570:), and similar types of obstructions. In a low-head dam, the 'hole' has a very wide, uniform structure with no escape point, and the sides of the hydraulic (ends of the dam) are often blocked by a man-made wall, making paddling around, or slipping off, the side of the hydraulic, where the bypass water flow would become normal (laminar), difficult. By (upside-down) analogy, this would be much like a surfer slipping out the end of the pipeline, where the wave no longer breaks. Low-head dams are insidiously dangerous because their danger cannot be easily recognized by people who have not studied swift water. (Even 'experts' have died in them.) Floating debris (trees, kayaks, etc.) is often trapped in these retroflow 'grinders' for weeks at a time.
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745:, resembling a kayak, or be "open", resembling the typical canoe. This type of canoe is usually referred to simply as an "open boat". Whitewater canoes are paddled in a low kneeling position, with a one-bladed paddle. Open whitewater canoes often have large airbags and in some cases foam, usually 2-lb density ethyl foam, firmly attached to the sides, to displace water in the boat when swamped by big waves and holes and to allow water to be spilled from the boat while still in the river by floating it up on its side using the foam and bags. Like kayaks, whitewater canoes can be righted after capsizing with an Eskimo roll, but this requires more skill in a canoe.
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438:, where whitewater (either an individual rapid, or the entire river) is classed in six categories from class I (the easiest and safest) to class VI (the most difficult and most dangerous). The grade reflects both the technical difficulty and the danger associated with a rapid, with grade I referring to flat or slow-moving water with few hazards, and grade VI referring to the hardest rapids, which are very dangerous even for expert paddlers, and are rarely run. Grade-VI rapids are sometimes downgraded to grade-V or V+ if they have been run successfully. Harder rapids (for example a grade-V rapid on a mainly grade-III river) are often
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716:. Rafts sometimes have inflatable floors, with holes around the edges, that allow water that splashes into the boat to easily flow to the side and out the bottom (these are typically called "self-bailers" because the occupants do not have to "bail" water out with a bucket). Others have simple fabric floors, without anyway for water to escape, these are called "bucket boats", both for their tendency to hold water like a bucket, and because the only way to get water out of them is by bailing with a bucket.
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444:, a French term for carrying. A portaged rapid is where the boater lands and carries the boat around the hazard. (In many cases, a lower rated rapid may give a better "ride" to kayakers or rafters, while a Class V may seem relatively tame. However, it is not so much the "ride," but the inherent danger in the rapid. An exiting rapid may have minimal risk, while a seemingly simply rapid may have terminal hydraulics, undercut rocks, etc.)
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drop, precise maneuvering, often characterized by "must make" moves, i.e. failure to execute a specific maneuver at a specific point may result in serious injury or death, Class 5 sometimes expanded to Class 5+ that describes the most extreme, runnable rapids (skill level: expert); Class 5+ is sometimes assigned to a rapid for commercial purposes, since insurance companies often will not cover losses sustained in a Class 6 rapid.
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rocks that are undercut on the upstream side. Here, a boater may become pinned against the rock under water. Many whitewater deaths have occurred in this fashion. Undercuts sometimes have pillows, but other times the water just flows smoothly under them, which can indicate that the rock is undercut. Undercuts are most common in rivers where the riverbed cuts through sedimentary rocks such as
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due to the development of certain safety features. Although some rapids may be easier at high flows because features are covered or "washed-out", high water usually makes rapids more difficult and dangerous. At flood stage, even rapids that are usually easy can contain lethal and unpredictable hazards (briefly adapted from the
American version of the International Scale of River Difficulty).
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spin and grab your watercraft in unexpected ways, but if used correctly, they can be a really playful spot. Full slice and half slice boaters are able to perform tricks like stern squirts and cartwheels, but nobody uses eddy lines as well as squirt boaters(link to squirt boating wiki), who use the swirling water and crossing currents to dance below the surface of the river.
559:) are formed when water pours over the top of a submerged object, or underwater ledges, causing the surface water to flow back upstream toward the object. Holes can be particularly dangerous—a boater or watercraft may become stuck under the surface in the recirculating water—or entertaining play-spots, where paddlers use the holes' features to perform various
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move for a whitewater boater approaching a lateral is to "square up" or turn the boat such that it hits the wave along the boat's longest axis, reducing the chance of the boat flipping or capsizing. This is often counterintuitive because it requires turning the boat such that it is no longer parallel to the current.
