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less dense, either through the presence of other compounds that reverse negative buoyancy, or with the addition of exsolved gas bubbles in the cryomagma that were previously dissolved into it (that makes the cryomagma less dense), or with the presence of a densifying agent in the ice shell. Another is to pressurise the fluid to overcome negative buoyancy and make it reach the surface. When the ice shell above a subsurface ocean thickens, it can pressurise the entire ocean (in cryovolcanism, frozen water or brine is less dense than in liquid form). When a reservoir of liquid partially freezes, the remaining liquid is pressurised in the same way.
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average pressure of the magma and the surrounding rock are equal, the pressure in the dike exceeds that of the enclosing rock at the top of the dike, and the pressure of the rock is greater than that of the dike at its bottom. So the magma thus pushes the crack upwards at its top, but the crack is squeezed closed at its bottom due to an elastic reaction (similar to the bulge next to a person sitting down on a springy sofa). Eventually, the tail gets so narrow it nearly pinches off, and no more new magma will rise into the crack. The crack continues to ascend as an independent pod of magma.
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607:. The cooling of the gas in the ash as it expands chills the magma fragments, often forming tiny glass shards recognisable as portions of the walls of former liquid bubbles. In more fluid magmas the bubble walls may have time to reform into spherical liquid droplets. The final state of the colloids depends strongly on the ratio of liquid to gas. Gas-poor magmas end up cooling into rocks with small cavities, becoming
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in front of the flow, forming a structure called a pillow. A’a lava has a rough, spiny surface made of clasts of lava called clinkers. Block lava is another type of lava, with less jagged fragments than in a’a lava. Pahoehoe lava is by far the most common lava type, both on Earth and probably the other terrestrial planets. It has a smooth surface, with mounds, hollows and folds.
570:. Pressure increases gas solubility, and if a liquid with dissolved gas in it depressurises, the gas will tend to exsolve (or separate) from the liquid. An example of this is what happens when a bottle of carbonated drink is quickly opened: when the seal is opened, pressure decreases and bubbles of carbon dioxide gas appear throughout the liquid.
635:. This occurs when erupted material falls back to the surface. The colloid is somewhat fluidised by the gas, allowing it to spread. Pyroclastic flows can often climb over obstacles, and devastate human life. Pyroclastic flows are a common feature at explosive volcanoes on Earth. Pyroclastic flows have been found on Venus, for example at the
684:. Clathrate hydrates, if exposed to warm temperatures, readily decompose. A 1982 article pointed out the possibility that the production of pressurised gas upon destabilisation of clathrate hydrates making contact with warm rising magma could produce an explosion that breaks through the surface, resulting in explosive cryovolcanism.
338:, the melted material will accumulate into larger quantities. On the other hand, if the angle is greater than about 60 degrees, much more melt must form before it can separate from its parental rock. Studies of rocks on Earth suggest that melt in hot rocks quickly collects into pockets and veins that are much larger than the
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Wieczorek, Mark A.; Jolliff, Bradley L.; Khan, Amir; Pritchard, Matthew E.; Weiss, Benjamin P.; Williams, James G.; Hood, Lon L.; Righter, Kevin; Neal, Clive R.; Shearer, Charles K.; McCallum, I. Stewart; Tompkins, Stephanie; Hawke, B. Ray; Peterson, Chris; Gillis, Jeffrey J.; Bussey, Ben (January 1,
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More fluid lavas have solidified surface textures that volcanologists classify into four types. Pillow lava forms when a trigger, often lava making contact with water, causes a lava flow to cool rapidly. This splinters the surface of the lava, and the magma then collects into sacks that often pile up
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Even impacts can create conditions that allow for enhanced ascent of magma. An impact may remove the top few kilometres of crust, and pressure differences caused by the difference in height between the basin and the height of the surrounding terrain could allow eruption of magma which otherwise would
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Silica-rich magmas cool beneath the surface before they erupt. As they do this, bubbles exsolve from the magma. As the magma nears the surface, the bubbles and thus the magma increase in volume. The resulting pressure eventually breaks through the surface, and the release of pressure causes more gas
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found that energy from tidal heating became focused in these plumes, allowing melting to occur in these shallow depths as the plume spreads laterally (horizontally). The next is a switch from vertical to horizontal propagation of a fluid filled crack. Another mechanism is heating of ice from release
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rock, and as a result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. There are only two planets in the solar system where volcanoes can be easily seen due to their high activity, Earth and Io. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In
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can occur when hot water under pressure is depressurised. Depressurisation reduces the boiling point of the water, so when depressurised the water suddenly boils. Or it may happen when groundwater is suddenly heated, flashing to steam suddenly. When water turns into steam in a phreatic eruption, it
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Europa. It proposed that a fracture propagating upwards would possess a low pressure zone at its tip, allowing volatiles dissolved within the water to exsolve into gas. The elastic nature of the ice shell would likely prevent the fracture reaching the surface, and the crack would instead pinch off,
