743:
was such a renowned expert in X-ray studies of biological molecules this apparent neglect of such an important clue may seem surprising. One explanation is that, although
Astbury recognised the importance of DNA, he did not understand that biological information was carried in the one-dimensional sequence of bases within the molecule but rather, that it resided in subtle and elaborate variations in its three-dimensional structure. Far from making his jaw drop and his pulse race, the revelation that DNA was a simple a twisting helix would therefore have been a disappointment but it is intriguing to speculate on how differently history might have unfolded had Astbury shown Beighton's image to his friend and colleague the eminent US chemist and Nobel Laureate, Linus Pauling when he visited Astbury at his home in Headingley, Leeds in 1952. Pauling was, at that time, Watson and Crick's greatest rival in trying to solve the structure of DNA and was desperate to obtain a good quality X-ray diffraction image of DNA. In 1952, he had already proposed an incorrect model of DNA based on Astbury and Bell's early work but had Astbury shown Pauling these new images taken by Beighton, it might well have been Caltech, Pasadena and not Cambridge, UK that is today remembered for the discovery of the double-helix. Despite this missed opportunity, Astbury, together with Florence Bell, had made a major contribution by showing that the methods of X-ray crystallography could be used to reveal the regular, ordered structure of DNA.
747:
company ICI was so interested in this idea that they built a pilot production plant in
Scotland to a new textile fibre called 'Ardil' that was produced by deliberately altering the molecular structure of the main soluble protein component of monkeynuts to refold it into an insoluble fibre in the hope of using this as a cheap and abundant substitute for wool as a raw material in the textile industry. To demonstrate the feasibility of this idea, ICI made an entire overcoat from Ardil which Astbury regularly sported to lectures and in the end, although Ardil did not prove to be the salvation of the British textile industry, it did serve as a powerful illustration of Astbury's conviction that not only could we solve the structure of giant biomolecules such as proteins and DNA using X-rays, but that we might also then deliberately manipulate these structures for our own practical purposes.
650:. This work led him to the conviction that the best way to understand the complexity of living systems was through studying the shape of the giant macromolecules from which they are made β an approach which he popularised with passion as 'molecular biology'. His other great passion was classical music and once said that protein fibres such as keratin in wool were 'the chosen instruments on which nature has played so many incomparable themes, and countless variations and harmonies' These two passions converged when in 1960 he presented an X-ray image taken by his research assistant Elwyn Beighton of a fibre of keratin protein in a lock of hair that was said to have come from Mozart β who was one of Astbury's favourite composers.
592:, but the patterns provided physical limits on any proposed structures. In the early 1930s, Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the diffraction of moist wool or hair fibres as they are stretched significantly (100%). The data suggested that the unstretched fibres had a coiled molecular structure with a characteristic repeat of 5.1 Γ
(=0.51 nm). Astbury proposed that (1) the unstretched protein molecules formed a helix (which he called the Ξ±-form); and (2) the stretching caused the helix to uncoil, forming an extended state (which he called the Ξ²-form). Although incorrect in their details, Astbury's models were correct in essence and correspond to modern elements of
722:
intellectual territory that they rightfully considered to be their own. The Senate also granted him premises but these were a far cry from what he had hoped for. His new department was housed in a
Victorian terraced house that required substantial conversion, with uneven floors that made delicate scientific equipment wobble, a faulty electrical supply and unreliable plumbing that sometimes led to flooding. To add to his woes, the Medical Research Council rejected his application for funding.
739:
shows a striking cross-shaped pattern of black spots made by X-rays as they are scattered by the DNA fibre and when James Watson was first shown
Franklin and Gosling's picture, this cross-shaped pattern made him so excited that he said 'my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race', because he knew that only a molecule coiled into a helical shape could scatter X-rays to give this particular pattern.
714:
recognise the importance of work done by the microbiologist Oswald Avery and his
Rockefeller colleagues Maclyn McCarty and Colin Macleod. Avery and his team had shown that nucleic acid could pass on the property of virulence in pneumococcus and thus offered the first strong evidence that DNA might be the hereditary material.
