Hydropower - Knowledge

2065: 2800:, the main 20th century transition was not the creation of hydropower but the transition from mechanical to electrical hydropower. 12,000 watermills churned in the Po watershed in the 1890s, but the first commercial hydroelectric plant, completed in 1898, signaled the end of the mechanical reign. These new large plants moved power away from rural mountainous areas to urban centers in the lower plain. Italy prioritized early near-nationwide electrification, almost entirely from hydropower, which powered their rise as a dominant European and imperial force. However, they failed to reach any conclusive standard for determining water rights before WWI. 1644: 2017:

enough to power a remote sensor." Villazon suggested a better application would be to collect the water from fallen rain and use it to drive a turbine, with an estimated energy generation of 3 kWh of energy per year for a 185 m roof. A microturbine-based system created by three students from the Technological University of Mexico has been used to generate electricity. The Pluvia system "uses the stream of rainwater runoff from houses' rooftop rain gutters to spin a microturbine in a cylindrical housing. Electricity generated by that turbine is used to charge 12-volt batteries."

1935: 2034: 1951: 1989: 1583: 1687: 1675: 56: 840: 6764: 1974: 7912: 6623: 647: 2854: 661: 6647: 2050: 2840: 2868: 6659: 6635: 1495: 2471:, head engineer of Lowell's Locks and Canals company, improved on these designs to create a turbine with 90% efficiency. He applied scientific principles and testing methods to the problem of turbine design. His mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed the confident design of high-efficiency turbines to exactly match a site's specific flow conditions. The 2516:. Feeding desire for large scale electrification with water inherently required large dams across powerful rivers, which impacted public and private interests downstream and in flood zones. Inevitably smaller communities and marginalized groups suffered. They were unable to successfully resist companies flooding them out of their homes or blocking traditional 1588: 1585: 1584: 2013:

the energy in the impact of raindrops. This is in its very early stages with new and emerging technologies being tested, prototyped and created. Such power has been called rain power. One method in which this has been attempted is by using hybrid solar panels called "all-weather solar panels" that can generate electricity from both the sun and the rain.

2381: 2373:(1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices. Many of these devices were water-powered, including clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools, where three of them are animal-powered and one can be powered by animal or water. Moreover, they included an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered 1254: 1587: 3971:. Terry S. Reynolds, however, argues that the "term used in Indian texts is ambiguous and does not clearly indicate a water-powered device." Thorkild Schiøler argued that it is "more likely that these passages refer to some type of tread- or hand-operated water-lifting device, instead of a water-powered water-lifting wheel." 2629:, but failed to improve the lives of those living and farming there the way its boosters had promised and also damaged the river ecosystem and migrating salmon populations. In the 1940s as well, the federal government took advantage of the sheer amount of unused power and flowing water from the Grand Coulee to build a 2204:(machine with wheel-pots attached), however whether this is water or hand powered is disputed by scholars India received Roman water mills and baths in the early 4th century AD when a certain according to Greek sources. Dams, spillways, reservoirs, channels, and water balance would develop in India during the 2574:. Despite ostensible protection within a national park, city engineers successfully won the rights to both water and power in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in 1913. After their victory they delivered Hetch Hetchy hydropower and water to San Francisco a decade later and at twice the promised cost, selling power to 1895:

harming downstream habitats. On the other hand, the limitation of the run-of-river project is the decreased efficiency of electricity generation because the process depends on the speed of the seasonal river flow. This means that the rainy season increases electricity generation compared to the dry season.

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Small hydropower also played an important role in early 20th century electrification across Africa. In South Africa, small turbines powered gold mines and the first electric railway in the 1890s, and Zimbabwean farmers installed small hydropower stations in the 1930s. While interest faded as national

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60041. Field testing of turbines is used to validate the manufacturer's efficiency guarantee. Detailed calculation of the efficiency of a hydropower turbine accounts for the head lost due to flow friction in the power canal or penstock, rise in tailwater level due to flow, the location of the station

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Modern German hydropower dam construction built off a history of small dams powering mines and mills going back to the 15th century. Some parts of Germany industry even relied more on waterwheels than steam until the 1870s. The German government did not set out building large dams such as the prewar

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Rain has been referred to as "one of the last unexploited energy sources in nature. When it rains, billions of litres of water can fall, which have enormous electric potential if used in the right way." Research is being done into the different methods of generating power from rain, such as by using

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Hydropower became a symbol of regional pride and distaste for northern 'coal barons', although the north also held strong enthusiasm for hydropower. Dam building rapidly increased after WWII, this time with the express purpose of increasing hydropower. However, conflict accompanied the dam building

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pressure reducer at the high-level intake. This allows it to fall down a shaft into a subterranean, high-roofed chamber where the now-compressed air separates from the water and becomes trapped. The height of the falling water column maintains compression of the air in the top of the chamber, while

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According to zoologist and science and technology educator, Luis Villazon, "A 2008 French study estimated that you could use piezoelectric devices, which generate power when they move, to extract 12 milliwatts from a raindrop. Over a year, this would amount to less than 0.001kWh per square metre –

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Hydroelectricity is the biggest hydropower application. Hydroelectricity generates about 15% of global electricity and provides at least 50% of the total electricity supply for more than 35 countries. In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1400 GW, the highest

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such as preventing some animals traveling upstream, cooling and de-oxygenating of water released downstream, and loss of nutrients due to settling of particulates. River sediment builds river deltas and dams prevent them from restoring what is lost from erosion. Furthermore, studies found that the

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combined to make the United Kingdom pull out as well, the Soviet Union funded the Aswan High Dam. Between 1977 and 1990 the dam's turbines generated one third of Egypt's electricity. The building of the Aswan Dam triggered a dispute between Sudan and Egypt over the sharing of the Nile, especially

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Both designs have limitations. For example, dam construction can result in discomfort to nearby residents. The dam and reservoirs occupy a relatively large amount of space that may be opposed by nearby communities. Moreover, reservoirs can potentially have major environmental consequences such as

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The modern history of hydropower begins in the 1900s, with large dams built not simply to power neighboring mills or factories but provide extensive electricity for increasingly distant groups of people. Competition drove much of the global hydroelectric craze: Europe competed amongst itself to

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mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and pitchback (backshot or reverse shot) waterwheel mills. Another way to

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In the 1980s and 90s the international anti-dam movement had made finding government or private investors for new large hydropower projects incredibly difficult, and given rise to NGOs devoted to fighting dams. Additionally, while the cost of other energy sources fell, the cost of building new

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grids improved in the second half of the century, 21st century national governments in countries including South Africa and Mozambique, as well as NGOs serving countries like Zimbabwe, have begun re-exploring small-scale hydropower to diversify power sources and improve rural electrification.

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Hydropower technology and attitude began to shift in the second half of the 20th century. While countries had largely abandoned their small hydropower systems by the 1930s, the smaller hydropower plants began to make a comeback in the 1970s, boosted by government subsidies and a push for more

867:. The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water. The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head. 2553:

began looking into damming Niagara, the first major hydroelectric project in the United States, in the 1890s they struggled to transport electricity from the falls far enough away to actually reach enough people and justify installation. The project succeeded in large part due to

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Operators of hydroelectric stations compare the total electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate efficiency. Procedures and definitions for calculation of efficiency are given in test codes such as

1490:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=0.85\times 1000\ ({\text{kg}}/{\text{m}}^{3})\times 80\ ({\text{m}}^{3}/{\text{s}})\times 9.81\ ({\text{m}}/{\text{s}}^{2})\times 145\ {\text{m}}=97\times 10^{6}\ ({\text{kg}}\ {\text{m}}^{2}/{\text{s}}^{3})=97\ {\text{MW}}} 1840:

an outlet, submerged below the water level in the chamber allows water to flow back to the surface at a lower level than the intake. A separate outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air. A facility on this principle was built on the

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took power in the 1950s, his government decided to undertake the High Dam project, publicizing it as an economic development project. After American refusal to help fund the dam, and anti-British sentiment in Egypt and British interests in neighboring

987: 2753:, frequently sell excess power to neighboring countries. Foreign actors such as Chinese hydropower companies have proposed a significant amount of new hydropower projects in Africa, and already funded and consulted on many others in countries like 1510:

and effect of varying gravity, the air temperature and barometric pressure, the density of the water at ambient temperature, and the relative altitudes of the forebay and tailbay. For precise calculations, errors due to rounding and the number of

1884:. The water in the reservoir is available on demand to be used to generate electricity by passing through channels that connect the dam to the reservoir. The water spins a turbine, which is connected to the generator that produces electricity. 2653:, and gained more hydropower-fighting tools with 1970s environmental legislation. As nuclear and fossil fuels grew in the 70s and 80s and environmental activists push for river restoration, hydropower gradually faded in American importance. 2644:

building more than 150 new dams across the American West, organized opposition to hydroelectric dams sparked up in the 1950s and 60s based on environmental concerns. Environmental movements successfully shut down proposed hydropower dams in

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Especially at the start of the American hydropower experiment, engineers and politicians began major hydroelectricity projects to solve a problem of 'wasted potential' rather than to power a population that needed the electricity. When the

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and spread of hydropower: agrarian interests suffered from decreased irrigation, small mills lost water flow, and different interest groups fought over where dams should be located, controlling who benefited and whose homes they drowned.