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magmas, gases remain trapped in the magma even after they have exsolved, forming bubbles inside the magma. These bubbles enlarge as the magma nears the surface due to the dropping pressure, and the magma grows substantially. This fact gives volcanoes erupting such material a tendency to ‘explode’,
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Volcanic eruptions on Earth have been consistently observed to progress from erupting gas rich material to gas depleted material, although an eruption may alternate between erupting gas rich to gas depleted material and vice versa multiple times. This can be explained by the enrichment of magma at
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A volcanic eruption could just be a simple outpouring of material onto the surface of a planet, but they usually involve a complex mixture of solids, liquids and gases which behave in equally complex ways. Some types of explosive eruptions can release energy a quarter that of an equivalent mass of
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If a fracture reaches the surface of an icy body and the column of rising water is exposed to the near-vacuum of the surface of most icy bodies, it will immediately start to boil, because its vapor pressure is much more than the ambient pressure. Not only that, but any volatiles in the water will
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There is yet another possible mechanism for ascent of cryovolcanic melts. If a fracture with water in it reaches an ocean or subsurface fluid reservoir, the water would rise to its level of hydrostatic equilibrium, at about nine-tenths of the way to the surface. Tides which induce compression and
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Unlike silicate volcanism, where melt can rise by its own buoyancy until it reaches the shallow crust, in cryovolcanism, the water (cryomagmas tend to be water based) is denser than the ice above it. One way to allow cryomagma to reach the surface is to make the water buoyant, by making the water
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is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. In 1912–1952, in the
Northern Hemisphere, studies show that within this time, winters were warmer due to no massive eruptions that had taken place. These studies demonstrate how these eruptions can
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is formed when fluids and gases under pressure erupt to the surface, bringing mud with them. This pressure can be caused by the weight of overlying sediments over the fluid which pushes down on the fluid, preventing it from escaping, by fluid being trapped in the sediment, migrating from deeper
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is a vertical fluid-filled crack, from a mechanical standpoint it is a water filled crevasse turned upside down. As magma rises into the vertical crack, the low density of the magma compared to the wall rock means that the pressure falls less rapidly than in the surrounding denser rock. If the
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are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar
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happens when solid material from deep beneath the body rises upwards. Pressure decreases as the material rises upwards, and so does the melting point. So, a rock that is solid at a given pressure and temperature can become liquid if the pressure, and thus melting point, decreases even if the
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For a crack in the ice shell to propagate upwards, the fluid in it must have positive buoyancy or external stresses must be strong enough to break through the ice. External stresses could include those from tides or from overpressure due to freezing as explained above.
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Sulfur lavas have a different behaviour to silicate ones. First, sulfur has a low melting point of about 120 degrees
Celsius. Also, after cooling down to about 175 degrees Celsius the lava rapidly loses viscosity, unlike silicate lavas like those found found on Earth.
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into an environment below their freezing point. The processes behind it are different to silicate volcanism because the cryomagma (which is usually water-based) is normally denser than its surroundings, meaning it cannot rise by its own buoyancy.
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Generally, explosive cryovolcanism is driven by exsolution of volatiles that were previously dissolved into the cryomagma, similar to what happens in explosive silicate volcanism as seen on Earth, which is what is mainly covered below.
288:, instead of originating in a uniform subsurface ocean, may instead take place from discrete liquid reservoirs. The first way these can form is a plume of warm ice welling up and then sinking back down, forming a convection current. A
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occurs when the melting point is lowered by the addition of volatiles, for example, water or carbon dioxide. Like decompression melting, it is not caused by an increase in temperature, but rather by a decrease in melting point.
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is, the slower it loses heat. In larger bodies, for example Earth, this heat, known as primordial heat, still makes up much of the body's internal heat, but the Moon, which is smaller than Earth, has lost most of this heat.
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to exsolve, doing so explosively. The gas may expand at hundreds of metres per second, expanding upward and outward. As the eruption progresses, a chain reaction causes the magma to be ejected at higher and higher speeds.
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The occurrence of volcanism is partially due to the fact that melted material tends to be more mobile and less dense than the materials from which they were produced, which can cause it to rise to the surface.
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Robinson, Cordula A.; Thornhill, Gill D.; Parfitt, Elisabeth A. (1995). "Large-scale volcanic activity at Maat Mons: Can this explain fluctuations in atmospheric chemistry observed by
Pioneer Venus?".