718:
biology. Writing to the Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Leeds in 1945 he declared that 'all biology, is now passing over into the molecular structural phase...In all branches of biology and all universities this thing must come to pass and I suggest that Leeds should be bold and help to lead the way.'
40:
729:
The second development was a series of new X-ray photographs of B-form DNA taken in 1951 by
Astbury's research assistant Elwyn Beighton which the historian of science, Professor Robert Olby has since said was 'clearly the famous B-pattern found by Rosalind Franklin and R. Gosling'. Olby was referring
684:
in which he said: "Biosynthesis is supremely a question of fitting molecules or parts of molecules against another, and one of the great biological developments of our time is the realisation that probably the most fundamental interaction of all is that between the proteins and the nucleic acids." He
746:
But perhaps
Astbury's greatest scientific legacy was his rather unusual overcoat. In the late 1930s Astbury and his collaborators A.C. Chibnall and Kennet Bailey showed that by chemical treatment, the molecular chains of soluble seed proteins could be refolded to make them into insoluble fibres. The
738:
at King's
College a year later which came to be known as 'Photo 51' Despite its modest name this image was to play an important role in the story of DNA and a plaque on the wall outside King's College, London hails it as 'one of the most important photographs in the world'. This is because the image
742:
Franklin and
Gosling's 'Photo 51' provided one of several important clues to Watson and Crick -but Astbury's response to Beighton's very similar X-ray images of DNA could not have been more different. He never published them in a journal or presented them at a scientific meeting. Given that Astbury
725:
Despite these set-backs, two important developments took place in Astbury's new department. The first was the elucidation of the mechanism by which thrombin acts as a protease to catalyse the formation of the major component of blood clots, the insoluble protein fibrin, from its soluble precursor
717:
Astbury described Avery's work as 'one of the most remarkable discoveries of our time' and it inspired him with the vision that, in the aftermath of World War 2, he would established a new department at Leeds that would become a national centre to blaze the trail for the new science of molecular
721:
Sadly, not everyone shared his dream. The University Senate allowed him to establish a new department but would not allow him to use the phrase 'molecular biology' in the title due to opposition from senior biologists who felt that, as a physicist, Astbury was encroaching without invitation on
779:
and transmitted his vision to his students, "his euphoric evangelizing zeal transforming laboratory routine into a great adventure". Astbury's enthusiasm may also account for an occasional lack of scientific caution observable in his work; Astbury could make speculative interpretations sound
713:
in 1953. Secondly, they did this work at a time when most scientists thought that proteins were the carrier of hereditary information and that DNA was a dull monotonous molecule of little interest other than perhaps as a structural component. In 1944, Astbury was one of the few scientists to
750:
This was an idea which truly came of age in the mid- to late 1970s with the rise of recombinant DNA technology by which time Astbury was dead but as his friend and colleague, J.D.Bernal wrote in an obituary to him, 'His monument will be found in the whole of molecular biology'.
661:
from calf thymus. The fact that DNA produced a diffraction pattern indicated that it also had a regular structure and it might be feasible to deduce it. Astbury was able to obtain some external funding and he employed the crystallographer
696:
Astbury and Bell's work was significant for two reasons. Firstly they showed that X-ray crystallography could be used to reveal the regular, ordered structure of DNA β an insight which laid the foundations for the later work of
261:
677:, Astbury pointed out that the 0.34 nanometre spacing was the same as amino acids in polypeptide chains. (The currently accepted value for the spacing of the bases in B-form of DNA is 0.332 nm.)
1075:"Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types: induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus type III"
726:
fibrinogen by Laszlo Lorand, a young PhD student who had fled his native Hungary to join Astbury. Lorand's work was a major discovery in our understanding of the process by which blood clots form.
1253:
Astbury WT and Sisson WA. (1935) "X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. III. The configuration of the keratin molecule and its orientation in the biological cell",
783:
Astbury was an excellent writer and lecturer; his works are characterized by remarkable clarity and an easy-going, natural manner. He also enjoyed music, playing both piano and violin.
