Semantic
714:elephant
710:elephant
602:Mandarin
597:Mandarin
563:peekaboo
470:literacy
436:contrast
425:referent
372:salience
198:syllabic
194:phonemes
181:Babbling
176:Babbling
170:Babbling
164:babbling
132:16 weeks
37:meanings
2795:Infancy
2757:3351413
2572:2608077
2564:1166130
2464:3119762
2229:9604566
2129:1128734
751:minivan
676:context
671:Reading
567:phrases
543:because
485:gesture
481:deictic
394:Social
376:salient
2904:
2896:
2813:
2784:
2755:
2747:
2718:
2710:
2661:
2634:
2601:747758
2599:
2570:
2562:
2531:
2503:
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2454:
2407:
2384:
2328:
2299:
2291:
2262:
2252:
2235:
2227:
2184:
2144:
2127:
2098:
2060:
2052:
2013:
1966:
1956:
1937:
757:Memory
541:, and
513:suffix
412:Kaluli
271:While
190:vowels
116:sounds
2902:S2CID
2782:S2CID
2753:S2CID
2716:S2CID
2597:JSTOR
2560:JSTOR
2460:S2CID
2432:(PDF)
2297:S2CID
2233:S2CID
2182:S2CID
2125:JSTOR
2058:S2CID
654:Means
589:Peers
571:model
518:verbs
336:Shape
2894:PMID
2811:PMID
2745:PMID
2708:PMID
2659:ISBN
2632:ISBN
2568:PMID
2529:ISBN
2501:PMID
2452:PMID
2405:ISBN
2382:ISBN
2326:PMID
2289:PMID
2260:OCLC
2250:ISBN
2225:PMID
2200:link
2142:ISBN
2096:PMID
2050:PMID
2011:PMID
1964:OCLC
1954:ISBN
1935:ISBN
768:The
604:and
581:and
535:then
501:here
472:and
446:The
434:and
350:The
221:and
196:and
188:and
75:and
2886:doi
2863:doi
2836:doi
2803:doi
2774:doi
2737:doi
2733:108
2700:doi
2651:doi
2589:doi
2552:doi
2493:hdl
2485:doi
2444:doi
2374:doi
2347:doi
2318:doi
2281:doi
2217:doi
2174:doi
2117:doi
2088:doi
2042:doi
2003:doi
511:or
227:and
184:of
2920::
2900:.
2892:.
2882:77
2880:.
2859:21
2857:.
2853:.
2832:10
2830:.
2826:.
2809:.
2799:17
2797:.
2780:.
2770:10
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2743:.
2731:.
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2595:.
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2548:54
2546:.
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2479:.
2475:.
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2438:.
2434:.
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2341:.
2324:.
2314:40
2312:.
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2287:.
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2275:.
2258:.
2231:.
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2213:25
2211:.
2196:}}
2192:{{
2180:.
2170:31
2168:.
2123:.
2113:49
2111:.
2094:.
2084:47
2082:.
2056:.
2048:.
2036:.
2009:.
1999:48
1997:.
1962:.
1905:^
1890:^
1875:^
1860:^
1831:^
1756:^
1741:^
1726:^
1675:^
1634:^
1607:^
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1475:^
1436:^
1407:^
1380:^
1361:^
1342:^
1325:^
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1278:^
1263:^
1236:^
1209:^
1194:^
1173:^
1146:^
1131:^
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1091:^
1070:^
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1024:^
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862:^
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539:so
537:,
507:,
166:.
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2844:.
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2667:.
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2064:.
2044::
2038:2
2017:.
2005::
1970:.
1943:.
1915:.
1900:.
1814:.
1778:.
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1629:.
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1602:.
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1050:.
1038:.
1019:.
1002:.
990:.
978:.
966:.
954:.
942:.
919:.
907:.
886:.
857:.
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25:.
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