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has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core. However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as
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229:, and the Moon, experience some of this heating. The icy bodies of the outer solar system experience much less of this heat because they tend to not be very dense and not have much
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near each other, it cannot be correct and is now discredited, because the lithosphere thickness derived from it is too large for the assumption of a rigid open channel to hold.
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exsolve. The combination of these processes will release droplets and vapor, which can rise up the fracture, creating a plume. This is thought to be partially responsible for
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such as a planet or a moon. It is caused by the presence of a heat source, usually internally generated, inside the body; the heat is generated by various processes, such as
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sediment into other sediment or being made from chemical reactions in the sediment. They often erupt quietly, but sometimes they erupt flammable gases like methane.
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170:. Tidal heating caused by the deformation of a body's shape due to mutual gravitational attraction, which generates heat. Earth experiences tidal heating from the
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of stress through lateral motion of fractures in the ice shell penetrating it from the surface, and even heating from large impacts can create such reservoirs.
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may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface.
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expands at supersonic speeds, up to 1,700 times its original volume. This can be enough to shatter solid rock, and hurl rock fragments hundreds of metres.
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has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the
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solid material in the body or turns material into gas. The mobilized material rises through the body's interior and may break through the solid surface.
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Silicate volcanism occurs where silicate materials are erupted. Silicate lava flows, like those found on Earth, solidify at about 1000 degrees
Celsius.
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The reason the dissolved gas in the magma separates from it when the magma nears the surface is due to the effects of temperature and pressure on gas
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1028:, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the
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the top of a dike by gas which is released when the dike breaches the surface, followed by magma from lower down than did not get enriched with gas.
150:. When large scale melting occurs, the viscosity rapidly falls to 10 Pascal-seconds or even less, increasing the heat transport rate a million-fold.
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Neveu, M.; Desch, S.J.; Shock, E.L.; Glein, C.R. (2015). "Prerequisites for explosive cryovolcanism on dwarf planet-class Kuiper Belt objects".
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346:. Melt, instead of uniformly flowing out of source rock, flows out through rivulets which join to create larger veins. Under the influence of
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have stayed beneath the surface. A 2011 article showed that there would be zones of enhanced magma ascent at the margins of an impact basin.
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from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.
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When material of a planetary body begins to melt, the melting first occurs in small pockets in certain high energy locations, for example
948:, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into
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55:
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This model of volcanic eruption posits that magma rises through a rigid open channel, in the lithosphere and settles at the level of
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Fluid magmas erupt quietly. Any gas that has exsolved from the magma easily escapes even before it reaches the surface. However, in
350:, the melt rises. Diapirs may also form in non-silicate bodies, playing a similar role in moving warm material towards the surface.
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temperature stays constant. However, in the case of water, increasing pressure decreases melting point until a pressure of 0.208
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611:. Gas-rich magmas cool to form rocks with cavities that nearly touch, with an average density less than that of water, forming
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375:. Despite how it explains observations well (which newer models cannot), such as an apparent concordance of the elevation of
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although instead of the pressure increase associated with an explosion, pressure always decreases in a volcanic eruption.
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sounding by the
Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano
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near the summit and on the northern flank. However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.
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This article is about the process that forms volcanoes and igneous rocks. For the 18th century geological theory, see
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17:
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722:, and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a
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A 1988 article proposed a possibility for fractures propagating upwards from the subsurface ocean of
Jupiter's
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enclosing the gas and liquid. The gas would increase buoyancy and could allow the crack to reach the surface.
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The massive explosive eruption was hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped on
Hiroshima.
525:, volcanic eruption, in which liquid material (lava) gently flows from a vent, in this case in south-eastern
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spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.
505:. Viscous lavas form short, stubby glass-rich flows. These usually have a wavy solidified surface texture.
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is the phenomenon where solids, liquids, gases, and their mixtures erupt to the surface of a solid-surface
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619:. These can travel with so much energy that large ones can create craters when they hit the ground.
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in North
America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling
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There are multiple ways to generate the heat needed for volcanism. Volcanism on outer solar system
221:(less than a million years), any traces of it have long since vanished. There are small traces of
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Campbell, B.A.; Morgan, G.A.; Whitten, J.L.; Carter, L.M.; Glaze, L.S.; Campbell, D.B. (2017).
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activity takes place. The source of heat is external (heat from the Sun) rather than internal.
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Mouginis-Mark, Peter J. (October 2016). "Geomorphology and volcanology of Maat Mons, Venus".
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February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.
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870:, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include
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2623:
Volcanology in New Mexico. New Mexico Museum of
Natural History and Science Bulletin
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Bindschadler, D.L. (1995). "Magellan: A new view of Venus' geology and geophysics".