1144:
Letter from W.T. Astbury to Vice-Chancellor, University of Leeds, 6 February 1945. Astbury Papers MS419 Box B.18, University of Leeds Special Collections, Brotherton Library
1242:
Astbury WT and Woods HJ. (1934) "X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. II. The molecular structure and elastic properties of hair keratin",
1600:
496:
673:
Astbury and Bell reported that DNA's structure repeated every 2.7 nanometres and that the bases lay flat, stacked, 0.34 nanometres apart. At a symposium in 1938 at
666:. She recognised that the "beginnings of life clearly associated with the interaction of proteins and nucleic acids". Bell and Astbury published an X-ray study on
608:
was the first to show that Astbury's models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms. Neurath's paper and Astbury's data inspired
404:
1397:
1135:
Letter from W.T. Astbury to F.B. Hanson, 19 October 1944. Astbury Papers MS419 Box E.152, University of Leeds Special Collections, Brotherton Library.
1426:
1122:
1059:
1605:
1590:
1580:
1575:
1540:
1595:
397:
1387:
843:
1565:
1550:
1419:
1337:
1316:
1358:
390:
425:
and provided comfortably for his family. Astbury also had a younger brother, Norman, with whom he shared a love of music.
1560:
1307:
1035:
1231:
Astbury WT. (1933) "Some Problems in the X-ray Analysis of the Structure of Animal Hairs and Other Protein Fibers",
1412:
646:) and he was able to deduce from their diffraction patterns that the molecules of these substances were coiled and
1220:
Astbury WT and Street A. (1931) "X-ray studies of the structures of hair, wool and related fibres. I. General",
925:
549:
of Biomolecular Structure in 1946. He held the chair until his death in 1961. He was elected a Fellow of the
1377:
674:
596:, the Ξ±-helix and the Ξ²-strand (Astbury's nomenclature was kept), which were developed twenty years later by
1570:
1555:
1392:
1585:
1545:
208:
29:
1201:
Bailey K. (1961) "William Thomas Astbury (1898β1961): A Personal Tribute", Adv. Protein Chem., 17, xβxiv
1002:"Florence Bell: The Other 'Dark Lady of DNA'? β The British Society for the History of Science (BSHS)"
1454:
663:
654:
492:
279:
244:
173:
1489:
1264:
Neurath H. (1940) "Intramolecular folding of polypeptide chains in relation to protein structure",
787:
472:
449:
349:
1398:'Watson and Crick Took All the Glory But There's a Forgotten Hero of the Double Helix' 3 July 2014
1382:
1001:
418:
103:
64:
515:
and others. Astbury showed great enthusiasm for his studies and published papers in the journal
542:
437:
1116:
613:
220:
553:(FRS) in 1940. He is commemorated by the Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology at
1535:
1530:
959:
869:
8:
1330:
The Man in the Monkeynut Coat: William Astbury and the Forgotten Road to the Double-Helix
593:
569:
554:
538:
534:
488:
429:
324:
193:
181:
963:
1099:
1074:
1053:
983:
441:
339:
319:
631:. His initial insight was taken up enthusiastically by several researchers, including
1474:
1333:
1312:
1104:
1041:
1031:
975:
776:
731:
702:
628:
609:
508:
500:
475:. He later returned to Cambridge and finished his last year with a specialization in
309:
216:
177:
163:
117:
1404:
1388:'William Astbury -Forgotten Hero of DNA's Discovery' β 'The Guardian' 17th Sept 2015
588:
consists of keratin.) These substances did not produce sharp patterns of spots like
1378:'The Astbury X-ray Camera' β a public lecture, 24 January 2017, University of Leeds
1182:
1094:
1086:
987:
967:
855:
828:
581:
188:
1504:
1479:
905:
Astbury, W.T. (1960). "The fundamentals of fibre research: a physicist's story".
