290:, is a leading theorist on ideas of cellular intentionality. The idea is that not only do whole organisms have a sense of "aboutness" of intentionality, but that single cells also carry a sense of intentionality through cells' ability to adapt and reorganize in response to certain stimuli. Fitch discusses the idea of nano-intentionality, specifically in regards to neurons, in their ability to adjust rearrangements to create neural networks. He discusses the ability of cells such as neurons to respond independently to stimuli such as damage to be what he considers "intrinsic intentionality" in cells, explaining that "while at a vastly simpler level than intentionality at the human cognitive level, I propose that this basic capacity of living things provides the necessary building blocks for cognition and higher-order intentionality." Fitch describes the value of his research to specific areas of computer science such as artificial intelligence and computer architecture. He states "If a researcher aims to make a conscious machine, doing it with rigid switches (whether vacuum tubes or static silicon chips) is barking up the wrong tree." Fitch believes that an important aspect of the development of areas such as artificial intelligence is wetware with nano-intentionally, and autonomous ability to adapt and restructure itself.
297:, a professor at Tufts University, discusses the importance of the distinction between the concept of hardware and software when evaluating the idea of wetware and organic material such as neurons. Dennett discusses the value of observing the human brain as a preexisting example of wetware. He sees the brain as having "the competence of a silicon computer to take on an unlimited variety of temporary cognitive roles." Dennett disagrees with Fitch on certain areas, such as the relationship of software/hardware versus wetware, and what a machine with wetware might be capable of. Dennett highlights the importance of additional research into human cognition to better understand the intrinsic mechanisms by which the human brain can operate, to better create an organic computer.
140:
intertwined and interdependent. The molecular and chemical composition of the organic or biological structure would represent not only the physical structure of the wetware but also the software, being continually reprogrammed by the discrete shifts in electrical pulses and chemical concentration gradients as the molecules change their structures to communicate signals. The responsiveness of a cell, proteins, and molecules to changing conformations, both within their structures and around them, ties the idea of internal programming and external structure together in a way that is alien to the current model of conventional computer architecture.
195:
concept of biorobotics is not always a system composed of organic molecules, but instead could be composed of conventional material which is designed and assembled in a structure similar or derived from a biological model. Biorobotics have many applications and are used to address the challenges of conventional computer architecture. Conceptually, designing a program, robot, or computational device after a preexisting biological model such as a cell, or even a whole organism, provides the engineer or programmer the benefits of incorporating into the structure the evolutionary advantages of the model.
237:. This program was used to manipulate the electrical signals being input into the neurons to represent numbers and to communicate with each other to return the sum. While this computer is a very basic example of a wetware structure it represents a small example with fewer neurons than found in a more complex organ. It is thought by Ditto that by increasing the number of neurons present the chaotic signals sent between them will self-organize into a more structured pattern, such as the regulation of heart neurons into a constant heartbeat found in humans and other living organisms.
379:
Urbana-Champaign using 80,000 mouse neurons as processor that can detect light and electrical signals. Projects such as the modeling of chaotic pathways in silicon chips by Ditto have made discoveries in ways of organizing traditional silicon chips and structuring computer architecture to be more efficient and better structured. Ideas emerging from the field of cognitive biology also help to continue to push discoveries in ways of structuring systems for artificial intelligence, to better imitate preexisting systems in humans.
54:. Wetware computers composed of neurons are different than conventional computers because they use biological materials, and offer the possibility of substantially more energy-efficient computing. While a wetware computer is still largely conceptual, there has been limited success with construction and prototyping, which has acted as a proof of the concept's realistic application to computing in the future. The most notable prototypes have stemmed from the research completed by biological engineer
221:
able to complete basic addition through electrical probes inserted into the neuron. The manipulation of electrical currents through neurons was not a trivial accomplishment, however. Unlike conventional computer architecture, which is based on the binary on/off states, neurons are capable of existing in thousands of states and communicate with each other through synaptic connections with each containing over 200,000 channels. Each can be dynamically shifted in a process called
20:
370:
organoids may acquire human brain-like neural function subjective experience and consciousness may be feasible. Moreover, it may be possible that they acquire such upon transplantation into animals. A study notes that it may, in various cases, be morally permissible "to create self-conscious animals by engrafting human cerebral organoids, but in the case, the moral status of such animals should be carefully considered".
