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less dense, either through the presence of other compounds that reverse negative buoyancy, or with the addition of exsolved gas bubbles in the cryomagma that were previously dissolved into it (that makes the cryomagma less dense), or with the presence of a densifying agent in the ice shell. Another is to pressurise the fluid to overcome negative buoyancy and make it reach the surface. When the ice shell above a subsurface ocean thickens, it can pressurise the entire ocean (in cryovolcanism, frozen water or brine is less dense than in liquid form). When a reservoir of liquid partially freezes, the remaining liquid is pressurised in the same way.
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average pressure of the magma and the surrounding rock are equal, the pressure in the dike exceeds that of the enclosing rock at the top of the dike, and the pressure of the rock is greater than that of the dike at its bottom. So the magma thus pushes the crack upwards at its top, but the crack is squeezed closed at its bottom due to an elastic reaction (similar to the bulge next to a person sitting down on a springy sofa). Eventually, the tail gets so narrow it nearly pinches off, and no more new magma will rise into the crack. The crack continues to ascend as an independent pod of magma.
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596:. The cooling of the gas in the ash as it expands chills the magma fragments, often forming tiny glass shards recognisable as portions of the walls of former liquid bubbles. In more fluid magmas the bubble walls may have time to reform into spherical liquid droplets. The final state of the colloids depends strongly on the ratio of liquid to gas. Gas-poor magmas end up cooling into rocks with small cavities, becoming
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in front of the flow, forming a structure called a pillow. A’a lava has a rough, spiny surface made of clasts of lava called clinkers. Block lava is another type of lava, with less jagged fragments than in a’a lava. Pahoehoe lava is by far the most common lava type, both on Earth and probably the other terrestrial planets. It has a smooth surface, with mounds, hollows and folds.
559:. Pressure increases gas solubility, and if a liquid with dissolved gas in it depressurises, the gas will tend to exsolve (or separate) from the liquid. An example of this is what happens when a bottle of carbonated drink is quickly opened: when the seal is opened, pressure decreases and bubbles of carbon dioxide gas appear throughout the liquid.
624:. This occurs when erupted material falls back to the surface. The colloid is somewhat fluidised by the gas, allowing it to spread. Pyroclastic flows can often climb over obstacles, and devastate human life. Pyroclastic flows are a common feature at explosive volcanoes on Earth. Pyroclastic flows have been found on Venus, for example at the
673:. Clathrate hydrates, if exposed to warm temperatures, readily decompose. A 1982 article pointed out the possibility that the production of pressurised gas upon destabilisation of clathrate hydrates making contact with warm rising magma could produce an explosion that breaks through the surface, resulting in explosive cryovolcanism.
327:, the melted material will accumulate into larger quantities. On the other hand, if the angle is greater than about 60 degrees, much more melt must form before it can separate from its parental rock. Studies of rocks on Earth suggest that melt in hot rocks quickly collects into pockets and veins that are much larger than the
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Wieczorek, Mark A.; Jolliff, Bradley L.; Khan, Amir; Pritchard, Matthew E.; Weiss, Benjamin P.; Williams, James G.; Hood, Lon L.; Righter, Kevin; Neal, Clive R.; Shearer, Charles K.; McCallum, I. Stewart; Tompkins, Stephanie; Hawke, B. Ray; Peterson, Chris; Gillis, Jeffrey J.; Bussey, Ben (January 1,
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More fluid lavas have solidified surface textures that volcanologists classify into four types. Pillow lava forms when a trigger, often lava making contact with water, causes a lava flow to cool rapidly. This splinters the surface of the lava, and the magma then collects into sacks that often pile up
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Even impacts can create conditions that allow for enhanced ascent of magma. An impact may remove the top few kilometres of crust, and pressure differences caused by the difference in height between the basin and the height of the surrounding terrain could allow eruption of magma which otherwise would
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Silica-rich magmas cool beneath the surface before they erupt. As they do this, bubbles exsolve from the magma. As the magma nears the surface, the bubbles and thus the magma increase in volume. The resulting pressure eventually breaks through the surface, and the release of pressure causes more gas
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found that energy from tidal heating became focused in these plumes, allowing melting to occur in these shallow depths as the plume spreads laterally (horizontally). The next is a switch from vertical to horizontal propagation of a fluid filled crack. Another mechanism is heating of ice from release
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rock, and as a result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. There are only two planets in the solar system where volcanoes can be easily seen due to their high activity, Earth and Io. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In
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can occur when hot water under pressure is depressurised. Depressurisation reduces the boiling point of the water, so when depressurised the water suddenly boils. Or it may happen when groundwater is suddenly heated, flashing to steam suddenly. When water turns into steam in a phreatic eruption, it
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Europa. It proposed that a fracture propagating upwards would possess a low pressure zone at its tip, allowing volatiles dissolved within the water to exsolve into gas. The elastic nature of the ice shell would likely prevent the fracture reaching the surface, and the crack would instead pinch off,
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magmas, gases remain trapped in the magma even after they have exsolved, forming bubbles inside the magma. These bubbles enlarge as the magma nears the surface due to the dropping pressure, and the magma grows substantially. This fact gives volcanoes erupting such material a tendency to ‘explode’,