735:
710:
698:
647:
518:
456:
455:
After two terms at Cambridge, his studies were interrupted by service during the
364:
314:
1368:βWhat is the Double Helical Structure of DNA and Who Was William Astbury ?β
1509:
1484:
1464:
620:
616:(1943) to propose models of keratin that are very close to the modern Ξ±-helix.
369:
334:
299:
289:
284:
138:
131:
1372:
1367:
950:
Astbury, W. T.; Bell, Florence O. (1938). "X-Ray Study of Thymonucleic Acid".
653:
But proteins were not the only biological fibre that Astbury studied. In 1937
1524:
1469:
1459:
1072:
1045:
979:
926:"Sidelined scientist who came close to discovering DNA is celebrated at last"
706:
638:
Astbury's work moved on to include X-ray studies of many proteins (including
632:
597:
550:
523:
304:
294:
232:
892:
Lecture Delivered at the International Textile Congress, Brussels, June 1955
432:, where his interests were shaped by the Headmaster and second master, both
1499:
1449:
1187:
1170:
1108:
803:
760:
624:
605:
601:
512:
460:
428:
Astbury might well have become a potter but, luckily, won a scholarship to
359:
344:
329:
274:
786:
Astbury met Frances Gould when he was stationed in Cork, Ireland with the
1494:
1090:
791:
768:
690:
464:
445:
354:
236:
224:
39:
730:
to an X-ray image of B-form DNA that was taken a year later by Rosalind
619:
In 1931, Astbury was also the first to propose that mainchain-mainchain
1393:'The X-ray Visionary Who Faded From View' β Oxford Today, 13 March 2015
772:
686:
113:
1209:
Astbury WT and Woods HJ. (1931) "The Molecular Weights of Proteins",
971:
794:. They married in 1922 and had a son, Bill, and a daughter, Maureen.
681:
546:
212:
1311:. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 319β320.
764:
577:
530:
375:
1353:
589:
573:
476:
468:
433:
422:
228:
159:
121:
563:
1373:βDid William Astbury Take βPhoto 51' Before Rosalind Franklin?β
1275:
Taylor HS. (1942) "Large molecules through atomic spectacles",
643:
639:
504:
890:
Astbury, W.T. (1955). "Textile Fibres and Molecular Biology".
507:. Fellow students included many eminent scientists, including
572:
Astbury studied the properties of fibrous substances such as
560:
In later life he was given many awards and honorary degrees.
83:
670:
in 1938, describing the nucleotides as a "Pile of Pennies".
585:
1363:
Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History
667:
658:
240:
1028:
The path to the double helix : the discovery of DNA
1286:
Huggins M. (1943) "The structure of fibrous proteins",
1073:
Avery, O.T., MacLeod, M.D., and McCarty, M.D. (1944).
243:
in 1937 and made the first step in the elucidation of
1434:
705:, after which the structure of DNA was identified by
487:
After graduating from Cambridge, Astbury worked with
1175:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
856:"University of Leeds, History of the Astbury Centre"
680:
In 1946 Astbury presented a paper at a symposium in
754:
541:for the remainder of his career, being appointed
1601:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
1522:
1305:Olby, Robert (1970). "Astbury, William Thomas".
775:. He foresaw correctly the tremendous impact of
693:in proteins "was not an arithmetical accident".
211:(25 February 1898 β 4 June 1961) was an English
417:Astbury was the fourth child of seven, born in
1420:
564:X-ray diffraction studies of fibrous proteins
398:
1383:'Florence Bell β the other Dark Lady of DNA'
1168:
1121:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1058:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
823:
821:
819:
657:of Sweden sent him well prepared samples of
421:. His father, William Edwin Astbury, was a
949:
623:(i.e., hydrogen bonds between the backbone
1427:
1413:
923:
444:'s gold medal, Astbury won the only local
405:
391:
38:
1186:
1158:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 167.
1098:
827:G Ferry (2014) Of DNA and broken dreams,
816:
1026:Cecil), Olby, Robert C. (Robert (1994).
924:Wainwright, Martin (23 November 2010).