144:
wetware borrows from the function of complex cellular structures in biological organisms. The combination of “hardware” and “software” into one dynamic, and interdependent system which uses organic molecules and complexes to create an unconventional model for computational devices is a specific example of applied
1394:
Wang, Ting; Wang, Ming; Wang, Jianwu; Yang, Le; Ren, Xueyang; Song, Gang; Chen, Shisheng; Yuan, Yuehui; Liu, Ruiqing; Pan, Liang; Li, Zheng; Leow, Wan Ru; Luo, Yifei; Ji, Shaobo; Cui, Zequn; He, Ke; Zhang, Feilong; Lv, Fengting; Tian, Yuanyuan; Cai, Kaiyu; Yang, Bowen; Niu, Jingyi; Zou, Haochen; Liu,
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Moreover, in some cases the human brain itself may be connected as a kind of "wetware" to other information technology systems which may also have large social and ethical implications, including issues related to intimate access to people's brains. For example, in 2021 Chile became the first country
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The structure of wetware represents a model where the external structure and internal programming are interdependent and unified; meaning that changes to the programming or internal communication between molecules of the device would represent a physical change in the structure. The dynamic nature of
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devices have been developed that are "aimed at testing and predicting the effects of biological and chemical agents, disease or pharmaceutical drugs on the brain over time". Wetware computers may be useful for research about brain diseases and brain health/capacities (for testing therapies targeting
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Krauhausen, Imke; Koutsouras, Dimitrios A.; Melianas, Armantas; Keene, Scott T.; Lieberth, Katharina; Ledanseur, Hadrien; Sheelamanthula, Rajendar; Giovannitti, Alexander; Torricelli, Fabrizio; Mcculloch, Iain; Blom, Paul W. M.; Salleo, Alberto; Burgt, Yoeri van de; Gkoupidenis, Paschalis (December
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which they learned faster than known machine intelligence systems, albeit to a lower skill-level than both AI and humans each. Moreover, the study suggests it provides "first empirical evidence" of differences in an information-processing capacity between neurons from different species as the human
266:
Ditto discusses the advantages in programming of using chaotic systems, with their greater sensitivity to respond and reconfigure logic gates in his conceptual chaotic chip. The main difference between a chaotic computer chip and a conventional computer chip is the reconfigurability of the chaotic
139:
represents the encoded architecture of storage and instructions. Wetware is a separate concept that uses the formation of organic molecules, mostly complex cellular structures (such as neurons), to create a computational device such as a computer. In wetware, the ideas of hardware and software are
94:
is doubled roughly every two years, has acted as a goal for the industry for decades, but as the size of computers continues to decrease, the ability to meet this goal has become more difficult, threatening to reach a plateau. Due to the difficulty in reducing the size of computers because of size
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neurons. Leeches were used as a model organism due to the large size of their neuron, and the ease associated with their collection and manipulation. However, these results have never been published in a peer-reviewed journal, prompting questions about the validity of the claims. The computer was
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Biodigital technologies provide the basis for a new naturalism based on the growth of natural and synthetic organisms and systems, and a path-breaking science with very serious political, ethical and educational implications. The biologizing of information and computing is less obvious than the
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It is an open question whether human cerebral organoids could develop a degree or form of consciousness. Whether or how it could acquire its moral status with related rights and limits may also be potential future questions. There is research on how consciousness could be detected. As cerebral
194:
are closely related concepts, which both borrow from similar overall principles. A biorobotic structure can be defined as a system modeled from a preexisting organic complex or model such as cells (neurons) or more complex structures like organs (brain) or whole organisms. Unlike wetware, the
164:
explains his theory that cells, which are the most basic form of life, are just a highly complex computational structure, like a computer. To simplify one of his arguments a cell can be seen as a type of computer, using its structured architecture. In this architecture, much like a traditional
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While there have been few major developments in the creation of an organic computer since the neuron-based calculator developed by Ditto in the 1990s, research continues to push the field forward, and in 2023 a functioning computer was constructed by researchers at the
University of Illinois
267:
system. Unlike a traditional computer chip, where a programmable gate array element must be reconfigured through the switching of many single-purpose logic gates, a chaotic chip can reconfigure all logic gates through the control of the pattern generated by the non-linear chaotic element.
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computer, many smaller components operate in tandem to receive input, process the information, and compute an output. In an overly simplified, non-technical analysis, cellular function can be broken into the following components: Information and instructions for execution are stored as
115:, and redirecting electrical pulses through over 200,000 channels in any of its many synaptic connections. Because of this large difference in the possible settings for any one neuron, compared to the binary limitations of conventional computers, the space limitations are far fewer.
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to access and process the DNA and to output a protein. Bray's argument in favor of viewing cells and cellular structures as models of natural computational devices is important when considering the more applied theories of wetware to biorobotics.
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In 2022, researchers from the Max Planck
Institute for Polymer Research, demonstrated an artificial spiking neuron based on polymers that operates in the biological wetware, enabling synergetic operation between the artificial and biological
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neurons, Ditto continued to work not only with organic molecules and wetware but also on the concept of applying the chaotic nature of biological systems and organic molecules to conventional material and
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Sarkar, Tanmoy; Lieberth, Katharina; Pavlou, Aristea; Frank, Thomas; Mailaender, Volker; McCulloch, Iain; Blom, Paul W. M.; Torriccelli, Fabrizio; Gkoupidenis, Paschalis (7 November 2022).