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Volcanic eruptions on Earth have been consistently observed to progress from erupting gas rich material to gas depleted material, although an eruption may alternate between erupting gas rich to gas depleted material and vice versa multiple times. This can be explained by the enrichment of magma at
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A volcanic eruption could just be a simple outpouring of material onto the surface of a planet, but they usually involve a complex mixture of solids, liquids and gases which behave in equally complex ways. Some types of explosive eruptions can release energy a quarter that of an equivalent mass of
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If a fracture reaches the surface of an icy body and the column of rising water is exposed to the near-vacuum of the surface of most icy bodies, it will immediately start to boil, because its vapor pressure is much more than the ambient pressure. Not only that, but any volatiles in the water will
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There is yet another possible mechanism for ascent of cryovolcanic melts. If a fracture with water in it reaches an ocean or subsurface fluid reservoir, the water would rise to its level of hydrostatic equilibrium, at about nine-tenths of the way to the surface. Tides which induce compression and
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Unlike silicate volcanism, where melt can rise by its own buoyancy until it reaches the shallow crust, in cryovolcanism, the water (cryomagmas tend to be water based) is denser than the ice above it. One way to allow cryomagma to reach the surface is to make the water buoyant, by making the water
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is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. In 1912–1952, in the
Northern Hemisphere, studies show that within this time, winters were warmer due to no massive eruptions that had taken place. These studies demonstrate how these eruptions can
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is formed when fluids and gases under pressure erupt to the surface, bringing mud with them. This pressure can be caused by the weight of overlying sediments over the fluid which pushes down on the fluid, preventing it from escaping, by fluid being trapped in the sediment, migrating from deeper
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is a vertical fluid-filled crack, from a mechanical standpoint it is a water filled crevasse turned upside down. As magma rises into the vertical crack, the low density of the magma compared to the wall rock means that the pressure falls less rapidly than in the surrounding denser rock. If the
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are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar
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happens when solid material from deep beneath the body rises upwards. Pressure decreases as the material rises upwards, and so does the melting point. So, a rock that is solid at a given pressure and temperature can become liquid if the pressure, and thus melting point, decreases even if the
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For a crack in the ice shell to propagate upwards, the fluid in it must have positive buoyancy or external stresses must be strong enough to break through the ice. External stresses could include those from tides or from overpressure due to freezing as explained above.
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Sulfur lavas have a different behaviour to silicate ones. First, sulfur has a low melting point of about 120 degrees
Celsius. Also, after cooling down to about 175 degrees Celsius the lava rapidly loses viscosity, unlike silicate lavas like those found found on Earth.
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into an environment below their freezing point. The processes behind it are different to silicate volcanism because the cryomagma (which is usually water-based) is normally denser than its surroundings, meaning it cannot rise by its own buoyancy.
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Generally, explosive cryovolcanism is driven by exsolution of volatiles that were previously dissolved into the cryomagma, similar to what happens in explosive silicate volcanism as seen on Earth, which is what is mainly covered below.
277:, instead of originating in a uniform subsurface ocean, may instead take place from discrete liquid reservoirs. The first way these can form is a plume of warm ice welling up and then sinking back down, forming a convection current. A
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occurs when the melting point is lowered by the addition of volatiles, for example, water or carbon dioxide. Like decompression melting, it is not caused by an increase in temperature, but rather by a decrease in melting point.
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is, the slower it loses heat. In larger bodies, for example Earth, this heat, known as primordial heat, still makes up much of the body's internal heat, but the Moon, which is smaller than Earth, has lost most of this heat.
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to exsolve, doing so explosively. The gas may expand at hundreds of metres per second, expanding upward and outward. As the eruption progresses, a chain reaction causes the magma to be ejected at higher and higher speeds.
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The occurrence of volcanism is partially due to the fact that melted material tends to be more mobile and less dense than the materials from which they were produced, which can cause it to rise to the surface.
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Robinson, Cordula A.; Thornhill, Gill D.; Parfitt, Elisabeth A. (1995). "Large-scale volcanic activity at Maat Mons: Can this explain fluctuations in atmospheric chemistry observed by
Pioneer Venus?".
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has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core. However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as
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218:, and the Moon, experience some of this heating. The icy bodies of the outer solar system experience much less of this heat because they tend to not be very dense and not have much
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near each other, it cannot be correct and is now discredited, because the lithosphere thickness derived from it is too large for the assumption of a rigid open channel to hold.