174:, deforming by up to 1 metre (3 feet), but this does not make up a major portion of
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Prerequisites for explosive cryovolcanism on dwarf planet-class Kuiper belt objects
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Fagents, Sarah A.; Lopes, Rosaly M.C.; Quick, Lynnae C.; Gregg, Tracy K.P. (2021).
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Explosive volcanic eruptions triggered by cosmic rays: Volcano as a bubble chamber
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890:. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European
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1999:"Steam-driven volcanic eruptions difficult to predict, still poorly understood"
1873:"Pyroclastic flow deposits on Venus as indicators of renewed magmatic activity"
1756:
1696:
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Xiao, Long; Huang, Jun; Xiao, Zhiyong; Qi, Chao; Qian, Yuqi (August 14, 2023).
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326:, that initially remain isolated from one another, trapped inside rock. If the
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Phenomenon where interior material reaches the surface of an astronomical body
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must have risen to about half its melting point. At this point, the mantle's
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818:, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The
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One mechanism for explosive cryovolcanism is cryomagma making contact with
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Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of
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Cosmic-solar radiation as the cause of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
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956:, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the
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would have significantly heated planetary embryos, but due to its short
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occurs when hot magma makes contact with water, creating an explosion.
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is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of
754:, 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in
615:. Meanwhile, other material can be accelerated with the gas, becoming
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Rampino, M R; Self, S; Stothers, R B (May 1988). "Volcanic
Winters".
1951:
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The violently expanding gas disperses and breaks up magma, forming a
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Not all of these mechanisms, and maybe even none, operate on a given
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147:
143:
31:
2598:. G. J. Hudak, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh. 2001. Archived from
2393:"Exceptionally bright eruption on Io rivals largest in solar system"
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The high initial temperatures of silicate lavas mean that they emit
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2616:"Volcanoes of New Mexico: An Abbreviated Guide For Non-Specialists"
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is reached, after which the melting point increases with pressure.
230:
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Melting behaviours of the candidate materials for planetary models
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interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt
585:
536:
Satellite animation of the initial ash plume and shockwave of the
134:
diagram of Earth showing some settings for volcanism on the planet
1530:
Earle, Steven (September 2015). "3.2 Magma and Magma Formation".
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International Max Planck Research School for Solar System Science
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987:
909:
600:
376:
331:
35:
843:
730:, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the
46:
2110:
2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior".
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1021:
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815:
774:. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by
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612:
2340:"Glacial volcanic and fluvial activity on Mars: latest images"
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2728:
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2108:
1383:. In Rothery, David A.; McBride, Neil; Gilmour, Iain (eds.).
917:
851:
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1387:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–71.
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also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the
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material (radioactive elements concentrate in silicates).
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2465:"Cassini Finds an Atmosphere on Saturn's Moon Enceladus"
2265:
1555:
Evers, Jeannie; Emdash Editing, eds. (19 October 2023).
501:
When magma erupts onto a planet's surface, it is termed
396:
tension in the ice shell may pump the water farther up.
2558:""Super Earth" May Really Be New Planet Type: Super-Io"
2024:"What Are Phreatomagmatic Eruptions and How They Form?"
1720:
195:
asteroid impact that caused the extinction of dinosaurs
2424:"Chapter 44 - Cryovolcanism in the Outer Solar System"
1428:
998:
fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus
1598:
1467:"Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars"
538:
2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai eruption and tsunami.
280:
34:. For the landforms created by these processes, see
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Diagrammatic representation of a plume on Enceladus
209:Another heat source is radiogenic heat, caused by
1834:"Thermodynamics of gas and steam-blast eruptions"
631:and magma can form as a density current called a
309:Some features of volcanism found in Earth's crust
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2329:
1345:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–221.
952:on the frigid surface. This process is known as
292:developed to investigate the effects of this on
2719:
2675:Thermodynamics of gas and steam-blast eruptions
2430:, Amsterdam: Academic Press, pp. 763–776,
1723:"Large-scale cryovolcanic resurfacing on Pluto"
1721:Singer, Kelsi N.; et al. (29 March 2022).
1581:Earle, Steven; Earle, Steven (September 2015).
1231:
710:On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where
586:Physics of a volatile-driven explosive eruption
552:
138:For volcanism to occur, the temperature of the
2655:Volcanic Diversity throughout the Solar System
2428:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition)
963:
2870:
2705:
2300:
2076:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
763:cause changes within the Earth's atmosphere.