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Cells in many ways can be seen as their form of naturally occurring wetware, similar to the concept that the human brain is the preexisting model system for complex wetware. In his book
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neurons in 1999 was a significant discovery for the concept. This research was a primary example driving interest in creating these artificially constructed, but still organic
404:. External modules of biological tissue could trigger parallel trains of stimulation back into the brain. All-organic devices could be advantageous because it could be
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Lavazza, Andrea (1 January 2021). "Potential ethical problems with human cerebral organoids: Consciousness and moral status of future brains in a dish".
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Kagan, Brett J.; Kitchen, Andy C.; Tran, Nhi T.; Parker, Bradyn J.; Bhat, Anjali; Rollo, Ben; Razi, Adeel; Friston, Karl J. (3 December 2021).
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digitization of science and so far only in very early stages and yet it heralds a coming hybridization and interface that may be revolutionary.
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is understood as the physical architecture of traditional computational devices, comprising integrated circuits and supporting infrastructure,
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which may allow it to be implanted into the human body. This may enable treatments of certain diseases and injuries to the nervous system.
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which they built into a robot, enabling it to learn sensorimotorically within the real world, rather than via simulations. For the chip,
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cerebral organoids (including computer-like wetware) with other nerve tissues may become feasible in the future, as is the connection of
440:
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Intelligent and
Evolutionary Systems: The 20th Asia Pacific Symposium, IES 2016, Canberra, Australia, November 2016, Proceedings
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alternative. A wetware computer composed of neurons is an ideal concept because, unlike conventional materials which operate in
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The concept of artificial insects may raise substantial ethical questions, including questions related to the
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Songrui; Xu, Guoliang; Fan, Xing; Hu, Benhui; Loh, Xian Jun; Wang, Lianhui; Chen, Xiaodong (8 August 2022).
254:. Chaotic systems have advantages for generating patterns and computing higher-order functions like memory,
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capable of reading the electrical pulses from the neurons in real time and interpreting them was written by
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429:. In particular, the human brain cells learned to play a simulated (via electrophysiological stimulation)
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Sawai, Tsutomu; Sakaguchi, Hideya; Thomas, Elizabeth; Takahashi, Jun; Fujita, Misao (10 September 2019).
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The concept of wetware is an application of specific interest to the field of computer manufacturing.
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Fitch, W. Tecumseh (25 August 2007). "Nano-Intentionality: A Defense of
Intrinsic Intentionality".
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were used and coated with an ion-rich gel to enable the material to carry an electric charge like
386:, information is represented by spikes of electrical activity, a computation is implemented in a
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934:"'Brain-on-a-chip' tests effects of biological and chemical agents, develop countermeasures"
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1666:"An organic artificial spiking neuron for in situ neuromorphic sensing and bio-interfacing"
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The concept of wetware is distinct and unconventional and draws slight resonance with both
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to constantly form and reform new connections. A conventional computer program called the
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1097:"Brain surgeries are opening windows for neuroscientists, but ethical questions abound"
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1540:"In vitro neurons learn and exhibit sentience when embodied in a simulated game-world"
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Three companies are focusing specifically on wetware computing using living neurons:
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created a basic form of a wetware computer capable of simple addition by harnessing
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1716:"Artificial neurons emulate biological counterparts to enable synergetic operation"
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111:(on/off), a neuron can shift between thousands of states, constantly altering its
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762:"New Challenges in Biorobotics: Incorporating Soft Tissue into Control Systems"
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1232:"The Ethics of Cerebral Organoid Research: Being Conscious of Consciousness"
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that establishes rights to personal identity, free will and mental privacy.
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1119:"In the face of neurotechnology advances, Chile passes 'neuro rights' law"
963:"A mass of human brain cells in a petri dish has been taught to play Pong"
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1370:"Artificial neuron swaps dopamine with rat brain cells like a real one"
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707:"Biorobotics: Using robots to emulate and investigate agile locomotion"
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Peters, Michael A.; Jandrić, Petar; Hayes, Sarah (15 January 2021).
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1514:"Human brain cells in a dish learn to play Pong faster than an AI"
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Neurocomputers - computers are far from comparable to human brain
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In a review of the above-mentioned research conducted by Fitch,
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62:. His work constructing a simple neurocomputer capable of basic
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Leu, George; Singh, Hemant Kumar; Elsayed, Saber (2016-11-08).
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1152:"Lego Robot with an Organic 'Brain' Learns to Navigate a Maze"
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implications, for instance related to possible potentials to
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1052:"Ethical and Social Challenges of Brain-Computer Interfaces"
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acts as a source for distinctly encoded input, processed by
1289:"80,000 mouse brain cells used to build a living computer"
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Dennett, D. (2014). "The
Software/Wetware Distinction".