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exsolve. The combination of these processes will release droplets and vapor, which can rise up the fracture, creating a plume. This is thought to be partially responsible for
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such as a planet or a moon. It is caused by the presence of a heat source, usually internally generated, inside the body; the heat is generated by various processes, such as
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sediment into other sediment or being made from chemical reactions in the sediment. They often erupt quietly, but sometimes they erupt flammable gases like methane.
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159:. Tidal heating caused by the deformation of a body's shape due to mutual gravitational attraction, which generates heat. Earth experiences tidal heating from the
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of stress through lateral motion of fractures in the ice shell penetrating it from the surface, and even heating from large impacts can create such reservoirs.
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may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface.
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expands at supersonic speeds, up to 1,700 times its original volume. This can be enough to shatter solid rock, and hurl rock fragments hundreds of metres.
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has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the
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solid material in the body or turns material into gas. The mobilized material rises through the body's interior and may break through the solid surface.
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Silicate volcanism occurs where silicate materials are erupted. Silicate lava flows, like those found on Earth, solidify at about 1000 degrees
Celsius.
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The reason the dissolved gas in the magma separates from it when the magma nears the surface is due to the effects of temperature and pressure on gas
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1017:, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the
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the top of a dike by gas which is released when the dike breaches the surface, followed by magma from lower down than did not get enriched with gas.
139:. When large scale melting occurs, the viscosity rapidly falls to 10 Pascal-seconds or even less, increasing the heat transport rate a million-fold.
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Neveu, M.; Desch, S.J.; Shock, E.L.; Glein, C.R. (2015). "Prerequisites for explosive cryovolcanism on dwarf planet-class Kuiper Belt objects".
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335:. Melt, instead of uniformly flowing out of source rock, flows out through rivulets which join to create larger veins. Under the influence of
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have stayed beneath the surface. A 2011 article showed that there would be zones of enhanced magma ascent at the margins of an impact basin.
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from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.
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When material of a planetary body begins to melt, the melting first occurs in small pockets in certain high energy locations, for example
937:, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into
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44:
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This model of volcanic eruption posits that magma rises through a rigid open channel, in the lithosphere and settles at the level of
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Fluid magmas erupt quietly. Any gas that has exsolved from the magma easily escapes even before it reaches the surface. However, in
339:, the melt rises. Diapirs may also form in non-silicate bodies, playing a similar role in moving warm material towards the surface.
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temperature stays constant. However, in the case of water, increasing pressure decreases melting point until a pressure of 0.208
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600:. Gas-rich magmas cool to form rocks with cavities that nearly touch, with an average density less than that of water, forming
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364:. Despite how it explains observations well (which newer models cannot), such as an apparent concordance of the elevation of
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although instead of the pressure increase associated with an explosion, pressure always decreases in a volcanic eruption.
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sounding by the
Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano
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near the summit and on the northern flank. However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.
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This article is about the process that forms volcanoes and igneous rocks. For the 18th century geological theory, see
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711:, and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a
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A 1988 article proposed a possibility for fractures propagating upwards from the subsurface ocean of
Jupiter's
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enclosing the gas and liquid. The gas would increase buoyancy and could allow the crack to reach the surface.
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The massive explosive eruption was hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped on
Hiroshima.
514:, volcanic eruption, in which liquid material (lava) gently flows from a vent, in this case in south-eastern
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spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.
494:. Viscous lavas form short, stubby glass-rich flows. These usually have a wavy solidified surface texture.
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is the phenomenon where solids, liquids, gases, and their mixtures erupt to the surface of a solid-surface
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608:. These can travel with so much energy that large ones can create craters when they hit the ground.
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in North
America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling
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There are multiple ways to generate the heat needed for volcanism. Volcanism on outer solar system
210:(less than a million years), any traces of it have long since vanished. There are small traces of
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Campbell, B.A.; Morgan, G.A.; Whitten, J.L.; Carter, L.M.; Glaze, L.S.; Campbell, D.B. (2017).
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activity takes place. The source of heat is external (heat from the Sun) rather than internal.
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Mouginis-Mark, Peter J. (October 2016). "Geomorphology and volcanology of Maat Mons, Venus".
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February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.
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859:, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include
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93:
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Volcanology in New Mexico. New Mexico Museum of
Natural History and Science Bulletin
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Bindschadler, D.L. (1995). "Magellan: A new view of Venus' geology and geophysics".
163:, deforming by up to 1 metre (3 feet), but this does not make up a major portion of
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Prerequisites for explosive cryovolcanism on dwarf planet-class Kuiper belt objects
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Fagents, Sarah A.; Lopes, Rosaly M.C.; Quick, Lynnae C.; Gregg, Tracy K.P. (2021).