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Undercut rocks have been worn down underneath the surface by the river, or are loose boulders which cantilever out beyond their resting spots on the riverbed. They can be extremely dangerous features of a rapid because a person can get trapped underneath them under water. This is especially true of
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Sweepers are trees fallen in or heavily leaning over the river, still rooted on the shore and not fully submerged. Their trunks and branches may form an obstruction in the river like strainers. Since it is an obstruction from above, it often does not contribute to whitewater features, but may create
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In an emergency, climbing on top of a strainer may be better so as not to be pinned against the object under the water. In a river, swimming aggressively away from the strainer and into the main channel is recommended. If avoiding the strainer is not possible, one should swim hard towards it and try
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Strainers are formed by many natural or man-made objects, such as storm grates over tunnels, trees that have fallen into a river ("log jam"), bushes by the side of the river that are flooded during high water, wire fence, rebar from broken concrete structures in the water, or other debris. Strainers
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A rapid's grade is not fixed, since it may vary greatly depending on the water depth and speed of flow. Also, the level of development in rafting/kayaking technology plays a role. Rapids that would have meant almost certain death a hundred years ago may now be considered only a Class IV or V rapid,
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In large rivers with high flow rates next to an obstruction, "eddy walls" can occur. An eddy wall is formed when the height of the river is substantially higher than the level of the water in the eddy behind the obstruction. This can make it difficult for a boater, who has stopped in that particular
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are similar in construction to whitewater kayaks, but they are paddled in a low, kneeling position. They employ the use of a one-blade paddle, usually a little shorter than used in a more traditional canoe. They have a spraycover, essentially the same type used in kayaking. Like kayaks, C1s can be
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are formed, like hydraulics, on the downstream face of an obstruction. Unlike hydraulics, which swirl vertically in the water column, eddies revolve on the horizontal surface of the water. Typically, they are calm spots where the downward movement of water is partially or fully arrested—a place to
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A boulder or ledge in the middle of a river or near the side can obstruct the flow of the river, and can also create a "pillow"; when water flows backwards upstream of the obstruction, or a "pour over" (over the boulder); and "hydraulics" or "holes" where the river flows back on itself—perhaps back
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are constructed from the same materials as rafts. They can either be paddled or rowed with oars. Typical catarafts are constructed from two inflatable pontoons on either side of the craft that are bridged by a frame. Oar-propelled catarafts have the occupants sitting on seats mounted on the frame.
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are also often used as a whitewater craft; more stable than typical kayaks, they are less maneuverable. Rafts can carry large loads, so they are often used for expeditions. Typical whitewater rafts are inflatable craft, made from high-strength fabric coated with PVC, urethane, neoprene or
Hypalon;
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Because of the rough and random pattern of a riverbed, waves are often not perpendicular to the river's current. This makes them challenging for boaters, since a strong sideways or diagonal (also called a "lateral") wave can throw the craft off if the craft hits sideways or at an angle. The safest
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Approaching to the upper limits of rapids that can be run with the paddling skill (a Class 6 rapid has more to do with luck than skill, at least skill that can do much more than simply avoid the meat of the rapid). Whitewater, large waves, continuous rapids, large rocks and hazards, maybe a large
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A marked increase or decrease in flow can create a rapid, "wash out" a rapid (decreasing the hazard), or make safe passage through previously navigable rapids more difficult or impossible. Flow rate is measured in volume per unit of time. The stream flow rate may be faster for different parts of a
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Located between the eddy and the main current, the eddy line is a swirling seam of green and sometimes white water. Eddy lines vary in size based on the size of the water column, the gradient of the section, and the obstacle creating the eddy. Often containing boils and whirlpools, eddy lines can
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and "squirt boaters") use kayaks made of fiberglass composites. Whitewater kayaks are fairly stable in turbulent water, once the paddler is skillful with them; if flipped upside-down, the skilled paddler can easily roll them back upright. This essential skill of whitewater kayaking is called the
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Running whitewater rivers is a popular recreational sport, but is not without danger. Fast-moving water always has the potential for injury or death by drowning or hitting objects. Fatalities do occur; some 50 people die in whitewater accidents in the United States each year. The dangers can be
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differ from sea kayaks and recreational kayaks in that they are better specialized to deal with moving water. They are often shorter and more maneuverable than sea kayaks and are specially designed to deal with water flowing up onto their decks. Most whitewater kayaks are made of plastics now,
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Four factors, separately or in combination, can create rapids: gradient, constriction, obstruction, and flow rate. Gradient, constriction, and obstruction are streambed topography factors and are relatively consistent. Flow rate is dependent upon both seasonal variation in precipitation and
760:(or "drift boat" by some) is a more traditional "hard sided" boat. The design is characterized by a wide, flat bottom, flared sides, a narrow, flat bow, a pointed stern, and extreme rocker in the bow and stern to allow the boat to spin about its center for ease in maneuvering in rapids.