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hydroelectric dams increased 4% annually between 1965 and 1990, due both to the increasing costs of construction and to the decrease in high quality building sites. In the 1990s, only 18% of the world's electricity came from hydropower.

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independent energy producers. Some politicians who once advocated for large hydropower projects in the first half of the 20th century began to speak out against them, and citizen groups organizing against dam projects increased.

1530:, sometimes spanning decades, to assess the reliable annual energy supply. Dams and reservoirs provide a more dependable source of power by smoothing seasonal changes in water flow. However, reservoirs have a significant 2064: 2714:, also located on the Nile, took advantage of the Cold War tensions to request assistance from the United States for their own irrigation and hydropower investments in the 1960s. While progress stalled due to the 1988: 2436:. Although water power gave way to steam power in many of the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the 18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such as driving the bellows in small 1525:

of the flowing water. Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy. The flow in a stream can vary widely from season to season. The development of a hydropower site requires analysis of

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revealed the weaknesses of a coal-based energy economy. The federal government then began prioritizing interconnected power—and lots of it. Electricity from all three dams poured into war production during

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dams to expand hydropower: they mostly wanted to reduce flooding and improve navigation. However, hydropower quickly emerged as an added bonus for all these dams, especially in the coal-poor south.

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To illustrate, the power output of a turbine that is 85% efficient, with a flow rate of 80 cubic metres per second (2800 cubic feet per second) and a head of 145 metres (476 feet), is 97 megawatts:

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especially has borne the consequences of countries both along the Nile and distant foreign actors using the river to expand their economic power or national force. After the British occupation of

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and it provides a relatively consistent source of power. Nonetheless, it has economic, sociological, and environmental downsides and requires a sufficiently energetic source of water, such as a

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high rainfall and mountains proved exceptional resources for abundant hydropower, and in the south coal shortages pushed governments and utility companies to seek alternative power sources.

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inspired bigger and bolder creations across the globe. American and USSR financers and hydropower experts also spread the gospel of dams and hydroelectricity across the globe during the

1891:. The run-of river power plant needs continuous water flow and therefore has less ability to provide power on demand. The kinetic energy of flowing water is the main source of energy. 1033: 3073: 2149:. However, some historians suggested that they were powered by waterwheels. This is since it was theorized that water scoops would not have had the motive force to operate their 878: 4204:

al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (1976). "Taqī-al-Dīn and Arabic Mechanical Engineering. With the Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines. An Arabic Manuscript of the Sixteenth Century".

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Taking the density of water to be 1000 kilograms per cubic metre (62.5 pounds per cubic foot) and the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 metres per second per second.

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in 1882, the British worked with Egypt to construct the first Aswan Dam, which they heightened in 1912 and 1934 to try to hold back the Nile floods. Egyptian engineer

1234: 4461: 1132: 1063: 1534:, as does alteration of naturally occurring streamflow. Dam design must account for the worst-case, "probable maximum flood" that can be expected at the site; a 870:

The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate and density of water, the height of fall, and the local acceleration due to gravity:

1201: 2111:, located in modern-day France, had 16 water wheels processing up to 28 tons of grain per day. Roman waterwheels were also used for sawing marble such as the 1612:

equivalent to almost a billion tonnes of CO2 greenhouse gas a year. This occurs when organic matters accumulate at the bottom of the reservoir because of the

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Parrinello, G. (2018). "Systems of Power: A Spatial Envirotechnical Approach to Water Power and Industrialization in the Po Valley of Italy, ca.1880–1970".

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of the late 3rd century AD. Such sawmills had a waterwheel that drove two crank-and-connecting rods to power two saws. It also appears in two 6th century

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Maaß, Anna-Lisa; Schüttrumpf, Holger (2019). "Elevated floodplains and net channel incision as a result of the construction and removal of water mills".

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would drive development as well. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the main power source for new inventions such as

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directly without moving parts. In these designs, a falling column of water is deliberately mixed with air bubbles generated through turbulence or a

5419: 4162: 3990:(Historiarum compendium), a certain Metrodoros who went to India in c. A.D. 325 "constructed water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then". 4267: 3627: 2540:

production also emerged in the 1960s as a burgeoning alternative hydropower system, though still has not taken hold as a strong energy contender.

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as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Islamic irriguation techniques including

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Sinclair, B. (2006). "The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism (review)".

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have frequently used hydropower projects in Africa as a tool to interfere in the economic development of African countries, such as the

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Watermills impact the river dynamics of the watercourses where they are installed. During the time watermills operate channels tend to

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Landry, M. (2015). "Environmental Consequences of the Peace: The Great War, Dammed Lakes, and Hydraulic History in the Eastern Alps".

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One major way to classify watermills is by wheel orientation (vertical or horizontal), one powered by a vertical waterwheel through a

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Charlier, R. H. (1 December 2007). "Forty candles for the Rance River TPP tides provide renewable and sustainable power generation".

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in the 4th century BC. Moreover, evidence indicates the use of hydropower using irrigation machines to ancient civilizations such as

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site placed on the banks of the Columbia. The nuclear site leaked radioactive matter into the river, contaminating the entire area.

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can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the

5736: 4221:"Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe" 3713: 761: 6883: 6356: 3687: 2402: 187: 4300:"The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (translated and annotated by Donald R Hill)" 3262: 6400: 6075: 5154: 5086: 4915: 4777: 4517: 4492: 4050: 4013: 3840: 3778: 3531: 3311: 3237: 3196: 2641: 1841: 4123:"Remains of the 19th Century: Deep storage of contaminated hydraulic mining sediment along the Lower Yuba River, California" 2223:, a historic method of mining that uses flood or torrent of water to reveal mineral veins. The method was first used at the 6697: 2907: 2887: 2769:

In the early 20th century, two major factors motivated the expansion of hydropower in Europe: in the northern countries of

2096:. Studies suggest that the water wheel was the initial form of water power and it was driven by either humans or animals. 6542: 2581:

The American West, with its mountain rivers and lack of coal, turned to hydropower early and often, especially along the

5689:(International Electrotechnical Commission – Technical Committee 4) IEC TC 4 portal with access to scope, documents and 2528:. However, in some cases, a mutual need for hydropower could lead to cooperation between otherwise adversarial nations. 1651:

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created a multi-national power grid and plant maintenance program. States with an abundance of hydropower, such as the

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had been discussed since Belgian colonization in the late 19th century, and was successfully built after independence.

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The other type is called a run-of-river plant. In this case, a barrage is built to control the flow of water, absent a

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increase. Over time however these effects are cancelled by river banks becoming higher. Where mills have been removed,

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This article is about the general concept of hydropower. For the use of hydropower for electricity generation, see

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Overall, hydraulic head is a way to represent the energy of stored a fluid - in this case water - per unit weight.

2322:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic Empire had these industrial mills in operation, from 2076:. Other evidence indicates that the waterwheel independently emerged in China around the same period. Evidence of 1555: 6842: 6733: 2927: 2723: 2020:

The term rain power has also been applied to hydropower systems which include the process of capturing the rain.

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Gebreluel, G. (3 April 2014). "Ethiopia's Grand Renaissance Dam: Ending Africa's Oldest Geopolitical Rivalry?".

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government failed to regularly maintain the plants and their capacity declined until the 1995 formation of the

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A hydropower scheme which harnesses the power of the water which pours down from the Brecon Beacons mountains,

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Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

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Gottschalk, K. (3 May 2016). "Hydro-politics and hydro-power: the century-long saga of the Inga project".

3653: 2414: 982:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=-\eta \ {\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h=-\eta \ \rho {\dot {V}}\ g\ \Delta h} 7782: 6582: 5841: 5729: 2742: 2550: 678: 17: 2697:

developed a plan for the Aswan High Dam, inspired by the Tennessee Valley Authority's multipurpose dam.

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Hydroelectric power plants vary in terms of the way they harvest energy. One type involves a dam and a

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Kaygusuz, Kamil (2016). "Hydropower as clean and renewable energy source for electricity production".

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D’Souza, R. (7 July 2008). "Framing India's Hydraulic Crisis: The Politics of the Modern Large Dam".

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dammed-hydro facility (hydroelectric dam) is the most common type of hydroelectric power generation.

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Adovor Tsikudo, K. (2 January 2021). "Ghana's Bui Hydropower Dam and Linkage Creation Challenges".

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Water Power, Industrial Manufacturing, and Environmental Transformation in 19th-Century New England

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This is also the period when water-mills started to spread outside the former Empire. According to

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passages. The stagnant water created by hydroelectric dams provides breeding ground for pests and

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spanned a large region, mainly in Asia and Africa, along with other surrounding areas. During the

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Singh, Pushpendra Kumar; Dey, Pankaj; Jain, Sharad Kumar; Mujumdar, Pradeep P. (5 October 2020).

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built and operated the first private electrical power station which was located in his house in

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Water Technology in the Middle Ages: Cities, Monasteries, and Waterworks after the Roman Empire

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developed the first hydropower turbine. This device was implemented in the commercial plant of

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Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa".