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Explosive volcanic eruptions triggered by cosmic rays: Volcano as a bubble chamber
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879:. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European
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105:
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1988:"Steam-driven volcanic eruptions difficult to predict, still poorly understood"
1862:"Pyroclastic flow deposits on Venus as indicators of renewed magmatic activity"
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1221:
Xiao, Long; Huang, Jun; Xiao, Zhiyong; Qi, Chao; Qian, Yuqi (August 14, 2023).
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315:, that initially remain isolated from one another, trapped inside rock. If the
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Phenomenon where interior material reaches the surface of an astronomical body
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must have risen to about half its melting point. At this point, the mantle's
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807:, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The
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One mechanism for explosive cryovolcanism is cryomagma making contact with
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Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of
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Cosmic-solar radiation as the cause of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
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945:, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the
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would have significantly heated planetary embryos, but due to its short
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occurs when hot magma makes contact with water, creating an explosion.
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is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of
743:, 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in
604:. Meanwhile, other material can be accelerated with the gas, becoming
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2063:
Rampino, M R; Self, S; Stothers, R B (May 1988). "Volcanic
Winters".
1940:
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The violently expanding gas disperses and breaks up magma, forming a
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Not all of these mechanisms, and maybe even none, operate on a given
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136:
132:
20:
2587:. G. J. Hudak, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh. 2001. Archived from
2382:"Exceptionally bright eruption on Io rivals largest in solar system"
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The high initial temperatures of silicate lavas mean that they emit
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2605:"Volcanoes of New Mexico: An Abbreviated Guide For Non-Specialists"
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is reached, after which the melting point increases with pressure.
219:
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Melting behaviours of the candidate materials for planetary models
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interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt
574:
525:
Satellite animation of the initial ash plume and shockwave of the
123:
diagram of Earth showing some settings for volcanism on the planet
1519:
Earle, Steven (September 2015). "3.2 Magma and Magma Formation".
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International Max Planck Research School for Solar System Science
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1002:
998:
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898:
589:
365:
320:
24:
832:
719:, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the
35:
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2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior".
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808:
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763:. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by
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601:
2329:"Glacial volcanic and fluvial activity on Mars: latest images"
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2717:
2458:
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1372:. In Rothery, David A.; McBride, Neil; Gilmour, Iain (eds.).
906:
840:
800:
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1376:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–71.
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also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the
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material (radioactive elements concentrate in silicates).
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535:
2454:"Cassini Finds an Atmosphere on Saturn's Moon Enceladus"
2254:
1544:
Evers, Jeannie; Emdash Editing, eds. (19 October 2023).
490:
When magma erupts onto a planet's surface, it is termed
385:
tension in the ice shell may pump the water farther up.
2547:""Super Earth" May Really Be New Planet Type: Super-Io"
2013:"What Are Phreatomagmatic Eruptions and How They Form?"
1709:
184:
asteroid impact that caused the extinction of dinosaurs
2413:"Chapter 44 - Cryovolcanism in the Outer Solar System"
1417:
987:
fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus
1587:
1456:"Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars"
527:
2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai eruption and tsunami.
269:
23:. For the landforms created by these processes, see
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2321:
2062:
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1543:
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Diagrammatic representation of a plume on Enceladus
198:Another heat source is radiogenic heat, caused by
1823:"Thermodynamics of gas and steam-blast eruptions"
620:and magma can form as a density current called a
298:Some features of volcanism found in Earth's crust
3001:
2318:
1334:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–221.
941:on the frigid surface. This process is known as
281:developed to investigate the effects of this on
2708:
2664:Thermodynamics of gas and steam-blast eruptions
2419:, Amsterdam: Academic Press, pp. 763–776,
1712:"Large-scale cryovolcanic resurfacing on Pluto"
1710:Singer, Kelsi N.; et al. (29 March 2022).
1570:Earle, Steven; Earle, Steven (September 2015).
1220:
699:On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where
575:Physics of a volatile-driven explosive eruption
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127:For volcanism to occur, the temperature of the
2644:Volcanic Diversity throughout the Solar System
2417:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition)
952:
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2694:
2289:
2065:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
752:cause changes within the Earth's atmosphere.
331:size, in contrast to the model of rigid melt
2219:
501:
2674:Phreatomagmatic and Related Eruption Styles
1929:"Dangerous water vapor: phreatic eruptions"
1431:Planetary Volcanism Across the Solar System
1370:"Origins of planets and planetary layering"
644:
371:
311:and where different crystals react to form
190:, further heating the planet. The larger a
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2701:
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2177:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012
2151:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012
2039:Role of Volcanism in Climate and Evolution
1569:
843:, "Mount Olympus"), located on the planet
676:
546:
319:of the melted material allows the melt to
2516:"Hydrocarbon volcano discovered on Titan"
1903:
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174:, it would have experienced heating from
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2197:"A Lunar Mystery: The Gruithuisen Domes"
1926:
1866:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
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831:
767:which have caused catastrophic famines.