342:size, in contrast to the model of rigid melt
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512:
2685:Phreatomagmatic and Related Eruption Styles
1940:"Dangerous water vapor: phreatic eruptions"
1442:Planetary Volcanism Across the Solar System
1381:"Origins of planets and planetary layering"
655:
382:
322:and where different crystals react to form
201:, further heating the planet. The larger a
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2863:
2712:
2698:
2188:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012
2162:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012
2050:Role of Volcanism in Climate and Evolution
1580:
854:, "Mount Olympus"), located on the planet
687:
557:
330:of the melted material allows the melt to
2527:"Hydrocarbon volcano discovered on Titan"
1914:
1904:
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185:, it would have experienced heating from
2421:
2208:"A Lunar Mystery: The Gruithuisen Domes"
1937:
1877:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
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842:
778:which have caused catastrophic famines.
671:
531:
516:
447:
427:
304:
252:
126:
71:of all important aspects of the article.
2562:National Geographic web site daily news
2555:
2046:
1972:"VHP Photo Glossary: Phreatic eruption"
1665:Hudec, Michael R. (December 20, 2022).
1464:
1004:. The ejecta may be composed of water,
866:There are several extinct volcanoes on
858:, is the tallest known mountain in the
794:(the darker patches seen on the Moon),
14:
3013:
2884:
2614:Crumpler, L. S.; Lucas, S. G. (2001).
2556:Jaggard, Victoria (February 5, 2010).
2364:
2113:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
2021:
1996:
1831:
1692:"Cryovolcanism's Song of Ice and Fire"
1496:
1336:
67:Please consider expanding the lead to
2858:
2693:
2495:
1664:
1642:
1640:
1594:
1592:
1548:
1529:
1458:
1424:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
667:
423:
418:
122:
2365:Davies, Ashley Gerard (2007-08-09).
1964:
1931:
1690:Klemetti, Erik (25 September 2023).
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1227:
1225:
740:Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field
642:
622:
193:, which would have dwarfed even the
40:
2399:. November 13, 2002. Archived from
2096:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445
1385:An Introduction to the Solar System
899:
24:
2648:
2436:10.1016/b978-0-12-385938-9.00044-4
1997:Cronin, Shane (December 9, 2019).
1658:
1637:
1589:
366:
300:
247:
25:
3032:
2588:
2426:, in Sigurdsson, Haraldur (ed.),
2053:. Geological Society of America.
2047:Axelrod, Daniel I. (1981-01-01).
1401:
1367:
1289:
1222:
770:obscure the Sun and cool Earth's
473:Cryovolcanism is the eruption of
281:Formation of cryomagma reservoirs
2496:Smith, Yvette (March 15, 2012).
2473:. March 16, 2005. Archived from
1944:Earth Science Knowledge Platform
1557:"Magma's Role in the Rock Cycle"
468:
443:
225:in common minerals, and all the
45:
2549:
2519:
2489:
2457:
2415:
2385:
2358:
2294:
2268:Journal of Geophysical Research
2259:
2224:
2200:
2174:
2148:
2102:
2067:
2040:
2022:Mcnair, B. (January 10, 2024).
2015:
1990:
1825:
1807:
1781:
1714:
1683:
1583:"3.2 Magma and Magma Formation"
1574:
1272:"Volcanoes on Earth and beyond"
1234:"Volcanism in the Solar System"
1169:Prediction of volcanic activity
268:
59:may be too short to adequately
2533:. June 8, 2005. Archived from
2371:. Cambridge University Press.
1523:
1490:
1465:Burnham, Robert (2006-08-16).
1444:. Elsevier. pp. 161–234.
1264:
157:
146:will have dropped to about 10
69:provide an accessible overview
13:
1:
2422:Geissler, Paul (2015-01-01),
1215:
1084:Extraterrestrial liquid water
1038:
700:
490:
197:. This heating could trigger
2596:"Glossary of Volcanic Terms"
2323:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.022
1621:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.03.043
1440:; Fagents, Sarah A. (eds.).
1351:10.1017/CBO9780511977848.006
1238:Science China Earth Sciences
944:, the smallest of Jupiter's
553:Causes of explosive activity
334:crystal faces and run along
320:grain boundary intersections
7:
2721:Types of volcanic eruptions
2566:National Geographic Society
1938:Strehlow, K. (2016-11-22).
1561:National Geographic Society
1343:Planetary Surface Processes
1061:
964:Moons of Saturn and Neptune
10:
3037:
2927:Fractional crystallization
2498:"Enceladus, Saturn's Moon"
1757:10.1038/s41467-022-29056-3
1702:American Geophysical Union
814:has a surface that is 90%
494:
313:
29:
2976:
2919:
2892:
2811:
2793:
2765:
2727:
1667:"What are mud volcanoes?"