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network, and an interface is realized via fruit bodies.
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1456:"Connecting the Brain to Itself through an Emulation"
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In 1999 William Ditto and his team of researchers at
989:"Postdigital-biodigital: An emerging configuration"
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421:, demonstrated that grown brain cells integrated
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443:reported the development of organic low-power
436:brain cells performed better than mouse cells.
245:After his work creating a basic computer from
559:New material discovered for organic computers
417:In late 2021, scientists, including two from
204:Basic neurocomputer composed of leech neurons
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241:Biological models for conventional computing
1287:Padavic-Callaghan, Karmela (2023-03-16) .
400:(not necessarily organic) and the control
286:, a professor of cognitive biology at the
23:Diversity of neuronal morphologies in the
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1398:"A chemically mediated artificial neuron"
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1068:10.1001/virtualmentor.2007.9.2.msoc1-0702
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830:"Construction of a Chaotic Computer Chip"
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441:Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research
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596:Wetware: A Computer in Every Living Cell
571:Wetware: A Computer in Every Living Cell
439:Also in December 2021, researchers from
158:Wetware: A Computer in Every Living Cell
38:computer (which can also be known as an
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425:can carry out goal-directed tasks with
339:Wetware computers may have substantial
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264:Construction of a Chaotic Computer Chip
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325:Ethical and philosophical implications
271:Impact of wetware in cognitive biology
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679:Popkin, Gabriel (February 15, 2015).
464:Companies active in wetware computing
16:Computer composed of organic material
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382:In a proposed fungal computer using
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705:Ljspeert, Auke (October 10, 2014).
681:"Moore's Law Is About To Get Weird"
131:from conventional computers. While
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1050:Wolpe, Paul R. (1 February 2007).
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760:Trimmer, Bary (12 November 2008).
86:, which states that the number of
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1726:(11): 721–722. 10 November 2022.
993:Educational Philosophy and Theory
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1312:Adamatzky, Andrew (2018-12-06).
766:Applied Bionics and Biomechanics
282:as a basic biological function.
46:) composed of organic material "
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331:Cerebral organoid § Ethics
210:Georgia Institute of Technology
60:Georgia Institute of Technology
1190:10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147146
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475:, Switzerland, founded in 2014
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152:The cell as a model of wetware
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1006:10.1080/00131857.2020.1867108
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364:decline in insect populations
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1248:10.1016/j.stemcr.2019.08.003
487:, Australia, founded in 2020
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1454:Serruya, Mijail D. (2017).
912:10.1016/j.plrev.2014.05.009
491:
398:physical artificial neurons
262:operations. In his article
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1803:
1732:10.1038/s41928-022-00862-3
1683:10.1038/s41928-022-00859-y
1415:10.1038/s41928-022-00803-0
620:"Biological Computer Born"
328:
1548:10.1101/2021.12.02.471005
1460:Frontiers in Neuroscience
1314:"Towards fungal computer"
874:10.1007/s10539-007-9079-5
598:. Yale University Press.
498:Artificial neural network
351:and dual-use technology.
90:which can be placed on a
1473:10.3389/fnins.2017.00373
862:Biology & Philosophy
542:Biological computer born
513:Unconventional computing
445:neuromorphic electronics
40:artificial organic brain
1787:Artificial intelligence
900:Physics of Life Reviews
731:10.1126/science.1254486
58:during his time at the
1782:Central nervous system
1617:10.1126/sciadv.abl5068
1571:Cite journal requires
1330:10.1098/rsfs.2018.0029
481:, USA, founded in 2015
233:, a neurobiologist at
199:Applications and goals
103:, wetware provides an
27:
1542:: 2021.12.02.471005.
1056:AMA Journal of Ethics
594:Bray, Dennis (2009).
329:Further information:
179:transcription factors
113:chemical conformation
22:
1767:Classes of computers
423:into digital systems
301:Medical applications
288:University of Vienna
1609:2021SciA....7.5068K
1156:Scientific American
779:10.1155/2008/505213
723:2014Sci...346..196I
374:Future applications
317:and research about
235:Brandeis University
101:integrated circuits
50:" such as "living"
1720:Nature Electronics
1670:Nature Electronics
1403:Nature Electronics
564:2010-02-01 at the
427:performance-scores
335:Philosophy of mind
28:
1236:Stem Cell Reports
1150:Bolakhe, Saugat.
967:medicalxpress.com
717:(6206): 196–203.
555:, September 2000)
552:Discover Magazine
528:Machine olfaction
503:Chemical computer
284:W. Tecumseh Fitch
276:Cognitive biology
223:self-organization
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309:the brain), for
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32:wetware computer
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