904:
889:
685:also said that the spacing between the
1606:Military personnel from Stoke-on-Trent
1523:
1153:
1025:
1591:British Army personnel of World War I
1408:
1354:Astbury Centre for Structural Biology
1581:Academics of the University of Leeds
1359:Key Participants: William T. Astbury
1327:
1304:
759:Astbury was known for his unfailing
239:. He also studied the structure for
1332:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1171:"William Thomas Astbury, 1898β1961"
463:resulted in his posting in 1917 to
13:
1576:Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge
1541:People from Longton, Staffordshire
1308:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
1298:
1019:
482:
459:. A poor medical rating following
14:
1617:
1596:Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers
1435:Discovery of the DNA Double Helix
1347:
994:
1079:Journal of Experimental Medicine
1030:. New York: Dover Publications.
1195:
1162:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1066:
907:Journal of the Textile Industry
545:in Textile Physics in 1937 and
529:In 1928, Astbury was appointed
943:
917:
898:
883:
862:
848:
844:University of Leeds, Biography
837:
755:Personal qualities and history
522:, such as on the structure of
1:
809:
627:) contributed to stabilizing
250:
1566:Fellows of the Royal Society
1551:English molecular biologists
231:provided the foundation for
7:
797:
10:
1622:
533:in Textile Physics at the
495:and then, in 1923, at the
1561:British crystallographers
1440:
493:University College London
448:available and went up to
199:
187:
174:University College London
169:
155:
148:
127:
109:
99:
91:
72:
46:
37:
23:
1328:Hall, Kersten T (2014).
788:Royal Army Medical Corps
473:Royal Army Medical Corps
450:Jesus College, Cambridge
122:X-ray diffraction of DNA
497:Davy-Faraday Laboratory
419:Longton, Stoke-on-Trent
104:University of Cambridge
1277:Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.
1188:10.1098/rsbm.1963.0001
580:with funding from the
206:William Thomas Astbury
51:William Thomas Astbury
1169:Bernal, J.D. (1963).
1154:Watson, J.D. (1968).
1244:Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
1222:Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
1091:10.1084/jem.79.2.137
734:and her PhD student
235:'s discovery of the
225:biological molecules
219:who made pioneering
1571:History of genetics
1556:English biochemists
1255:Proc. R. Soc. Lond.
1233:Trans. Faraday Soc.
964:1938Natur.141..747A
689:and the spacing of
655:TorbjΓΆrn Caspersson
594:secondary structure
535:University of Leeds
430:Longton High School
325:John Masson Gulland
217:molecular biologist
194:William Henry Bragg
182:University of Leeds
1586:Leeds Blue Plaques
1546:English physicists
675:Cold Spring Harbor
629:protein structures
537:. He remained at
442:Duke of Sutherland
340:Friedrich Miescher
320:Frederick Griffith
16:English biochemist
1518:
1517:
1475:Rosalind Franklin
1339:978-0-19-870459-1
1318:978-0-684-10114-9
958:(3573): 747β748.