660:
520:
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293:
241:
115:
60:of all important aspects of the article.
2551:National Geographic web site daily news
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2035:
1961:"VHP Photo Glossary: Phreatic eruption"
1654:Hudec, Michael R. (December 20, 2022).
1453:
993:. The ejecta may be composed of water,
855:There are several extinct volcanoes on
847:, is the tallest known mountain in the
783:(the darker patches seen on the Moon),
3002:
2873:
2603:Crumpler, L. S.; Lucas, S. G. (2001).
2545:Jaggard, Victoria (February 5, 2010).
2353:
2102:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
2010:
1985:
1820:
1681:"Cryovolcanism's Song of Ice and Fire"
1485:
1325:
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
2847:
2682:
2484:
1653:
1631:
1629:
1583:
1581:
1537:
1518:
1447:
1413:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
656:
412:
407:
111:
2354:Davies, Ashley Gerard (2007-08-09).
1953:
1920:
1679:Klemetti, Erik (25 September 2023).
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1216:
1214:
729:Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field
631:
611:
182:, which would have dwarfed even the
29:
2388:. November 13, 2002. Archived from
2085:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445
1374:An Introduction to the Solar System
888:
13:
2637:
2425:10.1016/b978-0-12-385938-9.00044-4
1986:Cronin, Shane (December 9, 2019).
1647:
1626:
1578:
355:
289:
236:
14:
3021:
2577:
2415:, in Sigurdsson, Haraldur (ed.),
2042:. Geological Society of America.
2036:Axelrod, Daniel I. (1981-01-01).
1390:
1356:
1278:
1211:
759:obscure the Sun and cool Earth's
462:Cryovolcanism is the eruption of
270:Formation of cryomagma reservoirs
2485:Smith, Yvette (March 15, 2012).
2462:. March 16, 2005. Archived from
1933:Earth Science Knowledge Platform
1546:"Magma's Role in the Rock Cycle"
457:
432:
214:in common minerals, and all the
34:
2538:
2508:
2478:
2446:
2404:
2374:
2347:
2283:
2257:Journal of Geophysical Research
2248:
2213:
2189:
2163:
2137:
2091:
2056:
2029:
2011:Mcnair, B. (January 10, 2024).
2004:
1979:
1814:
1796:
1770:
1703:
1672:
1572:"3.2 Magma and Magma Formation"
1563:
1261:"Volcanoes on Earth and beyond"
1223:"Volcanism in the Solar System"
1158:Prediction of volcanic activity
257:
48:may be too short to adequately
2522:. June 8, 2005. Archived from
2360:. Cambridge University Press.
1512:
1479:
1454:Burnham, Robert (2006-08-16).
1433:. Elsevier. pp. 161–234.
1253:
146:
135:will have dropped to about 10
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
2411:Geissler, Paul (2015-01-01),
1204:
1073:Extraterrestrial liquid water
1027:
689:
479:
186:. This heating could trigger
2585:"Glossary of Volcanic Terms"
2312:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.022
1610:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.03.043
1429:; Fagents, Sarah A. (eds.).
1340:10.1017/CBO9780511977848.006
1227:Science China Earth Sciences
933:, the smallest of Jupiter's
542:Causes of explosive activity
323:crystal faces and run along
309:grain boundary intersections
7:
2710:Types of volcanic eruptions
2555:National Geographic Society
1927:Strehlow, K. (2016-11-22).
1550:National Geographic Society
1332:Planetary Surface Processes
1050:
953:Moons of Saturn and Neptune
10:
3026:
2916:Fractional crystallization
2487:"Enceladus, Saturn's Moon"
1746:10.1038/s41467-022-29056-3
1691:American Geophysical Union
803:has a surface that is 90%
483:
302:
18:
2965:
2908:
2881:
2800:
2782:
2754:
2716:
1656:"What are mud volcanoes?"
1525:. BCcampus Open Education
1501:, University of Göttingen
1247:10.1007/s11430-022-1085-y
925:
502:Gentle/explosive activity
470:
2491:Image of the Day Gallery
1967:. U.S. Geological Survey
1461:Arizona State University
1425:. In Gregg, Tracy K.P.;
1368:Widdowson, Mike (2018).
1058:29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann
1043:in 2009, suggested that
1039:, which was detected by
794:
694:
651:phreatomagmatic eruption
645:Phreatomagmatic eruption
592:of gas and magma called
372:Cryovolcanic melt ascent
342:
229:, and possibly on Mars,
1965:Volcano Hazards Program
1827:Bulletin of Volcanology
1326:Melosh, H. Jay (2011).