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Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa".

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Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa".

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complexes. A wide range of water-powered industrial mills were used in the region including

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Ecology and power in the age of empire: Europe and the transformation of the tropical world

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converted the rotary motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades.

2042: 1237: 1178: 1117: 1048: 864: 781: 607: 502: 346: 252: 112: 4268:"Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering" 2394: 1679: 8: 7936: 7879: 7787: 7775: 7665: 7618: 7426: 7349: 7075: 6866: 6683: 6557: 6500: 6422: 6395: 6080: 5943: 5918: 4984:

Shokr, A. (2009). "Hydropolitics, Economy, and the Aswan High Dam in Mid-Century Egypt".

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since the dam flooded part of Sudan and decreased the volume of water available to them.

2571: 2476: 2449: 2160: 2053: 1813: 1617: 428: 294: 277: 222: 77: 65: 5705:, Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group. Retrieved 1 January 2005 4736: 4445: 4420: 4138: 4089: 3408: 3050: 3011: 1579:

construction of dams and reservoirs can result in habitat loss for some aquatic species.

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can have catastrophic effects, including loss of life, property and pollution of land.

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hydropower portal with links to numerous organizations related to hydropower worldwide

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generated from oceans, rivers, and human-made canal systems to generating electricity.

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in 1931, symbolically linking the job creation and economic growth priorities of the

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is still in use. In the 1870s, deriving from uses in the California mining industry,

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from underwater rotting vegetation. Furthermore, although at lower levels than other

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Something new under the sun: an environmental history of the twentieth-century world

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would be introduced to India, and would be combined with local methods, during the

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bellows. Many texts describe the Hun waterwheel; some of the earliest ones are the

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Beyond the Nile, hydroelectric projects cover the rivers and lakes of Africa. The

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Munoz-Hernandez, German Ardul; Mansoor, Sa'ad Petrous; Jones, Dewi Ieuan (2013).

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Benoît Fourneyron, the French engineer who developed the first hydropower turbine

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from 75 AD onwards. This method was further developed in Spain in mines such as

1722:. Such processes are needed in the production of many material goods, including 1686: 7869: 7816: 7726: 7645: 7630: 7625: 7577: 7465: 7261: 7209: 7192: 7026: 6786: 6603: 6552: 6527: 6331: 6296: 6229: 6219: 6135: 6115: 6110: 6095: 6065: 6045: 6003: 5981: 5963: 5863: 5853: 5789: 4744: 3964: 3936: 2582: 2410: 2401:

in 1895 and it is still operating. In the early 20th century, English engineer

2377:(a crane-like irrigation tool), and a reciprocating device with hinged valves. 2315: 2263: 2165: 2073: 1874: 1836: 1832: 1809: 1674: 1600:

Large and deep dam and reservoir plants cover large areas of land which causes

1522: 1105: 1036: 860: 738: 612: 585: 558: 526: 509: 388: 177: 147: 5183: 4098: 3484: 2274:(8th–13th centuries), hydropower was widely used and developed. Early uses of 2232: 1240:

h") is the difference in height between the outlet and inlet (SI unit: metres)

7930: 7833: 7670: 7560: 7517: 7298: 7175: 7061: 7011: 6875: 6806: 6791: 6651: 6510: 6470: 6434: 6390: 6316: 6279: 6197: 6120: 5888: 5883: 5836: 5816: 5597: 5510: 5460: 5405: 5323: 5277: 5234: 5191: 5123: 5055: 4997: 4826: 4752: 4650: 4607: 4364: 4107: 3827:

Greek and Roman mechanical water-lifting devices: the history of a technology

2932: 2922: 2897: 2845: 2630: 2563: 2501: 2497: 2484: 2437: 2398: 2359: 2339: 2236: 2205: 2150: 2108: 2057: 1793: 1707: 1648: 1613: 1070: 765: 709: 624: 590: 497: 480: 361: 351: 202: 5589: 5170:

Swain, A. (1997). "Ethiopia, the Sudan, and Egypt: The Nile River Dispute".

2625:

and accompanying hydroelectric projects electrified almost all of the rural

1702:

or water mill is a mill that uses hydropower. It is a structure that uses a

7635: 7593: 7369: 7320: 7256: 7112: 7016: 6801: 6763: 6407: 6351: 6301: 6284: 6105: 5878: 5811: 5518: 5502: 4818: 4236: 2873: 2678: 2674: 2650: 2555: 2480: 2464: 2441: 2335: 2327: 2213: 2209: 2100: 1771: 1767: 1755: 1208: 563: 448: 117: 82: 4485:

The conquest of nature: water, landscape, and the making of modern Germany

3074:"World Bank turns to hydropower to square development with climate change" 7731: 7675: 7497: 7475: 7470: 7337: 7214: 7180: 7168: 7056: 6979: 6816: 6743: 6738: 6412: 6378: 6252: 6242: 6185: 6168: 6153: 6100: 5998: 4848: 4147: 4122: 3844: 3106: 2813: 2793: 2781: 2734: 2567: 2537: 2483:, which used hydropower from the high head streams characteristic of the 2433: 2346:

in watermills and water-raising machines. They also pioneered the use of

2331: 2295: 2275: 2240: 2196:

Ancient Indian texts dating back to the 4th century BC refer to the term

2142: 2077: 1979: 1925: 1899: 1763: 1703: 1624: 1561: 1542:

and rainfall and snowfall records are used to predict the maximum flood.

1518: 1143: 812: 757: 568: 443: 393: 356: 339: 324: 142: 5358: 5047: 4677: 4244: 4220: 3170: 2421:, which described vertical-axis and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines. 1902:, to large plants that supply power to a whole country. As of 2019, the 847:

in China; the hydroelectric dam is the world's largest power station by

7838: 7655: 7613: 7555: 7524: 7163: 7095: 7033: 6969: 6748: 6446: 6306: 6214: 5908: 5711:, US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005 5131: 4181:

In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire

4121:

Nakamura, Tyler, K.; Singer, Michael Bliss; Gabet, Emmanuel J. (2018).

2937: 2821: 2754: 2686: 2670: 2666: 2598: 2590: 2323: 2311: 2307: 2291: 2182: 1805: 1778: 1759: 1751: 1691: 1575: 1527: 839: 796: 777: 749:, and is also applied as one half of an energy storage system known as 578: 403: 398: 366: 329: 97: 4979: 4977: 7721: 7603: 7411: 7406: 7384: 7273: 7266: 7085: 7080: 6987: 6964: 6456: 6383: 6257: 6237: 6209: 6148: 3116: 2797: 2730: 2682: 2525: 2521: 2513: 2445: 2370: 2319: 2303: 2287: 2155: 2145:(202 BC – 220 AD), were initially thought to be powered by 2104: 2093: 2081: 1888: 1881: 1787: 1783: 1743: 1699: 1667: 1631:

banks become unstable. Another potential disadvantage is cultural or

1628: 1571: 800: 788: 433: 413: 182: 92: 6827: 5651:

Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),

5115: 2853: 2049: 1782:

classify water mills is by an essential trait about their location:

660: 7848: 7416: 7342: 7283: 7278: 7226: 7136: 7107: 7100: 7090: 7021: 6995: 6991: 6983: 6192: 6173: 6158: 5858: 5690: 4974: 3987: 2970:(WCD) for international standards on the development of large dams. 2805: 2711: 2594: 2505: 2459:

Technological advances moved the open water wheel into an enclosed

2406: 2174: 1898:

The size of hydroelectric plants can vary from small plants called

1535: 1109: 824: 820: 573: 458: 453: 107: 102: 72: 4936: 3799:

Stronger than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel

2002:. The lower power station can generate 360 MW of electricity. 1538:

is often included to route flood flows around the dam. A computer

7716: 7512: 7507: 7453: 7359: 7288: 7131: 6932: 6326: 5868: 4206:

Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo

2867: 2839: 2817: 2575: 2460: 2374: 2351: 2299: 2283: 2279: 2220: 2190: 2123: 2119: 1909:

Hydroelectricity can also be used to store energy in the form of

1747: 1735: 1715: 1609: 1139: 808: 804: 595: 553: 289: 272: 3388: 3386: 3384: 2496:

electrify first, and the United States' hydroelectric plants in

7565: 7530: 7354: 7310: 7158: 6956: 5873: 5794: 5745: 3680:"Scientists design new solar cells to capture energy from rain" 3497:

Towler, Brian Francis (2014). "Chapter 10 - Hydroelectricity".

3263:"Why the World's Rivers Are Losing Sediment and Why It Matters" 3238:"As World's Deltas Sink, Rising Seas Are Far from Only Culprit" 2774: 2770: 2606: 2570:, and the federal government fought over acceptable use of the 2517: 2186: 2178: 2127: 1826: 1727: 1719: 828: 284: 5102:

Dougherty, J. E. (1959). "The Aswan Decision in Perspective".

3628:"Rain or shine: new solar cell captures energy from raindrops" 3501:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press. pp. 215–235. 2824:

in 1924, inspired in part by loss of coal reserves after WWI.