1536:. BCcampus Open Education
1512:, University of Göttingen
1258:10.1007/s11430-022-1085-y
936:
513:Gentle/explosive activity
481:
2502:Image of the Day Gallery
1978:. U.S. Geological Survey
1472:Arizona State University
1436:. In Gregg, Tracy K.P.;
1379:Widdowson, Mike (2018).
1069:29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann
1054:in 2009, suggested that
1050:, which was detected by
805:
705:
662:phreatomagmatic eruption
656:Phreatomagmatic eruption
603:of gas and magma called
383:Cryovolcanic melt ascent
353:
240:, and possibly on Mars,
1976:Volcano Hazards Program
1838:Bulletin of Volcanology
1337:Melosh, H. Jay (2011).
838:
781:
688:Water vapor in a vacuum
558:Exsolution of volatiles
456:in Gobustan, Azerbaijan
373:hydrostatic equilibrium
2977:Surface manifestations
2909:Dissolved and exolved
2629:: 5–15. Archived from
1832:Mastin, L. G. (1995).
1648:"Sulphur vs. Silicate"
863:
677:
595:Volcanic ash formation
541:
529:
457:
437:
310:
135:
2812:Other classifications
2537:on September 19, 2007
2397:W.M. Keck Observatory
2344:European Space Agency
2233:Reviews of Geophysics
2134:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3
1794:National Park Service
1727:Nature Communications
1499:"Planetary Volcanism"
1199:Volcanism on the Moon
904:
846:
675:
535:
520:
451:
431:
308:
258:Decompression melting
253:Decompression melting
166:is powered mainly by
130:
2963:Anorogenic magmatism
1897:10.1002/2017JE005299
1139:Intraplate volcanism
1043:A 2010 study of the
974:spacecraft observed
752:core–mantle boundary
732:Pacific Ring of Fire
2994:Geothermal gradient
2893:Components of magma
2572:on February 9, 2010
2346:. February 25, 2005
2315:2016Icar..277..433M
2280:1995JGR...10011755R
2245:1995RvGeo..33S.459B
2126:2006RvMG...60..221W
2088:1988AREPS..16...73R
1889:2017JGRE..122.1580C
1850:1995BVol...57...85M
1821:. 13 February 2024.
1749:2022NatCo..13.1542S
1613:2015Icar..246...48N
1506:Solar System School
1276:Universe Space Tech
1250:2023ScChD..66.2419X
996:probe photographed
978:(ice volcanoes) on
454:Dashgil mud volcano
452:Eruption of mud at
227:terrestrial planets
2989:Geothermal systems
2886:Magmatic processes
2212:Moon: NASA Science
1858:10.1007/BF00301399
1438:Lopes, Rosaly M.C.
1204:Volcanism on Venus
1174:Seafloor spreading
1104:Geology of Mercury
1030:Kuiper Belt Object
990:, and in 2005 the
864:
728:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
682:clathrate hydrates
678:
668:Clathrate hydrates
542:
530:
458:
438:
424:Silicate volcanism
419:Types of volcanism
311:
236:On Neptune's moon
183:planet's formation
176:Earth's total heat
136:
123:Cause of volcanism
3008:
3007:
2852:
2851:
2477:on March 10, 2007
2445:978-0-12-385938-9
2403:on August 6, 2017
2378:978-0-521-85003-2
2288:10.1029/95JE00147
2253:10.1029/95RG00281
2060:978-0-8137-2185-9
1789:"Lava Flow Forms"
1654:. 4 January 2012.
1451:978-0-12-813987-5
1394:978-1-108-43084-5
1360:978-0-521-51418-7
1278:. 27 October 2021
1244:(11): 2419–2440.
1194:Volcanism on Mars
1129:Hydrothermal vent
1079:Bimodal volcanism
831:, in the form of
756:hotspot volcanism
736:East African Rift
649:phreatic eruption
643:Phreatic eruption
623:Pyroclastic flows
223:unstable isotopes
211:radioactive decay
109:radioactive decay
105:astronomical body
101:volcanic activity
86:
85:
18:Volcanic activity
16:(Redirected from
3028:
2905:Igneous minerals
2879:
2872:
2865:
2856:
2855:
2714:
2707:
2700:
2691:
2690:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2635:
2620:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2568:. Archived from
2553:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2336:
2327:
2326:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2182:"Sinuous Rilles"
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2009:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1952:10.2312/eskp.051
1935:
1929:
1928:
1918:
1908:
1883:(7): 1580–1596.