827:
770:
677:Water vapor in a vacuum
547:Exsolution of volatiles
445:in Gobustan, Azerbaijan
362:hydrostatic equilibrium
2966:Surface manifestations
2898:Dissolved and exolved
2618:: 5–15. Archived from
1821:Mastin, L. G. (1995).
1637:"Sulphur vs. Silicate"
852:
666:
584:Volcanic ash formation
530:
518:
446:
426:
299:
124:
2801:Other classifications
2526:on September 19, 2007
2386:W.M. Keck Observatory
2333:European Space Agency
2222:Reviews of Geophysics
2123:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3
1783:National Park Service
1716:Nature Communications
1488:"Planetary Volcanism"
1188:Volcanism on the Moon
893:
835:
664:
524:
509:
440:
420:
297:
247:Decompression melting
242:Decompression melting
155:is powered mainly by
119:
2952:Anorogenic magmatism
1886:10.1002/2017JE005299
1128:Intraplate volcanism
1032:A 2010 study of the
963:spacecraft observed
741:core–mantle boundary
721:Pacific Ring of Fire
2983:Geothermal gradient
2882:Components of magma
2561:on February 9, 2010
2335:. February 25, 2005
2304:2016Icar..277..433M
2269:1995JGR...10011755R
2234:1995RvGeo..33S.459B
2115:2006RvMG...60..221W
2077:1988AREPS..16...73R
1878:2017JGRE..122.1580C
1839:1995BVol...57...85M
1810:. 13 February 2024.
1738:2022NatCo..13.1542S
1602:2015Icar..246...48N
1495:Solar System School
1265:Universe Space Tech
1239:2023ScChD..66.2419X
985:probe photographed
967:(ice volcanoes) on
443:Dashgil mud volcano
441:Eruption of mud at
216:terrestrial planets
2978:Geothermal systems
2875:Magmatic processes
2201:Moon: NASA Science
1847:10.1007/BF00301399
1427:Lopes, Rosaly M.C.
1193:Volcanism on Venus
1163:Seafloor spreading
1093:Geology of Mercury
1019:Kuiper Belt Object
979:, and in 2005 the
853:
717:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
671:clathrate hydrates
667:
657:Clathrate hydrates
531:
519:
447:
427:
413:Silicate volcanism
408:Types of volcanism
300:
225:On Neptune's moon
172:planet's formation
165:Earth's total heat
125:
112:Cause of volcanism
2997:
2996:
2841:
2840:
2466:on March 10, 2007
2434:978-0-12-385938-9
2392:on August 6, 2017
2367:978-0-521-85003-2
2277:10.1029/95JE00147
2242:10.1029/95RG00281
2049:978-0-8137-2185-9
1778:"Lava Flow Forms"
1643:. 4 January 2012.
1440:978-0-12-813987-5
1383:978-1-108-43084-5
1349:978-0-521-51418-7
1267:. 27 October 2021
1233:(11): 2419–2440.
1183:Volcanism on Mars
1118:Hydrothermal vent
1068:Bimodal volcanism
820:, in the form of
745:hotspot volcanism
725:East African Rift
638:phreatic eruption
632:Phreatic eruption
612:Pyroclastic flows
212:unstable isotopes
200:radioactive decay
98:radioactive decay
94:astronomical body
90:volcanic activity
75:
74:
3017:
2894:Igneous minerals
2868:
2861:
2854:
2845:
2844:
2703:
2696:
2689:
2680:
2679:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2624:
2609:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2557:. Archived from
2542:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2325:
2316:
2315:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2171:"Sinuous Rilles"
2167:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1941:10.2312/eskp.051
1924:
1918:
1917:
1907:
1897:
1872:(7): 1580–1596.
1857:
1851:
1850:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1757:
1731:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1660:The Conversation
1651:
1645:
1644:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1585:
1576:
1575:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1522:Physical Geology
1516:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1506:
1492:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1464:. Archived from
1451:
1445:
1444:
1424:
1415:
1388:
1387:
1365:
1354:
1353:
1323:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1218:
1098:Geology of Pluto
1088:Geology of Ceres
889:Moons of Jupiter
765:volcanic winters
749:Hawaiian hotspot
622:pyroclastic flow
325:grain boundaries
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3014:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2961:
2947:Partial melting
2904:
2877:
2872:
2842:
2837:
2796:
2778:
2756:Phreatomagmatic
2750:
2712:
2707:
2640:
2638:Further reading
2628:
2626:
2622:
2607:
2594:
2592:
2583:
2580:
2575:
2574:
2564:
2562:
2543:
2539:
2529:
2527:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2499:
2497:
2483:
2479:
2469:
2467:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2409:
2405:
2395:
2393:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2357:Volcanism on Io
2352:
2348:
2338:
2336:
2327:
2326:
2319:
2288:
2284:
2253:
2249:
2228:(S1): 459–467.