2072:

Evidence suggests that the fundamentals of hydropower date to

1920:

Other forms of electricity generation with hydropower include

741:

of a water source to produce power. Hydropower is a method of

7598: 7438: 7364: 7151: 6675: 5628: 5557: 5545: 4563:, Patagonia Films, Felt Soul Media, Stoecker Ecological, 2014 4037:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 325–349, 3968: 3551:. Gabriola Island, British Columbia: New Society Publishers. 3381: 2789: 2785: 2750: 2706: 2690: 2228: 2089: 1999: 1801: 1739: 1731: 1723: 1593: 769: 722: 712: 519: 5675: 4541: 3522:

Førsund, Finn R. (2014). "Pumped-storage hydroelectricity".

2177:

about 20 AD. It was also during this time that the engineer

2141:

Water-powered trip hammers and bellows in China, during the

1873:

of water that is present due to the site's elevation or the

834: 7543: 7399: 7394: 7374: 7248: 7199: 7043: 6247: 6180: 6163: 5831: 4074:"Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India" 3766: 2615: 2347: 2343: 2244: 1502: 1040: 773: 617: 5533: 3920:

Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology

3858:

Greene, Kevin (1990). "Perspectives on Roman technology".

3654:"Rain may soon be an effective source of renewable energy" 2597:. The federal government quickly followed Hoover with the 2219:

Another example of the early use of hydropower is seen in

7502: 7146: 6723: 5714: 5616: 5604: 5467: 4864: 4531: 4529: 3573:"Storage Hydropower - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 2610: 2248: 1906:

are conventional hydroelectric power stations with dams.

1848:, in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines. 1567: 3602:"'If you can make energy from wind, why not from rain?'" 3112:

A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times

2068:

Directly water-powered ore mill, late nineteenth century

855:

A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available

4510:

Silenced rivers: the ecology and politics of large dams

3762: 3760: 1560:

Some disadvantages of hydropower have been identified.

4772:. State University of New York Press. pp. 203–9. 4704: 4692: 4526: 4425:

IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

3714:"Is it possible to harness the power of falling rain?" 4924: 4786: 4567: 4029:

Jain, Sharad; Sharma, Aisha; Mujumdar, P. P. (2022),

3526:. Boston, Massachusetts: Springer. pp. 183–206. 2578:

which resold to San Francisco residents at a profit.

2367:

The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices

1257: 1219: 1189: 1154: 1120: 1081: 1051: 1005: 881: 4071: 3757: 2835: 2820:

even achieved a statewide power grid by damming the

1039:

flow rate out) is the useful power output (SI unit:

4120: 4001: 3943:. Taipei: Cambridge University Press. p. 370. 3459:

Journal of Engineering Research and Applied Science

2636:Post-WWII Americans, especially engineers from the 1790:are water mills onboard (and constituting) a ship. 745:production. Hydropower is now used principally for 5680: 5301: 4586:Frey, F. (7 August 2020). "A Fluid Iron Curtain". 4418: 4031:"Evolution of Water Management Practices in India" 4028: 1831:A plentiful head of water can be made to generate 1489: 1228: 1195: 1169: 1126: 1096: 1057: 1027: 981: 6729:List of conventional hydroelectric power stations 3396:Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography 3035:"Hydropower potential and development activities" 2452:, which uses the 50-foot (15 m) drop in the 1913:between two reservoirs at different heights with 799:and the operation of mechanical devices, such as 7928: 5432: 5101: 4385: 4369:The Origins of Modern English Society, 1780-1880 3792: 3790: 3169:DeHaan, James; Hulse, David (10 February 2023). 3071: 2796:, a Southern Europe hydropower race. In Italy's 1545: 5149:. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 169–170. 4722: 3931: 3929: 3707: 3705: 3392: 2200:(turning wheel), which commentaries explain as 1627:site are displaced during construction or when 1608:sources, it was found that hydropower produces 1556:Renewable energy debate § Hydroelectricity 5497:(3). Johns Hopkins University Press: 652–688. 5488: 5255: 4953: 4951: 4813:(2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 444–445. 4359: 4357: 4197: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 6843: 6691: 5730: 5484: 5482: 5379: 5212: 3897:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3801:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3787: 3595: 3593: 3367:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Newnes. p. 116. 2903:Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol 1869:generation starts with converting either the 686: 5418:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 ( 4804: 4161:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3926: 3702: 3306:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press. 2993: 5344: 5081:. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. 5033: 4948: 4663: 4628: 4354: 3770:Modelling and Controlling Hydropower Plants 3485:https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022 3440:"Five thousand horsepower from air bubbles" 3345: 3280: 3168: 3101: 3099: 2989: 2987: 2609:did not justify damming the Columbia until 756:Hydropower is an attractive alternative to 6850: 6836: 6698: 6684: 5737: 5723: 5634: 5622: 5610: 5575: 5563: 5551: 5479: 5473: 5353:(2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. 5297: 5295: 5178:(4). Cambridge University Press: 675–694. 5042:(2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. 4870: 4672:(2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. 4547: 4482: 4371:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul PLC. 4272:History of Science and Technology in Islam 3625: 3590: 2994:Egré, Dominique; Milewski, Joseph (2002). 2181:(c. AD 31) applied the power of 780:view hydropower as a low-carbon means for 729:or to power machines. This is achieved by 693: 679: 54: 5681:International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) 5450: 5169: 4983: 4444: 4332:. US Department of Energy. Archived from 4203: 4146: 4097: 3892: 3619: 2467:. In 1848, the British-American engineer 2060:; hydropower was used here to mill flour. 1863:among all renewable energy technologies. 1574:can have major negative impacts on river 835:Calculating the amount of available power 776:. International institutions such as the 5650: 5076: 4725:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 4585: 3995: 3980: 3796: 3740:"Rainwater used to generate electricity" 3737: 3483:IEA (2022), Renewables 2022, IEA, Paris 3456: 3191:. Pearson Education India. p. 418. 3096: 2984: 2413:, England. In 1753, the French engineer 2379: 2103:, water-powered mills were described by 2063: 2048: 2032: 1904:five largest power stations in the world 1877:of moving water into electrical energy. 1742:products. These watermills may comprise 1685: 1673: 1642: 1581: 838: 721:, is the use of falling or fast-running 5539: 5292: 5144: 4930: 4710: 4698: 4573: 4535: 4507: 4459: 4259: 4175: 3935: 3815: 3677: 3599: 3521: 3437: 2508:, contributing to projects such as the 1028:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}} 14: 7929: 6357:Integrated gasification combined cycle 4792: 4765: 4363: 4340: 4322: 4212: 3857: 3821: 3651: 3645: 3496: 3362: 3299: 3065: 3032: 2996:"The diversity of hydropower projects" 2134:and connecting rod mechanism of these 1710:to drive a mechanical process such as 188:List of low-energy building techniques 27:Power generation via movement of water 6857: 6831: 6679: 6401:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 6076:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy 5718: 5433:Rodríguez, I. B. (30 December 2011). 5172:The Journal of Modern African Studies 4942: 4905: 4297: 4265: 4218: 3917: 3546: 2393:In the 19th century, French engineer 1552:Hydroelectricity § Disadvantages 1069:") is the efficiency of the turbine ( 787:Since ancient times, hydropower from 6634: 5676:International Hydropower Association 5653:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology 5386:Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 4419:Lewis, B J; Cimbala; Wouden (2014). 4391: 4005:South Asia: An Environmental History 3711: 3626:Carrington, Damian (13 March 2018). 3105: 2908:International Hydropower Association 2888:Gravitation water vortex power plant 2562:. On the other side of the country, 6658: 6543:World energy supply and consumption 5258:Canadian Journal of African Studies 5010: 4957: 4882: 4183:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4078:Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2722:Ethiopia began construction on the 2278:emerged along with large hydraulic 1994:The upper reservoir and dam of the 1655: 24: 5452:10.3989/hispania.2011.v71.i239.360 5398:10.17159/2413-3051/2013/v24i3a3138 3872:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1990.tb00223.x 3549:Microhydro: Clean Power from Water 3186: 2369:, the Muslim mechanical engineer, 2235:. Hushing was also widely used in 2028: 1220: 1181:(SI unit: cubic metres per second) 973: 931: 25: 7968: 6754:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity 5669: 4910:. Hill and Wang. pp. 48–58. 3967:suggested that the machine was a 2784:dammed the Alpine rivers and the 1820: 1514:of constants must be considered. 1142:of water (SI unit: kilograms per 7911: 7910: 6762: 6657: 6645: 6633: 6622: 6621: 3963:Reynolds, p. 14 "On this basis, 3438:Maynard, Frank (November 1910). 2866: 2852: 2838: 2747:Democratic Republic of the Congo 2543: 1996:Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme 1987: 1972: 1949: 1933: 1666:This section is an excerpt from 1517:Some hydropower systems such as 760:as it does not directly produce 659: 646: 645: 123:Energy efficiency implementation 6734:Pumped-storage hydroelectricity 5569: 5426: 5380:Klunne, Q. J. (1 August 2013). 5373: 5338: 5249: 5206: 5163: 5138: 5095: 5070: 5027: 5004: 4899: 4876: 4841: 4798: 4769:Niagara: A History of the Falls 4759: 4716: 4657: 4622: 4588:Scandinavian Journal of History 4579: 4553: 4501: 4476: 4453: 4412: 4298:Jones, Reginald Victor (1974). 4291: 4282: 4169: 4114: 4065: 4022: 3974: 3957: 3911: 3886: 3851: 3738:Coxworth, Ben (26 March 2014). 3731: 3671: 3652:Fingas, Jon (9 February 2020). 3600:Nazarli, Amina (16 June 2018). 3565: 3540: 3515: 3490: 3477: 3450: 3431: 3320: 3255: 3230: 3072:Howard Schneider (8 May 2013). 2960: 2928:Ocean thermal energy conversion 2724:Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam 2490: 2388: 1638: 751:pumped-storage hydroelectricity 379:Ocean thermal energy conversion 6705: 3893:Magnusson, Roberta J. (2002). 3678:Nichols, Megan (21 May 2018). 3205: 3180: 3162: 3133: 3026: 2951: 2479:developed the high-efficiency 1851: 1804:and sedimentation of adjacent 1800:. Also in the backwater area, 1786:use the movement of the tide; 1470: 1430: 1391: 1366: 1354: 1329: 1317: 1292: 747:hydroelectric power generation 13: 1: 5316:10.1080/08039410.2020.1858953 5304:Forum for Development Studies 5270:10.1080/00083968.2016.1222297 4600:10.1080/03468755.2019.1629336 4512:. Zed Books. pp. 18–19. 4446:10.1088/1755-1315/22/1/012020 3860:Oxford Journal of Archaeology 3417:10.1080/04353676.2019.1574209 3365:Power Generation Technologies 3059:10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00084-8 3020:10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00083-6 2977: 2338:. Muslim engineers also used 2243:and later periods to extract 2107:by the first century BC. The 2007: 1967:without a sizeable reservoir. 1660: 1546:Disadvantages and limitations 859:. Power is a function of the 208:Passive solar building design 6876:Pollution / quality 5687:IEC TC 4: Hydraulic turbines 5227:10.1080/0163660X.2014.926207 4945:, p. 71-72, 85, 89-111. 4643:10.14452/MR-060-03-2008-07_7 4043:10.1007/978-3-030-87067-6_18 4002:Christopher V. Hill (2008). 3922:. Leiden: Brill. p. 55. 3189:Basic Electrical Engineering 2893:Energy conversion efficiency 2481:Pelton wheel impulse turbine 2272:Arab Agricultural Revolution 2251:ores. It later evolved into 1694:watermill, UK (14th century) 1540:model of the hydraulic basin 7: 5104:Political Science Quarterly 4487:. Norton. pp. 217–18. 4316:10.1088/0031-9112/25/10/040 4219:Lucas, Adam Robert (2005). 3797:Reynolds, Terry S. (1983). 3773:. London: Springer London. 2831: 2743:Southern African Power Pool 2718:and following 17-year-long 2551:Niagara Falls Power Company 2424:The growing demand for the 1205:acceleration due to gravity 717:-, "water"), also known as 666:Renewable energy portal 384:Renewable energy transition 10: 7973: 5744: 5644: 5014:The End of the Big Dam Era 4745:10.1016/j.rser.2006.03.015 4008:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 33–. 2647:Dinosaur National Monument 2638:Tennessee Valley Authority 2365:Furthermore, in his book, 2169:of 15 BC, as well as 2159:dictionary of 40 BC, 2074:ancient Greek civilization 2023: 1855: 1824: 1665: 1549: 1170:{\displaystyle {\dot {V}}} 1097:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}} 713: 29: 7906: 7847: 7712: 7705: 7586: 7447:Types / location 7446: 7437: 7247: 7042: 6955: 6925: 6874: 6865: 6771: 6760: 6713: 6617: 6591: 6467: 6347:Fossil fuel power station 6315: 6228: 6134: 6009:Electric potential energy 5974: 5954:Thermodynamic temperature 5934:Thermodynamic free energy 5929:Thermodynamic equilibrium 5775: 5752: 5400:(inactive 19 June 2024). 5310:(1). Routledge: 153–174. 5264:(2). Routledge: 279–294. 5184:10.1017/S0022278X97002577 4594:(4). Routledge: 506–526. 4099:10.5194/hess-24-4691-2020 3829:. Springer. p. 373. 2883:Deep water source cooling 2764: 2656: 2585:and its tributaries. The 2560:alternating current motor 2448:, such as those built at 2415:Bernard Forest de Bélidor 228:Sustainable refurbishment 7957:Sustainable technologies 7942:Power station technology 6418:Concentrated solar power 5215:The Washington Quarterly 4986:The Arab Studies Journal 3213:"How Dams Damage Rivers" 2968:World Commission on Dams 2944: 2473:Francis reaction turbine 2419:Architecture Hydraulique 2037:A water piston from the 1965:run-of-the-river station 1682:, Belgium (12th century) 1635:may block construction. 