1868:
1862:
1861:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1768:
1742:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1671:The Conversation
1662:
1656:
1655:
1644:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1596:
1587:
1586:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1533:Physical Geology
1527:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1503:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1475:. Archived from
1462:
1456:
1455:
1435:
1426:
1399:
1398:
1376:
1365:
1364:
1334:
1287:
1286:
1284:
1283:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1229:
1109:Geology of Pluto
1099:Geology of Ceres
900:Moons of Jupiter
776:volcanic winters
760:Hawaiian hotspot
633:pyroclastic flow
336:grain boundaries
81:
78:
72:
49:
41:
21:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2972:
2958:Partial melting
2915:
2888:
2883:
2853:
2848:
2807:
2789:
2767:Phreatomagmatic
2761:
2723:
2718:
2651:
2649:Further reading
2639:
2637:
2633:
2618:
2605:
2603:
2594:
2591:
2586:
2585:
2575:
2573:
2554:
2550:
2540:
2538:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2508:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2478:
2463:
2462:
2458:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2420:
2416:
2406:
2404:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2368:Volcanism on Io
2363:
2359:
2349:
2347:
2338:
2337:
2330:
2299:
2295:
2264:
2260:
2239:(S1): 459–467.
2229:
2225:
2216:
2214:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2191:
2189:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2163:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2107:
2103:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2045:
2041:
2032:
2030:
2020:
2016:
2007:
2005:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1979:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1956:
1954:
1936:
1932:
1869:
1865:
1830:
1826:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1799:
1797:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1719:
1715:
1706:
1704:
1688:
1684:
1675:
1673:
1663:
1659:
1646:
1645:
1638:
1597:
1590:
1579:
1575:
1565:
1563:
1553:
1549:
1539:
1537:
1528:
1524:
1515:
1513:
1501:
1497:Markiewicz, W.
1495:
1491:
1482:
1480:
1463:
1459:
1452:
1433:
1431:"Cryovolcanism"
1427:
1402:
1395:
1377:
1368:
1361:
1335:
1290:
1281:
1279:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1230:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1189:Volcanism on Io
1164:Plate tectonics
1119:Glaciovolcanism
1064:
1041:
1018:Cassini–Huygens
1006:liquid nitrogen
993:Cassini–Huygens
966:
939:
907:
902:
841:
808:
784:
758:, of which the
744:Rio Grande rift
724:mid-ocean ridge
712:tectonic plates
708:
703:
690:
670:
658:
645:
625:
597:
588:
560:
555:
515:
499:
493:
484:
471:
446:
436:before cooling.
426:
421:
385:
369:
367:Standpipe model
356:
324:eutectic liquid
316:
303:
301:Ascent of melts
283:
271:
255:
250:
248:Melting methods
213:. The decay of
199:differentiation
160:
125:
117:partially melts
82:
76:
73:
66:
54:This article's
50:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3034:
3024:
3023:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2991:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2944:
2942:Magma mingling
2939:
2934:
2929:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2907:
2902:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2889:
2882:
2881:
2874:
2867:
2859:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2799:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2771:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2717:
2716:
2709:
2702:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2611:
2590:
2589:External links
2587:
2584:
2583:
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2518:
2488:
2456:
2444:
2414:
2384:
2377:
2357:
2328:
2293:
2258:
2223:
2199:
2173:
2147:
2120:(1): 221–364.
2101:
2066:
2059:
2039:
2014:
1989:
1963:
1930:
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1824:
1806:
1780:
1713:
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1636:
1630:2286/R.I.28139
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1086:
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1065:
1063:
1060:
1040:
1037:
965:
962:
946:Galilean moons
938:
935:
926:sulfur dioxide
906:
903:
901:
898:
880:Hecates Tholus
840:
837:
807:
804:
783:
780:
726:, such as the
707:
704:
702:
699:
689:
686:
669:
666:
657:
654:
644:
641:
624:
621:
617:volcanic bombs
609:vesicular lava
596:
593:
587:
584:
559:
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554:
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527:Hawai’i island
514:
511:
495:Main article:
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246:
159:
156:
148:Pascal-seconds
124:
121:
84:
83:
63:the key points
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3:
2:
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2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2636:on 2007-03-21
2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2612:
2602:on 2012-10-06
2601:
2597:
2593:
2592:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2552:
2536:
2532:
2531:New Scientist
2528:
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2308:
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2297:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2274:(E6): 11755.
2273:
2269:
2262:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2213:
2209:
2203:
2187:
2186:Volcano World
2183:
2177:
2161:
2160:Volcano World
2157:
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2139:
2135:
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2056:
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2018:
2004:
2000:
1993:
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2984:Igneous rock
2968:Flux melting
2937:Magma mixing
2932:Assimilation
2900:Liquid phase
2638:. Retrieved
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2028:Geology Base
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1906:10150/625517
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1179:Volcanic arc
1159:Mantle plume
1134:Igneous rock
1042:
1017:
1000:, a moon of
991:
969:
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958:Solar System
940:
908:
893:Mars Express
891:
888:Pavonis Mons
884:Olympus Mons
865:
860:Solar System
848:Olympus Mons
809:
785:
765:
709:
697:ice plumes.