2218:
2214:
2205:
2203:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2180:
2178:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2154:
2152:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2096:
2092:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2034:
2030:
2021:
2019:
2009:
2005:
1996:
1994:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1968:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1945:
1943:
1925:
1921:
1858:
1854:
1819:
1815:
1802:
1801:
1797:
1788:
1786:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1708:
1704:
1695:
1693:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1662:
1652:
1648:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1586:
1579:
1568:
1564:
1554:
1552:
1542:
1538:
1528:
1526:
1517:
1513:
1504:
1502:
1490:
1486:Markiewicz, W.
1484:
1480:
1471:
1469:
1452:
1448:
1441:
1422:
1420:"Cryovolcanism"
1416:
1391:
1384:
1366:
1357:
1350:
1324:
1279:
1270:
1268:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1219:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1178:Volcanism on Io
1153:Plate tectonics
1108:Glaciovolcanism
1053:
1030:
1007:Cassini–Huygens
995:liquid nitrogen
982:Cassini–Huygens
955:
928:
896:
891:
830:
797:
773:
747:, of which the
733:Rio Grande rift
713:mid-ocean ridge
701:tectonic plates
697:
692:
679:
659:
647:
634:
614:
586:
577:
549:
544:
504:
488:
482:
473:
460:
435:
425:before cooling.
415:
410:
374:
358:
356:Standpipe model
345:
313:eutectic liquid
305:
292:
290:Ascent of melts
272:
260:
244:
239:
237:Melting methods
202:. The decay of
188:differentiation
149:
114:
106:partially melts
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3023:
3013:
3012:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2933:
2931:Magma mingling
2928:
2923:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2871:
2870:
2863:
2856:
2848:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2794:
2788:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2760:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2706:
2705:
2698:
2691:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2600:
2579:
2578:External links
2576:
2573:
2572:
2537:
2507:
2477:
2445:
2433:
2403:
2373:
2366:
2346:
2317:
2282:
2247:
2212:
2188:
2162:
2136:
2109:(1): 221–364.
2090:
2055:
2048:
2028:
2003:
1978:
1952:
1919:
1852:
1813:
1795:
1769:
1702:
1671:
1646:
1625:
1619:2286/R.I.28139
1577:
1562:
1536:
1511:
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1446:
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1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1029:
1026:
954:
951:
935:Galilean moons
927:
924:
915:sulfur dioxide
895:
892:
890:
887:
869:Hecates Tholus
829:
826:
796:
793:
772:
769:
715:, such as the
696:
693:
691:
688:
678:
675:
658:
655:
646:
643:
633:
630:
613:
610:
606:volcanic bombs
598:vesicular lava
585:
582:
576:
573:
548:
545:
543:
540:
516:Hawai’i island
503:
500:
484:Main article:
481:
478:
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259:
256:
243:
240:
238:
235:
148:
145:
137:Pascal-seconds
113:
110:
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3022:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
2990:
2987:
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2727:
2724:
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2697:
2692:
2690:
2685:
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2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2625:on 2007-03-21
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2601:
2591:on 2012-10-06
2590:
2586:
2582:
2581:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2541:
2525:
2521:
2520:New Scientist
2517:
2511:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2481:
2465:
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2449:
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2407:
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2369:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2350:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2286:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2263:(E6): 11755.
2262:
2258:
2251:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2176:
2175:Volcano World
2172:
2166:
2150:
2149:Volcano World
2146:
2140:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
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2112:
2108:
2104:
2103:
2094:
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2078:
2074:
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2066:
2059:
2051:
2045:
2041:
2040:
2032:
2018:
2014:
2007:
1993:
1989:
1982:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1942:
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1934:
1930:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1883:
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1799:
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1717:
1713:
1706:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1675:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1642:
1641:Volcano World
1638:
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2973:Igneous rock
2957:Flux melting
2926:Magma mixing
2921:Assimilation
2889:Liquid phase
2627:. Retrieved
2620:the original
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2589:the original
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2100:
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2071:(1): 73–99.
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2020:. Retrieved
2017:Geology Base
2016:
2006:
1995:. Retrieved
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1981:
1969:. Retrieved
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1944:. Retrieved
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1922:
1895:10150/625517
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1466:the original
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1269:. Retrieved
1264:
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1168:Volcanic arc
1148:Mantle plume
1123:Igneous rock
1031:
1006:
989:, a moon of
980:
958:
956:
947:Solar System
929:
897:
882:Mars Express
880:
877:Pavonis Mons
873:Olympus Mons
854:
849:Solar System
837:Olympus Mons
798:
774:
754:
698:
686:ice plumes.