1616:of water which triggers 1602:greenhouse gas emissions 1229:{\displaystyle \Delta h} 213:Sustainable architecture 168:Glass in green buildings 158:Environmental technology 88:Compact fluorescent lamp 5959:Volume (thermodynamics) 5939:Thermodynamic potential 5842:Mass–energy equivalence 5709:Microhydropower Systems 5221:(2). Routledge: 25–37. 4437:2014E&ES...22a2020L 4330:"History of Hydropower" 3033:Bartle, Alison (2002). 2860:Renewable energy portal 2788:, creating, along with 2642:Army Corps of Engineers 1922:tidal stream generators 1623:People who live near a 735:gravitational potential 534:Human-powered transport 238:Tropical green building 173:Green building and wood 6797:Gorlov helical turbine 5914:Quantum thermodynamics 5904:Laws of thermodynamics 5785:Conservation of energy 5503:10.1353/tech.2018.0062 5491:Technology and Culture 5347:African Studies Review 5036:African Studies Review 4819:10.1353/tech.2006.0153 4807:Technology and Culture 4666:African Studies Review 4483:Blackbourn, D (2006). 4400:. National Park System 4237:10.1353/tech.2005.0026 4225:Technology and Culture 3992: 2385: 2193:in forging cast iron. 2069: 2061: 2046: 1961:Bridgeport, Washington 1844:at Ragged Shutes near 1695: 1683: 1652: 1597: 1491: 1230: 1211:per second per second) 1197: 1171: 1128: 1098: 1059: 1029: 983: 852: 766:atmospheric pollutants 630:Personal rapid transit 372:Tidal stream generator 233:Thermal energy storage 153:Environmental planning 7952:Hydraulic engineering 6031:Interatomic potential 5822:Energy transformation 5696:27 April 2015 at the 5590:10.1093/envhis/emv053 5578:Environmental History 4350:. Water Encyclopedia. 4348:"Hydroelectric Power" 3984: 3577:www.sciencedirect.com 3547:Davis, Scott (2003). 3363:Breeze, Paul (2019). 3300:Breeze, Paul (2018). 2587:Bureau of Reclamation 2426:Industrial Revolution 2383: 2259:in the 19th century. 2255:when used during the 2225:Dolaucothi Gold Mines 2163:'s text known as the 2067: 2052: 2036: 1689: 1677: 1646: 1591: 1492: 1231: 1198: 1172: 1129: 1127:{\displaystyle \rho } 1099: 1060: 1058:{\displaystyle \eta } 1030: 984: 842: 474:Sustainable transport 419:Floating wind turbine 248:Zero heating building 163:Fossil fuel phase-out 7822:remnant natural area 7459:storage and recovery 7125:habitat conservation 6943:Deforestation (REDD) 6479:Efficient energy use 6452:Airborne wind energy 6430:Solar thermal energy 6337:Electricity delivery 5949:Thermodynamic system 5894:Irreversible process 5145:McNeill, JR (2000). 4365:Perkin, Harold James 4278:on 18 February 2008. 4266:al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. 4148:10.1525/elementa.333 3918:Lucas, Adam (2006). 3524:Hydropower Economics 3499:The Future of Energy 3487:, License: CC BY 4.0 3119:. pp. 163–164. 2918:Marine current power 2913:Low-head hydro power 2417:published his book, 2257:California Gold Rush 2202:arahatta-ghati-yanta 1982:in Northwest Vietnam 1532:environmental impact 1255: 1217: 1187: 1179:volumetric flow rate 1152: 1118: 1079: 1049: 1003: 879: 865:volumetric flow rate 782:economic development 608:Personal transporter 503:Wind-powered vehicle 347:Marine current power 253:Zero-energy building 113:Efficient energy use 7776:Earth Overshoot Day 7350:Marine conservation 7331:non-timber products 6501:Energy conservation 6423:Photovoltaic system 6396:Nuclear power plant 6081:Quantum fluctuation 5944:Thermodynamic state 5919:Thermal equilibrium 5359:10.1017/asr.2020.41 5048:10.1017/asr.2020.41 4908:The Organic Machine 4737:2007RSERv..11.2032C 4678:10.1017/asr.2020.41 4508:McCully, P (2001). 4336:on 26 January 2010. 4139:2018EleSA...6...70N 4090:2020HESS...24.4691S 3409:2019GeAnA.101..157M 3147:. 27 September 2021 3078:The Washington Post 3051:2002EnPol..30.1231B 3012:2002EnPol..30.1225E 2720:Ethiopian Civil War 2716:coup d'état of 1974 2661:Foreign powers and 2621:After the war, the 2605:. Power demand in 2572:Hetch Hetchy Valley 2524:, leading to local 2477:Lester Allan Pelton 2450:Saint Anthony Falls 2054:Saint Anthony Falls 1618:anaerobic digestion 791:has been used as a 727:produce electricity 295:Carbon-neutral fuel 223:Sustainable habitat 78:Building insulation 66:Energy conservation 42:Part of a series on 7761:Ecosystem services 6884:Ambient standards 6812:Cross-flow turbine 6538:Sustainable energy 6516:Energy development 6506:Energy consumption 6342:Energy engineering 5637:, p. 222-236. 5566:, p. 212-213. 5554:, p. 198-207. 5542:, p. 174-175. 4766:Berton, P (2009). 4177:Hoyland, Robert G. 3823:Oleson, John Peter 2702:Gamal Abdel Nasser 2386: 2268:Islamic Golden Age 2130:respectively. The 2113:Hierapolis sawmill 2070: 2062: 2047: 1924:using energy from 1712:milling (grinding) 1696: 1684: 1653: 1598: 1512:significant digits 1487: 1226: 1193: 1167: 1124: 1094: 1055: 1025: 979: 853: 849:installed capacity 743:sustainable energy 310:Geothermal heating 138:Energy saving lamp 48:Sustainable energy 7947:Energy conversion 7924: 7923: 7902: 7901: 7701: 7700: 7380:genetic resources 7316:genetic resources 6951: 6950: 6859:Natural resources 6825: 6824: 6673: 6672: 6440:Solar power tower 6086:Quantum potential 5924:Thermal reservoir 5827:Energy transition 5703:Micro-hydro power 5156:978-0-393-32183-8 5088:978-0-19-182990-1 5077:Ross, C. (2017). 4917:978-0-8090-3559-5 4906:White, R (1995). 4779:978-1-4384-2930-4 4550:, p. 222–24. 4519:978-1-85649-901-9 4494:978-0-393-06212-0 4084:(10): 4691–4707. 4052:978-3-030-87066-9 4015:978-1-85109-925-2 3780:978-1-4471-2291-3 3718:BBC Science Focus 3533:978-1-4899-7519-5 3444:Popular Mechanics 3313:978-0-12-812906-7 3198:978-93-325-7679-7 3045:(14): 1231–1239. 3006:(14): 1225–1230. 2558:invention of the 2454:Mississippi River 2430:Richard Arkwright 2403:William Armstrong 2395:Benoît Fourneyron 2086:ancient Near East 1802:inundation events 1680:Braine-le-Château 1589: 1485: 1481: 1462: 1445: 1440: 1436: 1429: 1406: 1402: 1383: 1372: 1365: 1352: 1336: 1328: 1309: 1298: 1291: 1274: 1268: 1196:{\displaystyle g} 1164: 1091: 1022: 1016: 972: 966: 961: 948: 930: 922: 912: 898: 892: 703: 702: 300:Geothermal energy 16:(Redirected from 7964: 7914: 7913: 7865: 7812:Natural heritage 7771:overexploitation 7710: 7709: 7444: 7443: 7390:herbal medicines 7370:FAO Plant Treaty 6910: 6887: 6872: 6871: 6852: 6845: 6838: 6829: 6828: 6773:Hydroelectricity 6766: 6715:Hydroelectricity 6700: 6693: 6686: 6677: 6676: 6661: 6660: 6649: 6637: 6636: 6625: 6624: 6599:Carbon footprint 6533:Renewable energy 6374:Hydroelectricity 6364:Geothermal power 5807:Energy condition 5739: 5732: 5725: 5716: 5715: 5665: 5638: 5632: 5626: 5620: 5614: 5608: 5602: 5601: 5584:(3). : 422–448. 5573: 5567: 5561: 5555: 5549: 5543: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5486: 5477: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5454: 5445:(239): 789–818. 5430: 5424: 5423: 5417: 5409: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5299: 5290: 5289: 5253: 5247: 5246: 5210: 5204: 5203: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5142: 5136: 5135: 5099: 5093: 5092: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5031: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4981: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4955: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4880: 4874: 4868: 4862: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4845: 4839: 4838: 4802: 4796: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4731:(9): 2032–2057. 4720: 4714: 4708: 4702: 4696: 4690: 4689: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4626: 4620: 4619: 4583: 4577: 4571: 4565: 4564: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4524: 4523: 4505: 4499: 4498: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4416: 4410: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4398:River Of History 4392:Anfinson, John. 4389: 4383: 4382: 4361: 4352: 4351: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4326: 4320: 4319: 4304:Physics Bulletin 4295: 4289: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4274:. Archived from 4263: 4257: 4256: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4173: 4167: 4166: 4160: 4152: 4150: 4118: 4112: 4111: 4101: 4069: 4063: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4035:Riverine Systems 4026: 4020: 4019: 3999: 3993: 3978: 3972: 3961: 3955: 3954: 3933: 3924: 3923: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3855: 3849: 3848: 3825:(30 June 1984). 3819: 3813: 3812: 3794: 3785: 3784: 3764: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3712:Villazon, Luis. 3709: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3686:. Archived from 3675: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3649: 3643: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3597: 3588: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3494: 3488: 3481: 3475: 3474: 3454: 3448: 3447: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3390: 3379: 3378: 3360: 3343: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3297: 3278: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3154: 3152: 3145:Energy Education 3141:"Hydraulic head" 3137: 3131: 3130: 3103: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3080:. Archived from 3069: 3063: 3062: 3030: 3024: 3023: 2991: 2971: 2964: 2958: 2955: 2876: 2871: 2870: 2862: 2857: 2856: 2848: 2843: 2842: 2623:Grand Coulee Dam 2603:Grand Coulee Dam 2510:Three Gorges Dam 2469:James B. Francis 2342:while employing 2253:hydraulic mining 2136:Roman watermills 1991: 1976: 1957:Chief Joseph Dam 1953: 1937: 1911:potential energy 1871:potential energy 1867:Hydroelectricity 1858:Hydroelectricity 1690:Interior of the 1656:Mechanical power 1606:renewable energy 1590: 1496: 1494: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1479: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1452: 1451: 1446: 1443: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1390: 1389: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1373: 1370: 1363: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1343: 1342: 1337: 1334: 1326: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1299: 1296: 1289: 1276: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1269: 1261: 1235: 1233: 1232: 1227: 1202: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1166: 1165: 1157: 1133: 1131: 1130: 1125: 1103: 1101: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1092: 1084: 1064: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1034: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1017: 1009: 988: 986: 985: 980: 970: 964: 963: 962: 954: 946: 928: 924: 923: 915: 910: 900: 899: 896: 894: 893: 885: 845:Three Gorges Dam 793:renewable energy 716: 715: 695: 688: 681: 668: 664: 663: 654: 649: 648: 486:Electric vehicle 335:Run-of-the-river 320:Hydroelectricity 305:Geothermal power 266:Renewable energy 218:Sustainable city 193:Low-energy house 133:Energy recycling 58: 39: 38: 32:hydroelectricity 21: 7972: 7971: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7963: 7962: 7961: 7927: 7926: 7925: 7920: 7898: 7863: 7843: 7829:Systems ecology 7795:Natural capital 7697: 7582: 7571:reclaimed water 7433: 7395:UPOV Convention 7243: 7038: 6947: 6921: 6917:Ozone depletion 6908: 6885: 6861: 6856: 6826: 6821: 6782:Francis turbine 6767: 6758: 6709: 6704: 6674: 6669: 6613: 6609:Waste-to-energy 6587: 6523:Energy security 6469: 6463: 6319: 6311: 6290:Natural uranium 6224: 6205:Mechanical wave 6136:Energy carriers 6130: 5970: 5899:Isolated system 5777: 5771: 5748: 5743: 5698:Wayback Machine 5672: 5663: 5647: 5642: 5641: 5635:Blackbourn 2006 5633: 5629: 5623:Blackbourn 2006 5621: 5617: 5611:Blackbourn 2006 5609: 5605: 5574: 5570: 5564:Blackbourn 2006 5562: 5558: 5552:Blackbourn 2006 5550: 5546: 5538: 5534: 5487: 5480: 5474:Blackbourn 2006 5472: 5468: 5431: 5427: 5411: 5410: 5378: 5374: 5343: 5339: 5300: 5293: 5254: 5250: 5211: 5207: 5168: 5164: 5157: 5143: 5139: 5116:10.2307/2145939 5100: 5096: 5089: 5075: 5071: 5032: 5028: 5019: 5017: 5009: 5005: 4982: 4975: 4966: 4964: 4961:The Big Dam Era 4956: 4949: 4941: 4937: 4929: 4925: 4918: 4904: 4900: 4891: 4889: 4886:The Big Dam Era 4881: 4877: 4871:Blackbourn 2006 4869: 4865: 4856: 4854: 4847: 4846: 4842: 4803: 4799: 4791: 4787: 4780: 4764: 4760: 4721: 4717: 4709: 4705: 4697: 4693: 4662: 4658: 4627: 4623: 4584: 4580: 4572: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4548:Blackbourn 2006 4546: 4542: 4534: 4527: 4520: 4506: 4502: 4495: 4481: 4477: 4468: 4466: 4458: 4454: 4431:(1). IOP: 5–7. 