777:molecular biology
703:Rosalind Franklin
509:Kathleen Lonsdale
501:Royal Institution
436:. After becoming
415:
414:
310:Rosalind Franklin
221:X-ray diffraction
203:
202:
178:Royal Institution
164:Molecular biology
150:Scientific career
118:Fiber diffraction
1613:
1490:Sir John Randall
1429:
1422:
1415:
1406:
1405:
1343:
1322:
1202:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1156:The Double Helix
1151:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1120:
1112:
1102:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1049:
1023:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1012:
998:
992:
991:
972:10.1038/141747b0
947:
941:
940:
938:
936:
921:
915:
914:
902:
896:
895:
887:
881:
880:
878:
876:
866:
860:
859:
852:
846:
841:
835:
825:
642:, epidermin and
612:(1941,1942) and
582:textile industry
440:and winning the
407:
400:
393:
350:Sir John Randall
264:
255:
254:
189:Doctoral advisor
143:
136:
79:
61:25 February 1898
60:
58:
42:
32:
21:
20:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1505:Maurice Wilkins
1480:Raymond Gosling
1445:William Astbury
1436:
1433:
1350:
1340:
1319:
1301:
1299:Further reading
1206:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1167:
1163:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1114:
1113:
1071:
1067:
1051:
1050:
1038:
1024:
1020:
1010:
1008:
1006:www.bshs.org.uk
1000:
999:
995:
948:
944:
934:
932:
922:
918:
903:
899:
888:
884:
874:
872:
868:
867:
863:
854:
853:
849:
842:
838:
826:
817:
812:
800:
757:
736:Raymond Gosling
711:James D. Watson
699:Maurice Wilkins
614:Maurice Huggins
566:
519:Crystallography
485:
483:Academic career
457:First World War
411:
382:
381:
365:Maurice Wilkins
315:Raymond Gosling
270:William Astbury
265:
260:
253:
180:
176:
144:
141:
137:
134:
120:
116:
100:Alma mater
87:
81:
77:
68:
62:
56:
54:
53:
52:
33:
28:
26:
25:William Astbury
17:
12:
11:
5:
1619:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1510:Herbert Wilson
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1485:Phoebus Levene
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1465:Erwin Chargaff
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1431:
1424:
1417:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1356:
1349:
1348:External links
1346:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1324:
1323:
1317:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1284:
1273:
1266:J. Phys. Chem.
1262:
1251:
1240:
1229:
1218:
1204:
1203:
1194:
1161:
1146:
1137:
1128:
1085:(2): 137β158.
1065:
1036:
1018:
993:
942:
916:
897:
882:
861:
847:
836:
834:(7503), 32β33.
814:
813:
811:
808:
807:
806:
799:
796:
756:
753:
621:hydrogen bonds
565:
562:
484:
481:
413:
412:
410:
409:
402:
395:
387:
384:
383:
380:
379:
372:
370:Herbert Wilson
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
335:Phoebus Levene
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
300:Michael Creeth
297:
292:
290:Erwin Chargaff
287:
285:Lawrence Bragg
282:
277:
272:
266:
259:
258:
252:
249:
227:. His work on
201:
200:
197:
196:
191:
185:
184:
171:
167:
166:
157:
153:
152:
146:
145:
139:Croonian Medal
132:Actonian Prize
129:
125:
124:
111:
110:Known for
107:
106:
101:
97:
96:
93:
89:
88:
82:
80:(aged 63)
74:
70:
69:
63:
50:
48:
44:
43:
35:
34:
27:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1618:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1470:Jerry Donohue
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1460:Francis Crick
1458:
1456:
1455:Florence Bell
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1341:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1325:
1320:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1207:
1198:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1165:
1157:
1150:
1141:
1132:
1124:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1061:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1037:9780486166599
1033:
1029:
1022:
1007:
1003:
997:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
946:
931:
927:
920:
912:
908:
901:
893:
886:
871:
865:
857:
851:
845:
840:
833:
830:
824:
822:
820:
815:
805:
802:
801:
795:
793:
789:
784:
781:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
752:
748:
744:
740:
737:
733:
727:
723:
719:
715:
712:
708:
707:Francis Crick
704:
700:
694:
692:
688:
683:
678:
676:
671:
669:
665:
664:Florence Bell
660:
656:
651:
649:
645:
641:
636:
634:
633:Linus Pauling
630:
626:
622:
617:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
598:Linus Pauling
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
561:
558:
556:
552:
551:Royal Society
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
527:
525:
524:tartaric acid
521:
520:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
489:William Bragg
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
408:
403:
401:
396:
394:
389:
388:
386:
385:
378:
377:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
305:Jerry Donohue
303:
301:
298:
296:
295:Francis Crick
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
280:Florence Bell
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
263:
257:
256:
248:
246:
245:its structure
242:
238:
234:
233:Linus Pauling
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
207:
198:
195:
192:
190:
186:
183:
179:
175:
172:
168:
165:
161:
158:
154:
151:
147:
140:
133:
130:
126:
123:
119:
115:
112:
108:
105:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
75:
71:
66:
49:
45:
41:
36:
31:
22:
19:
1500:James Watson
1450:Oswald Avery
1444:
1362:
1329:
1306:
1291:
1287:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1210:
1197:
1178:
1174:
1164:
1155:
1149:
1140:
1131:
1117:cite journal
1082:
1078:
1068:
1027:
1021:
1009:. Retrieved
1005:
996:
955:
951:
945:
933:. Retrieved
930:The Guardian
929:
919:
910:
906:
900:
891:
885:
873:. Retrieved
864:
850:
839:
831:
804:Nucleic acid
785:
782:
761:cheerfulness
758:
749:
745:
741:
728:
724:
720:
716:
695:
679:
672:
652:
637:
625:amide groups
618:
610:H. S. Taylor
606:Hans Neurath
602:Robert Corey
567:
559:
528:
516:
513:J. D. Bernal
486:
461:appendectomy
454:
427:
416:
374:
360:James Watson
345:Fred Neufeld
330:Denis Jordan
275:Oswald Avery
269:
262:Double helix
205:
204:
170:Institutions
149:
78:(1961-06-04)
18:
1536:1961 deaths
1531:1898 births
1495:Alec Stokes
870:"Epidermin"
792:World War I
780:plausible.