680:
668:
648:
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618:volcanic gas
615:
594:volcanic ash
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258:Flux melting
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204:Aluminium-26
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169:
150:
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126:
104:. This heat
89:
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81:
77:
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47:
45:lead section
2741:Strombolian
2530:October 24,
2298:: 433–441.
2181:17 November
2155:12 November
1971:13 November
1722:(1): 1542.
1328:"Volcanism"
1198:Volcanology
1138:Magma ocean
1133:Lava planet
1005:compounds.
1001:, dust, or
799:The planet
761:troposphere
684:Enceladus's
628:volcanoes.
626:Dione Regio
451:mud volcano
333:percolation
147:Heat source
86:volcanicity
2942:Outgassing
2936:Exsolution
2764:Subglacial
2629:2010-04-28
2595:2010-05-07
2440:2024-01-06
2206:2024-01-06
2022:2024-03-17
1997:2024-03-17
1946:2024-03-17
1808:Britannica
1789:2024-03-17
1729:2207.06557
1696:2024-03-17
1665:2024-03-17
1505:2024-03-17
1472:2009-08-29
1271:2024-03-17
1205:References
1028:Exoplanets
861:Arsia Mons
813:Lava flows
709:converging
690:Occurrence
557:solubility
480:Lava types
231:cryogeyser
66:April 2024
3010:Volcanism
2989:Volcanism
2985:anomalies
2909:Processes
2833:Subaerial
2813:Explosive
2774:Surtseyan
2769:Submarine
2746:Vulcanian
2565:March 11,
2131:130734866
1596:: 48–64.
1143:Magmatism
1034:exoplanet
1011:Saturnian
960:Voyager 2
822:ash flows
818:Maat Mons
739:from the
705:diverging
464:volatiles
366:volcanoes
208:half-life
170:During a
133:viscosity
82:vulcanism
78:Volcanism
50:summarize
21:Plutonism
3004:Category
2938:of gases
2808:Effusive
2792:Phreatic
2784:Phreatic
2726:Hawaiian
2718:Magmatic
2339:July 21,
1914:31709132
1764:35351895
1555:17 April
1529:17 March
1083:Gas laws
1078:Fumarole
1051:See also
1037:COROT-7b
919:silicate
901:'s moon
775:Earth's
727:and the
512:effusive
337:buoyancy
220:silicate
2823:Lateral
2736:Plinian
2500:July 4,
2470:July 4,
2300:Bibcode
2265:Bibcode
2230:Bibcode
2111:Bibcode
2073:Bibcode
1992:UPI.com
1905:6839737
1874:Bibcode
1835:Bibcode
1755:8964750
1734:Bibcode
1598:Bibcode
1235:Bibcode
1113:Hotspot
1063:4 Vesta
1041:transit
1003:methane
999:ammonia
977:Neptune
899:Jupiter
737:diapirs
590:colloid
564:viscous
303:Diapirs
176:impacts
25:Volcano
2828:Limnic
2731:Peléan
2431:
2396:May 2,
2364:
2292:Icarus
2145:"Mare"
2129:
2046:
1912:
1902:
1804:"lava"
1762:
1752:
1590:Icarus
1437:
1380:
1346:
1103:Geyser
1022:Quaoar
991:Saturn
969:Triton
931:Europa
926:Europa
911:sulfur
875:, and
809:planet
805:basalt
785:rilles
602:pumice
471:Sulfur
283:Europa
227:Triton
129:mantle
2900:gases
2818:Flank
2623:(PDF)
2608:(PDF)
2459:PPARC
2127:S2CID
1724:arXiv
1491:(PDF)
1423:(PDF)
1015:Titan
1013:moon
907:tidal
841:Latin
801:Venus
795:Venus
789:domes
781:maria
695:Earth
343:Dikes
329:grain
279:model
178:from
153:moons
88:, or
2567:2010
2532:2010
2502:2014
2495:NASA
2472:2014
2429:ISBN
2398:2018
2362:ISBN
2341:2024
2183:2023
2157:2023
2044:ISBN
1973:2010
1910:PMID
1760:PMID
1557:2024
1531:2024
1435:ISBN
1378:ISBN
1344:ISBN
973:moon
971:, a
917:and
857:Mars
845:Mars
828:Mars
787:and
777:Moon
771:Moon
731:and
703:are
492:lava
486:Lava
402:body
390:moon
349:dike
192:body
161:Moon
2421:doi
2308:doi
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1937:doi
1900:PMC
1890:hdl
1882:doi
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1750:PMC
1742:doi
1686:Eos
1614:hdl
1606:doi
1594:246
1336:doi
1243:doi
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