4417: 4413: 4403: 4401: 4390: 4386: 4379: 4362: 4355: 4346: 4345: 4341: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4264: 4260: 4217: 4213: 4202: 4198: 4191: 4174: 4170: 4154: 4153: 4119: 4115: 4070: 4066: 4057: 4055: 4053: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4000: 3996: 3983:, p. 400: 3979: 3975: 3962: 3958: 3951: 3937:Needham, Joseph 3934: 3927: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3891: 3887: 3856: 3852: 3837: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3795: 3788: 3781: 3765: 3758: 3748: 3746: 3736: 3732: 3722: 3720: 3710: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3690:on 9 April 2022 3676: 3672: 3662: 3660: 3650: 3646: 3636: 3634: 3624: 3620: 3610: 3608: 3606:The Irish Times 3598: 3591: 3581: 3579: 3571: 3570: 3566: 3559: 3545: 3541: 3534: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3495: 3491: 3482: 3478: 3455: 3451: 3436: 3432: 3391: 3382: 3375: 3361: 3346: 3336: 3334: 3326: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3298: 3281: 3271: 3269: 3261: 3260: 3256: 3246: 3244: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3221: 3219: 3217:American Rivers 3211: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3185: 3181: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3150: 3148: 3139: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3104: 3097: 3087: 3085: 3084:on 22 July 2013 3070: 3066: 3031: 3027: 2992: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2974: 2965: 2961: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2872: 2865: 2858: 2851: 2844: 2837: 2834: 2767: 2731:Inga powerplant 2695:Adriano Daninos 2659: 2566:engineers, the 2546: 2493: 2391: 2356:Delhi Sultanate 2045:(fl. 1290–1333) 2031: 2029:Ancient history 2026: 2010: 2003: 1992: 1983: 1977: 1968: 1954: 1945: 1938: 1860: 1854: 1846:Cobalt, Ontario 1829: 1823: 1818: 1817: 1796:, particularly 1671: 1663: 1658: 1641: 1633:religious sites 1582: 1558: 1550:Main articles: 1548: 1482: 1464: 1459: 1458: 1453: 1447: 1442: 1441: 1433: 1421: 1417: 1403: 1385: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1349: 1344: 1338: 1333: 1332: 1311: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1271: 1260: 1259: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1252: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1156: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1083: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1050: 1047: 1046: 1019: 1008: 1007: 1006: 1004: 1001: 1000: 953: 952: 914: 913: 895: 884: 883: 882: 880: 877: 876: 837: 699: 658: 657: 644: 637: 636: 476: 466: 465: 268: 258: 257: 243:Waste-to-energy 198:Microgeneration 128:Energy recovery 68: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7970: 7960: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7922: 7921: 7919: 7918: 7907: 7904: 7903: 7900: 7899: 7897: 7896: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7864:(perpetuation) 7859: 7853: 7851: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7817:Nature reserve 7814: 7809: 7808: 7807: 7802: 7792: 7791: 7790: 7780: 7779: 7778: 7773: 7763: 7758: 7757: 7756: 7751: 7741: 7740: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7713: 7707: 7703: 7702: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7695: 7694: 7693: 7688: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7622: 7621: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7590: 7588: 7584: 7583: 7581: 7580: 7575: 7574: 7573: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7552: 7551: 7541: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7522: 7521: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7500: 7495: 7494: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7450: 7448: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7431: 7430: 7429: 7424: 7414: 7409: 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4631:Monthly Review 4621: 4578: 4566: 4552: 4540: 4538:, p. 227. 4525: 4518: 4500: 4493: 4475: 4452: 4411: 4384: 4377: 4353: 4339: 4321: 4290: 4281: 4258: 4211: 4196: 4189: 4168: 4113: 4064: 4051: 4021: 4014: 3994: 3973: 3965:Joseph Needham 3956: 3949: 3925: 3910: 3904:978-0801866265 3903: 3885: 3866:(2): 209–219. 3850: 3835: 3814: 3807: 3786: 3779: 3756: 3730: 3701: 3670: 3644: 3618: 3589: 3564: 3557: 3539: 3532: 3514: 3507: 3489: 3476: 3465:(1): 359–369. 3449: 3430: 3403:(2): 157–176. 3380: 3374:978-0081026311 3373: 3344: 3319: 3312: 3279: 3254: 3229: 3204: 3197: 3187:Sahdev, S. K. 3179: 3161: 3132: 3125: 3095: 3064: 3025: 2982: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2972: 2959: 2949: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2877: 2863: 2849: 2833: 2830: 2766: 2763: 2658: 2655: 2627:Columbia Basin 2583:Columbia River 2556:Nikola Tesla's 2545: 2542: 2514:Aswan High Dam 2492: 2489: 2438:blast furnaces 2411:Northumberland 2390: 2387: 2352:Persian Wheels 2340:water turbines 2264:Islamic Empire 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2004: 1993: 1986: 1984: 1978: 1971: 1969: 1955: 1948: 1946: 1939: 1932: 1915:pumped-storage 1875:kinetic energy 1856:Main article: 1853: 1850: 1842:Montreal River 1833:compressed air 1822: 1821:Compressed air 1819: 1812:increases and 1810:river incision 1764:trip hammering 1672: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1640: 1637: 1547: 1544: 1523:kinetic energy 1498: 1497: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1467: 1456: 1450: 1432: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1413: 1410: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1388: 1377: 1368: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1347: 1341: 1331: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1314: 1303: 1294: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1267: 1264: 1246: 1245: 1244: 1243: 1242: 1241: 1225: 1222: 1212: 1192: 1182: 1163: 1160: 1147: 1123: 1113: 1106:mass flow rate 1090: 1087: 1074: 1054: 1044: 1015: 1012: 992: 991: 990: 989: 978: 975: 969: 960: 957: 951: 945: 942: 939: 936: 933: 927: 921: 918: 909: 906: 903: 891: 888: 861:hydraulic head 836: 833: 762:carbon dioxide 739:kinetic energy 701: 700: 698: 697: 690: 683: 675: 672: 671: 670: 669: 655: 639: 638: 635: 634: 633: 632: 622: 621: 620: 613:Rail transport 610: 605: 604: 603: 598: 593: 588: 586:Roller skating 583: 582: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 559:Cycle rickshaw 556: 546: 541: 531: 530: 529: 524: 523: 522: 515:Human-electric 510:Hybrid vehicle 507: 506: 505: 500: 495: 494: 493: 477: 472: 471: 468: 467: 464: 463: 462: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 401: 396: 391: 389:Renewable heat 386: 381: 376: 375: 374: 369: 364: 354: 349: 344: 343: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 281: 280: 269: 264: 263: 260: 259: 256: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 178:Green building 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 148:Energy storage 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 69: 64: 63: 60: 59: 51: 50: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7969: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7934: 7932: 7917: 7909: 7908: 7905: 7895: 7894:Non-renewable 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7854: 7852: 7850: 7846: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7834:Urban ecology 7832: 7830: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7819: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7797: 7796: 7793: 7789: 7786: 7785: 7784: 7781: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7746: 7745: 7742: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7719: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7711: 7708: 7704: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7666:Privatization 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7620: 7617: 7616: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7591: 7589: 7585: 7579: 7576: 7572: 7569: 7568: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7561:Surface water 7559: 7557: 7554: 7550: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7532: 7528: 7527: 7526: 7523: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7478: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7449: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7436: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7344: 7341: 7340: 7339: 7336: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7309: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7268: 7265: 7264: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7254: 7252: 7250: 7246: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7228: 7225: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7202: 7201: 7198: 7194: 7191: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7174: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7157: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7130: 7126: 7123: 7122: 7121: 7118: 7114: 7111: 7110: 7109: 7106: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7063: 7062:peak farmland 7060: 7059: 7058: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7045: 7041: 7035: 7032: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6962: 6960: 6958: 6954: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6915: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6877: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6853: 6848: 6846: 6841: 6839: 6834: 6833: 6830: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6807:Turgo turbine 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6792:Tyson turbine 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6770: 6765: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6701: 6696: 6694: 6689: 6687: 6682: 6681: 6678: 6666: 6665: 6656: 6654: 6653: 6648: 6644: 6642: 6641: 6632: 6630: 6629: 6620: 6619: 6616: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6590: 6584: 6583:United States 6581: 6579: 6578:South America 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6512: 6511:Energy policy 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6480: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6472: 6466: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6449: 6448: 6445: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6435:Solar furnace 6433: 6432: 6431: 6428: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6415: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6391:Nuclear