769:imagination
691:amino acids
687:nucleotides
491:, first at
446:scholarship
355:Alec Stokes
237:alpha helix
223:studies of
92:Citizenship
76:4 June 1961
1525:Categories
1294:, 195β218.
1288:Chem. Rev.
1272:, 296β305.
1261:, 533β551.
1250:, 333β394.
1239:, 193β211.
1217:, 663β665.
913:: 515β525.
810:References
773:enthusiasm
251:Early life
114:Beta sheet
57:1898-02-25
1228:, 75β101.
1054:cite book
1046:608936643
980:0028-0836
682:Cambridge
604:in 1951.
547:Professor
471:with the
213:physicist
86:, England
67:, England
1181:: 1β35.
1109:19871359
1011:25 April
935:25 April
875:22 April
798:See also
765:idealism
732:Franklin
590:crystals
578:collagen
531:Lecturer
517:Classic
438:head boy
434:chemists
376:Photo 51
1283:, 1β12.
1100:2135445
988:4064777
960:Bibcode
790:during
574:keratin
499:at the
477:physics
469:Ireland
229:keratin
160:Physics
95:British
65:Longton
1336:
1315:
1211:Nature
1107:
1097:
1044:
1034:
986:
978:
952:Nature
829:Nature
648:folded
644:fibrin
640:myosin
543:Reader
505:London
423:potter
156:Fields
142:(1945)
135:(1935)
128:Awards
984:S2CID
570:Leeds
555:Leeds
539:Leeds
84:Leeds
1334:ISBN
1313:ISBN
1259:A150
1248:A232
1226:A230
1123:link
1105:PMID
1060:link
1042:OCLC
1032:ISBN
1013:2018
976:ISSN
937:2018
877:2021
771:and
709:and
701:and
600:and
586:Wool
576:and
511:and
465:Cork
215:and
73:Died
47:Born
1215:127
1183:doi
1095:PMC
1087:doi
968:doi
956:141
832:510
668:DNA
659:DNA
584:. (
568:At
503:in
241:DNA
209:FRS
30:FRS
1527::
1361:β
1292:32
1290:,
1281:85
1279:,
1270:44
1268:,
1257:,
1246:,
1237:29
1235:,
1224:,
1213:,
1177:.
1173:.
1119:}}
1115:{{
1103:.
1093:.
1083:79
1081:.
1077:.
1056:}}
1052:{{
1040:.
1004:.
982:.
974:.
966:.
954:.
928:.
911:51
909:.
818:^
767:,
763:,
635:.
557:.
526:.
479:.
467:,
452:.
247:.
162:,
1428:e
1421:t
1414:v
1342:.
1321:.
1191:.
1185::
1179:9
1125:)
1111:.
1089::
1062:)
1048:.
1015:.
990:.
970::
962::
939:.
894:.
879:.
858:.
406:e
399:t
392:v
59:)
55:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