516:. These objects can be very dangerous, because the force of the water will pin an object or body against the strainer and then pile up, pushing it down under water. For a person caught in this position, getting to safety will be difficult or impossible, often leading to a fatal outcome.
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Another major whitewater feature is a sieve, which is a narrow, empty space through which water flows between two obstructions, usually rocks. Similar to strainers, water is forced through the sieve, resulting in higher velocity flow, which forces water up and creates turbulence.
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are formed in a similar manner to hydraulics and are sometimes also considered hydraulics, as well. Waves are noted by the large, smooth face on the water rushing down. Sometimes, a particularly large wave also is followed by a "wave train", a long series of waves. These
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under the drop—often with fearful results for those caught in its grasp. (Holes, or hydraulics, are so-called because their foamy, aerated water provides less buoyancy and can feel like an actual hole in the river surface.) If the flow passes next to the obstruction, an
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Scouting or examining the rapids before running them is crucial to familiarize oneself with the stream and anticipate the challenges. This is especially important during flood conditions when the highly increased flows have altered the normal conditions drastically.
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are the ultimate whitewater craft, with a roll cage design that protects the occupants if they are to flip in any manner. You can see these creatures drifting down rivers like the Gauley, waiting to be capsized and righted by other enthusiastic river users.
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Streambed topography is the primary factor in creating rapids, and is generally consistent over time. Increased flow, as during a flood or high-rainfall season, can make permanent changes to the streambed by displacing rocks and boulders, by deposition of
783:, similar to traditional flat water stand up paddle boarding, whitewater SUPing involves the use of a stand up paddle board to run whitewater. The boards are typically specially designed for whitewater use, and more safety gear is used than on flat water.
651:, a very popular rafting and kayaking river in Pennsylvania. Of about nine people who have died at or near Dimple Rock, including three in 2000, several of the deaths were the result of people becoming entrapped after they were swept under the rock.
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Pillows are formed when a large flow of water runs into a large obstruction, causing water to "pile up" or "boil" against the face of the obstruction. Pillows normally signal that a rock is not undercut. Pillows are also known as "pressure waves".
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may form behind the obstruction; although eddies are typically sheltered areas where boaters can stop to rest, scout, or leave the main current, they may be swirling and whirlpool-like. As with hydraulics (which pull
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along its course. This loss determines the river's slope, and to a large extent its rate of flow (velocity). Shallow gradients produce gentle, slow rivers, while steep gradients are associated with raging torrents.
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While some debate exists over the term "class 6", in practice it refers to rapids that are not passable and any attempt to do so would has considerable risk of serious injury, near drowning, or death (e.g.
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Virtually all oar-powered catarafts are operated by a boatsman with passengers having no direct responsibilities. Catarafts can be of all sizes; many are smaller and more maneuverable than a typical raft.
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The term "whitewater" also has a broader meaning, applying to any river or creek that has a significant number of rapids. The term is also used as an adjective describing boating on such rivers, such as
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Constrictions can form a rapid when a river's flow is forced into a narrower channel. This pressure causes the water to flow more rapidly and to react to riverbed events (rocks, drops, etc.).
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rest or to make one's way upstream. However, in very powerful water, eddies can have powerful, swirling currents that trap or even can flip boats and from which escape can be very difficult.
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occur naturally most often on the outside curves of rivers where the current undermines the shore, exposing the roots of trees and causing them to fall into the river and form strainers.