power 6389: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6371: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6318: 6317:Energy system 6314: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6287: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6270:Gravitational 6268: 6266: 6263: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6199: 6198:Hydrogen fuel 6196: 6195: 6194: 6191: 6187: 6184: 6183: 6182: 6179: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6020: 6019:Gravitational 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5983: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5973: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5889:Heat transfer 5887: 5885: 5884:Heat capacity 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5837:Negative mass 5835: 5834: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5817:Energy system 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5801: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5774: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5754: 5751: 5747: 5740: 5735: 5733: 5728: 5726: 5721: 5720: 5717: 5710: 5707: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5688: 5685: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5664: 5662:90-04-11123-9 5658: 5654: 5649: 5648: 5636: 5631: 5624: 5619: 5612: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5572: 5565: 5560: 5553: 5548: 5541: 5536: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5485: 5483: 5475: 5470: 5462: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5429: 5421: 5415: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5376: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5341: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5298: 5296: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5252: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5209: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5158: 5152: 5148: 5141: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5098: 5090: 5084: 5080: 5073: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5030: 5016: 5015: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4992:(1). : 9–31. 4991: 4987: 4980: 4978: 4963: 4962: 4954: 4952: 4944: 4939: 4933:, p. 16. 4932: 4927: 4919: 4913: 4909: 4902: 4888: 4887: 4879: 4872: 4867: 4852: 4851: 4844: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4801: 4794: 4789: 4781: 4775: 4771: 4770: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4712: 4707: 4700: 4695: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4660: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4576:, p. 93. 4575: 4570: 4562: 4556: 4549: 4544: 4537: 4532: 4530: 4521: 4515: 4511: 4504: 4496: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4465: 4464: 4460:Montrie, C., 4456: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4415: 4399: 4395: 4388: 4380: 4378:9780710045676 4374: 4370: 4366: 4360: 4358: 4349: 4343: 4335: 4331: 4325: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4285: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4262: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4207: 4200: 4192: 4190:9780199916368 4186: 4182: 4178: 4172: 4164: 4158: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4127:Elem Sci Anth 4124: 4117: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4006: 3998: 3991: 3989: 3982: 3981:Wikander 2000 3977: 3970: 3966: 3960: 3952: 3950:0-521-05803-1 3946: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3930: 3921: 3914: 3906: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3854: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3836:90-277-1693-5 3832: 3828: 3824: 3818: 3810: 3808:0-8018-7248-0 3804: 3800: 3793: 3791: 3782: 3776: 3772: 3771: 3763: 3761: 3745: 3741: 3734: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3706: 3689: 3685: 3684:EuroScientist 3681: 3674: 3659: 3655: 3648: 3633: 3629: 3622: 3607: 3603: 3596: 3594: 3578: 3574: 3568: 3560: 3558:9780865714847 3554: 3550: 3543: 3535: 3529: 3525: 3518: 3510: 3508:9780128010655 3504: 3500: 3493: 3486: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3434: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3397: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3376: 3370: 3366: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3333: 3329: 3323: 3315: 3309: 3305: 3304: 3296: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3268: 3264: 3258: 3243: 3239: 3233: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3200: 3194: 3190: 3183: 3172: 3165: 3158: 3146: 3142: 3136: 3128: 3126:9781317761570 3122: 3118: 3114: 3113: 3108: 3102: 3100: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3068: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3039:Energy Policy 3036: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 3000:Energy Policy 2997: 2990: 2988: 2983: 2969: 2963: 2954: 2950: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2933:Osmotic power 2931: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2923:Marine energy 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2898:Hydraulic ram 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2875: 2869: 2864: 2861: 2855: 2850: 2847: 2846:Energy portal 2841: 2836: 2829: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2776: 2772: 2762: 2758: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2675:Akosombo Dams 2672: 2668: 2664: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2564:San Francisco 2561: 2557: 2552: 2544:United States 2541: 2539: 2533: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2502:Sierra Nevada 2499: 2498:Niagara Falls 2488: 2486: 2485:Sierra Nevada 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2457: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2399:Niagara Falls 2396: 2382: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2361: 2360:Mughal Empire 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2157: 2152: 2151:blast furnace 2148: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2122:excavated at 2121: 2118: 2117:Eastern Roman 2114: 2110: 2109:Barbegal mill 2106: 2102: 2097: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2066: 2059: 2058:United States 2055: 2051: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2001: 1997: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1963:, is a major 1962: 1958: 1952: 1947: 1943: 1936: 1931: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1892: 1890: 1885: 1883: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1859: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1828: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1773: 1769: 1768:rolling mills 1765: 1761: 1757: 1756:textile mills 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1708:water turbine 1705: 1701: 1693: 1688: 1681: 1678:Watermill of 1676: 1669: 1650: 1649:shishi-odoshi 1645: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1614:deoxygenation 1611: 1607: 1603: 1595: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1563: 1557: 1553: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1513: 1508: 1504: 1476: 1473: 1465: 1454: 1448: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1397: 1394: 1386: 1375: 1360: 1357: 1345: 1339: 1323: 1320: 1312: 1301: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1265: 1262: 1251: 1250: 1249: 1239: 1223: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1190: 1183: 1180: 1161: 1158: 1148: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1121: 1114: 1111: 1107: 1088: 1085: 1075: 1072: 1071:dimensionless 1068: 1052: 1045: 1042: 1038: 1013: 1010: 999: 998: 997: 996: 994: 993: 976: 967: 958: 955: 949: 943: 940: 937: 934: 925: 919: 916: 907: 904: 901: 889: 886: 875: 874: 873: 872: 871: 868: 866: 862: 858: 850: 846: 841: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 790: 785: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 754: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 711: 710:Ancient Greek 707: 696: 691: 689: 684: 682: 677: 676: 674: 673: 667: 662: 656: 653: 643: 642: 641: 640: 631: 628: 627: 626: 625:Rapid transit 623: 619: 616: 615: 614: 611: 609: 606: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 591:Skateboarding 589: 587: 584: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 551: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 536: 535: 532: 528: 525: 521: 518: 517: 516: 513: 512: 511: 508: 504: 501: 499: 498:Solar vehicle 496: 492: 489: 488: 487: 484: 483: 482: 481:Green vehicle 479: 478: 475: 470: 469: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 406: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 362:Tidal barrage 360: 359: 358: 355: 353: 352:Marine energy 350: 348: 345: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 317: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 279: 276: 275: 274: 271: 270: 267: 262: 261: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 203:Passive house 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 70: 67: 62: 61: 57: 53: 52: 49: 46: 45: 41: 40: 37: 33: 19: 7892: / 7766:Exploitation 7651:Conservation 7594:Desalination 7529: 7422:conservation 7257:Biodiversity 7205:conservation 7052:Agricultural 7006: 6980:Fossil fuels 6802:Pelton wheel 6706: 6662: 6650: 6638: 6626: 6408:Oil refinery 6368: 6352:Cogeneration 6285:Nuclear fuel 6274: 6091:Quintessence 5879:Free entropy 5812:Energy level 5776:Fundamental 5691:TC 4 website 5652: 5630: 5618: 5606: 5581: 5577: 5571: 5559: 5547: 5540:McNeill 2000 5535: 5494: 5490: 5469: 5442: 5438: 5428: 5414:cite journal 5392:(3): 14–25. 5389: 5385: 5375: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5307: 5303: 5261: 5257: 5251: 5218: 5214: 5208: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5146: 5140: 5107: 5103: 5097: 5078: 5072: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5018:, retrieved 5013: 5006: 4989: 4985: 4965:, retrieved 4960: 4938: 4931:McCully 2001 4926: 4907: 4901: 4890:, retrieved 4885: 4878: 4866: 4855:, retrieved 4850:Hetch Hetchy 4849: 4843: 4810: 4806: 4800: 4788: 4768: 4761: 4728: 4724: 4718: 4711:McCully 2001 4706: 4699:McCully 2001 4694: 4669: 4665: 4659: 4634: 4630: 4624: 4591: 4587: 4581: 4574:McCully 2001 4569: 4560: 4555: 4543: 4536:McCully 2001 4509: 4503: 4484: 4478: 4467:, retrieved 4462: 4455: 4428: 4424: 4414: 4402:. 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hydro 278:Sustainable 143:Energy Star 18:Water power 7937:Hydropower 7931:Categories 7880:Extraction 7839:Wilderness 7800:accounting 7783:Management 7749:ecological 7737:tragedy of 7656:Peak water 7641:Efficiency 7614:Sanitation 7556:Stormwater 7549:harvesting 7525:Irrigation 7427:management 7385:gene banks 7326:management 7304:management 7220:resilience 7186:phosphorus 7142:industrial 7120:Management 7096:soundscape 7002:Geothermal 6749:Pico hydro 6717:generation 6707:Hydropower 6447:Wind power 6369:Hydropower 6320:components 6275:Hydropower 6265:Geothermal 6215:Sound wave 6126:Zero-point 6056:Mechanical 6041:Ionization 6014:Electrical 5909:Negentropy 5790:Energetics 4943:White 1995 3845:9027716935 3303:Hydropower 3151:8 November 2978:References 2938:Wave power 2822:Walchensee 2780:Early on, 2755:Mozambique 2687:Nile River 2677:, and the 2667:World Bank 2599:Shasta Dam 2591:Hoover Dam 2589:built the 2446:gristmills 2440:(e.g. the 2324:Al-Andalus 2320:tide mills 2304:ship mills 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