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629:volcanic gas
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115:. This heat
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56:lead section
2752:Strombolian
2541:October 24,
2309:: 433–441.
2192:17 November
2166:12 November
1982:13 November
1733:(1): 1542.
1339:"Volcanism"
1209:Volcanology
1149:Magma ocean
1144:Lava planet
1016:compounds.
1012:, dust, or
810:The planet
772:troposphere
695:Enceladus's
639:volcanoes.
637:Dione Regio
462:mud volcano
344:percolation
158:Heat source
97:volcanicity
2953:Outgassing
2947:Exsolution
2775:Subglacial
2640:2010-04-28
2606:2010-05-07
2451:2024-01-06
2217:2024-01-06
2033:2024-03-17
2008:2024-03-17
1957:2024-03-17
1819:Britannica
1800:2024-03-17
1740:2207.06557
1707:2024-03-17
1676:2024-03-17
1516:2024-03-17
1483:2009-08-29
1282:2024-03-17
1216:References
1039:Exoplanets
872:Arsia Mons
824:Lava flows
720:converging
701:Occurrence
568:solubility
491:Lava types
242:cryogeyser
77:April 2024
3021:Volcanism
3000:Volcanism
2996:anomalies
2920:Processes
2844:Subaerial
2824:Explosive
2785:Surtseyan
2780:Submarine
2757:Vulcanian
2576:March 11,
2142:130734866
1607:: 48–64.
1154:Magmatism
1045:exoplanet
1022:Saturnian
971:Voyager 2
833:ash flows
829:Maat Mons
750:from the
716:diverging
475:volatiles
377:volcanoes
219:half-life
181:During a
144:viscosity
93:vulcanism
89:Volcanism
61:summarize
32:Plutonism
3015:Category
2949:of gases
2819:Effusive
2803:Phreatic
2795:Phreatic
2737:Hawaiian
2729:Magmatic
2350:July 21,
1925:31709132
1775:35351895
1566:17 April
1540:17 March
1094:Gas laws
1089:Fumarole
1062:See also
1048:COROT-7b
930:silicate
912:'s moon
786:Earth's
738:and the
523:effusive
348:buoyancy
231:silicate
2834:Lateral
2747:Plinian
2511:July 4,
2481:July 4,
2311:Bibcode
2276:Bibcode
2241:Bibcode
2122:Bibcode
2084:Bibcode
2003:UPI.com
1916:6839737
1885:Bibcode
1846:Bibcode
1766:8964750
1745:Bibcode
1609:Bibcode
1246:Bibcode
1124:Hotspot
1074:4 Vesta
1052:transit
1014:methane
1010:ammonia
988:Neptune
910:Jupiter
748:diapirs
601:colloid
575:viscous
314:Diapirs
187:impacts
36:Volcano
2839:Limnic
2742:Peléan
2442:
2407:May 2,
2375:
2303:Icarus
2156:"Mare"
2140:
2057:
1923:
1913:
1815:"lava"
1773:
1763:
1601:Icarus
1448:
1391:
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1114:Geyser
1033:Quaoar
1002:Saturn
980:Triton
942:Europa
937:Europa
922:sulfur
886:, and
820:planet
816:basalt
796:rilles
613:pumice
482:Sulfur
294:Europa
238:Triton
140:mantle
2911:gases
2829:Flank
2634:(PDF)
2619:(PDF)
2470:PPARC
2138:S2CID
1735:arXiv
1502:(PDF)
1434:(PDF)
1026:Titan
1024:moon
918:tidal
852:Latin
812:Venus
806:Venus
800:domes
792:maria
706:Earth
354:Dikes
340:grain
290:model
189:from
164:moons
99:, or
2578:2010
2543:2010
2513:2014
2506:NASA
2483:2014
2440:ISBN
2409:2018
2373:ISBN
2352:2024
2194:2023
2168:2023
2055:ISBN
1984:2010
1921:PMID
1771:PMID
1568:2024
1542:2024
1446:ISBN
1389:ISBN
1355:ISBN
984:moon
982:, a
928:and
868:Mars
856:Mars
839:Mars
798:and
788:Moon
782:Moon
742:and
714:are
503:lava
497:Lava
413:body
401:moon
360:dike
203:body
172:Moon
2432:doi
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2092:doi
1948:doi
1911:PMC
1901:hdl
1893:doi
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1761:PMC
1753:doi
1697:Eos
1625:hdl
1617:doi
1605:246
1347:doi
1254:doi
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950:ice
718:or
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332:wet
263:GPa
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