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In fluid mechanics, waves are classified as laminar, but the whitewater world has also included waves with turbulence ("breaking waves") under the general heading of waves.
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A solo kayak paddler performs a 'high brace' in foamy water. One of the hazards of whitewater paddling is that highly aerated water decreases the effect of buoyancy.
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On any given rapid, a multitude of different features can arise from the interplay between the shape of the riverbed and the velocity of the water in the stream.
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moves. In high-volume water flows, holes can subtly aerate the water, enough to allow craft to fall through the aerated water to the bottom of a deep 'hole'.
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Whitewater, large waves, long rapids, rocks, maybe a considerable drop, sharp maneuvers may be needed (skill level: advanced whitewater experience)
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Medium waves, maybe a 3–5 ft drop, but not much considerable danger, may require significant maneuvering (skill level: experienced paddling)
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People use many types of whitewater craft to make their way down a rapid, preferably with finesse and control. Here is a short list of them:
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eddy, to re-enter the river due to a wall of water that can be several feet high at the point at which the eddy meets the river flow.
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Strainers are formed when an object blocks the passage of larger objects, but allows the flow of water to continue – like a big food
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rather than to the side and are essentially eddies turned at a 90° angle), the power of eddies increases with the flow rate.
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are often made of fiberglass, kevlar, plastic, or a combination of the three for strength and durability. They may have a
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can be smooth, or particularly the larger ones, can be breaking waves (also called "whitecaps" or "haystacks").
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are mandatory and often imposed by law, due to the constant risk of falling off the boat and into the rapids
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to get as much of one's body up and over it as possible.
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979:"American Whitewate, Lower Yough accident reports"
839:for an academic explanation of whitewater features
351:snowmelt and upon release rates of upstream dams.
364:, or by creating new channels for flowing water.
26:"Wild water" redirects here. For other uses, see
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434:The most widely used grading system is the
420:river, such as if there's an undercurrent.
376:of a river is the rate at which it changes
67:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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1000:Drew Griffin and James Polk (2006-09-06).
781:Whitewater SUP (Stand Up Paddle Boarding)
244:Learn how and when to remove this message
226:Learn how and when to remove this message
124:Learn how and when to remove this message
946:NFPA-1006 Standard for Technical Rescuer
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927:. Americanwhitewater.org. 27 July 2013
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960:. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 2006-04-10
899:"How to Survive a Fast River Current"
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1002:"Whitewater deaths surge in U.S."
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1635:Helicoidal flow
1621:
1522:Fluvial terrace
1517:Floating island
1443:
1318:
1310:
1301:Rhythmic spring
1235:
1227:
1208:Stream gradient
1149:
1135:River ecosystem
1100:Channel pattern
1068:
1060:
1047:
1017:
1016:
1007:
1005:
998:
994:
984:
982:
977:
976:
972:
963:
961:
956:
955:
951:
944:
940:
930:
928:
923:
922:
918:
908:
906:
897:
896:
892:
882:
880:
871:
870:
866:
861:
848:Slalom canoeing
829:
789:
666:
657:
629:
620:
608:
599:
576:
549:
539:
530:
506:
498:
489:Murchison Falls
432:
426:
417:
395:
387:
370:
357:
348:
282:Central Finland
250:
239:
238:
237:
232:
221:
215:
212:
169:
167:
157:
145:
130:
119:
113:
110:
95:
83:
79:
42:
38:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2305:
2295:
2294:
2289:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2137:Stone skipping
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2021:Drop structure
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
2001:Balancing lake
1998:
1992:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1928:Playfair's law
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1883:Exner equation
1880:
1875:
1870:
1868:Bradshaw model
1865:
1860:
1854:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1757:
1755:Urban flooding
1747:
1742:
1740:Crevasse splay
1737:
1735:100-year flood
1731:
1729:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1699:
1697:
1695:Surface runoff
1691:
1690:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1675:Stream capture
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1631:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1620:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1587:Rock-cut basin
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1453:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1429:Suspended load
1426:
1421:
1419:Secondary flow
1416:
1411:
1409:Retrogradation
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1374:Dissolved load
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1325:
1323:
1312:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1306:Spring horizon
1303:
1298:
1293:
1291:Mineral spring
1288:
1287:
1286:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1272:list in the US
1269:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1241:
1229:
1228:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1198:Stream channel
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1120:Drainage basin
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1080:Alluvial river
1076:
1074:
1062:
1061:
1046:
1045:
1038:
1031:
1023:
1015:
1014:
992:
970:
949:
938:
916:
905:. 10 June 2014
890:
863:
862:
860:
857:
856:
855:
850:
845:
840:
833:Fluid dynamics
828:
825:
788:
785:
774:Creature Craft
665:
662:
656:
653:
628:
627:Undercut rocks
625:
619:
616:
607:
604:
598:
595:
584:standing waves
575:
572:
538:
535:
529:
526:
505:
502:
497:
494:
493:
492:
481:
474:
468:
462:
456:
428:Main article:
425:
424:Classification
422:
416:
413:
394:
391:
386:
383:
369:
366:
356:
353:
347:
344:
252:
251:
234:
233:
148:
146:
139:
132:
131:
86:
84:
77:
72:
46:
45:
43:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2304:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2218:Surface water
2216:
2214:
2213:Sacred waters
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2198:Riparian zone
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2183:Body of water
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2132:Riverboarding
2130:
2128:
2127:River surfing
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1851:and modelling
1847:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1812:Return period
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1772:Flood control
1770:
1768:
1767:Flood barrier
1765:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1399:Palaeochannel
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1359:Granular flow
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1105:Channel types
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1085:Braided river
1083:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1003:
996:
980:
974:
959:
953:
947:
942:
926:
920:
904:
900:
894:
878:
874:
868:
864:
854:
853:River surfing
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
838:
834:
831:
830:
824:
820:
818:
809:
805:
801:
800:buoyancy aids
797:
793:
784:
782:
778:
775:
771:
769:
768:River bugging
765:
761:
759:
758:
753:
750:
746:
744:
740:
739:
730:
726:
723:
722:
717:
715:
711:
706:
705:
700:
698:
694:
689:
684:
683:
677:
670:
661:
652:
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
624:
615:
612:
603:
594:
591:
587:
585:
580:
571:
569:
564:
562:
558:
554:
548:
544:
534:
525:
521:
517:
515:
511:
501:
490:
485:
482:
478:
475:
472:
469:
466:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
450:
449:
445:
443:
442:
437:
431:
421:
412:
408:
406:
401:
390:
382:
379:
375:
365:
363:
352:
343:
341:
337:
331:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
301:
294:
289:
283:
279:
274:
267:
263:
258:
248:
245:
230:
227:
219:
216:December 2014
208:
205:
201:
198:
194:
191:
187:
184:
180:
177: –
176:
172:
171:Find sources:
165:
161:
155:
154:
149:This article
147:
143:
138:
137:
128:
125:
117:
107:
103:
99:
93:
92:
87:This article
85:
76:
75:
70:
68:
61:
60:
55:
54:
49:
44:
35:
34:
29:
22:
2256:Flash floods
2208:River cruise
2105:River sports
1958:Stream gauge
1943:Rouse number
1933:Relief ratio
1782:Flood-meadow
1713:Urban runoff
1684:
1627:Fluvial flow
1612:River valley
1582:River island
1547:Meander scar
1462:Alluvial fan
1404:Progradation
1279:Karst spring
1223:Winterbourne
1178:Chalk stream
1140:River source
1115:Distributary
1006:. Retrieved
995:
983:. Retrieved
973:
962:. Retrieved
952:
941:
929:. Retrieved
919:
907:. Retrieved
902:
893:
881:. Retrieved
876:
867:
821:
813:
780:
779:
773:
772:
763:
762:
755:
754:
748:
747:
736:
735:
719:
718:
702:
701:
679:
678:
675:
658:
646:
638:igneous rock
636:rather than
630:
621:
609:
600:
592:
588:
577:
565:
552:
550:
531:
522:
518:
507:
499:
483:
476:
470:
464:
458:
452:
446:
439:
433:
418:
409:
404:
396:
388:
385:Constriction
371:
358:
349:
332:
307:
306:
240:
222:
213:
203:
196:
189:
182:
175:"Whitewater"
170:
158:Please help
153:verification
150:
120:
111:
88:
64:
57:
51:
50:Please help
47:
2117:Fly fishing
2041:Fish ladder
2026:Daylighting
1745:Flash flood
1708:First flush
1655:Plunge pool
1379:Downcutting
1364:Debris flow
1339:Aggradation
1213:Stream pool
985:30 December
931:30 December
693:Eskimo roll
680:Whitewater
561:playboating
551:Holes, or "
393:Obstruction
346:Fast rivers
293:Torne River
278:Kannonkoski
266:French Alps
2281:Categories
2223:Wild river
1903:Hydrograph
1893:Hack's law
1858:Baer's law
1802:Inundation
1787:Floodplain
1727:stormwater
1685:Whitewater
1557:Oxbow lake
1394:Knickpoint
1369:Deposition
1262:Hot spring
1203:Streamflow
1193:Stream bed
1110:Confluence
1008:2007-10-25
964:2008-02-29
859:References
837:Turbulence
764:River bugs
743:spraycover
618:Eddy Lines
553:hydraulics
541:See also:
324:turbulence
308:Whitewater
186:newspapers
98:improve it
53:improve it
28:Wild Water
2193:Limnology
2142:Triathlon
2112:Canyoning
2081:Revetment
2011:Check dam
1923:Main stem
1680:Waterfall
1567:Point bar
1552:Mouth bar
1492:Billabong
1439:Water gap
1434:Wash load
1414:Saltation
1334:Anabranch
1257:Holy well
1145:Tributary
721:Catarafts
634:limestone
547:Canyoning
378:elevation
102:verifying
59:talk page
1996:Aqueduct
1863:Baseflow
1830:Effluent
1507:Cut bank
1472:Avulsion
1349:Bed load
1329:Abrasion
909:12 March
827:See also
808:wetsuits
714:packraft
640:such as
528:Sweepers
514:colander
510:strainer
484:Class 6:
477:Class 5:
471:Class 4:
465:Class 3:
459:Class 2:
453:Class 1:
441:portaged
405:downward
374:gradient
368:Gradient
362:alluvium
320:gradient
114:May 2008
2173:Aquifer
2166:Related
2122:Rafting
1650:Meander
1645:Log jam
1607:Thalweg
1512:Estuary
1384:Erosion
1321:erosion
1233:Springs
1188:Current
1155:Streams
1095:Channel
1058:springs
1054:streams
883:29 July
804:helmets
796:Rafting
710:rafting
642:granite
597:Pillows
557:Pillows
200:scholar
96:Please
2287:Rivers
1968:WAFLEX
1840:Sewage
1723:Floods
1665:Riffle
1660:Rapids
1602:Strath
1572:Ravine
1497:Canyon
1252:Geyser
1183:Coulee
1168:Bourne
1163:Arroyo
1066:Rivers
1050:Rivers
787:Safety
738:Canoes
688:racers
682:kayaks
655:Sieves
611:Eddies
606:Eddies
328:froths
312:rapids
202:
195:
188:
181:
173:
2066:Levee
2051:Flume
2006:Canal
1750:Flood
1670:Shoal
1537:Gully
1532:Gulch
1502:Chine
1487:Bayou
1344:Armor
1296:Ponor
1071:lists
704:Rafts
579:Waves
574:Waves
568:weirs
537:Holes
316:river
207:JSTOR
193:books
2096:Weir
2061:Leat
1725:and
1617:Wadi
1577:Rill
1542:Glen
1527:Gill
1477:Bank
1319:and
1284:list
1267:list
1238:list
1173:Burn
1056:and
987:2010
933:2014
911:2021
885:2014
835:and
806:and
708:see
545:and
400:eddy
372:The
262:Guil
179:news
2016:Dam
1482:Bar
1457:Ait
1004:CNN
749:C1s
512:or
338:or
318:'s
162:by
100:by
2283::
1052:,
901:.
875:.
802:,
699:.
342:.
280:,
62:.
1240:)
1236:(
1073:)
1069:(
1042:e
1035:t
1028:v
1011:.
989:.
967:.
935:.
913:.
887:.
691:"
268:)
264:(
247:)
241:(
229:)
223:(
218:)
214:(
204:·
197:·
190:·
183:·
156:.
127:)
121:(
116:)
112:(
94:.
69:)
65:(
30:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
