Woodblock printing

706: 142: 240:, in the 480s, a man named Gong Xuanyi (龔玄宜) styled himself Gong the Sage and "said that a supernatural being had given him a 'jade seal jade block writing,' which did not require a brush: one blew on the paper and characters formed." He then used his powers to mystify a local governor. Eventually he was dealt with by the governor's successor, who presumably executed Gong. Timothy Hugh Barrett postulates that Gong's magical jade block was actually a printing device, and Gong was one of the first, if not the first printer. The semi-mythical record of him therefore describes his usage of the printing process to deliberately bewilder onlookers and create an image of mysticism around himself. However, woodblock print flower patterns applied to silk in three colours have been found dated from the 271:. According to Mahayana beliefs, religious texts hold intrinsic value for carrying the Buddha's word and act as talismanic objects containing sacred power capable of warding off evil spirits. By copying and preserving these texts, Buddhists could accrue personal merit. As a consequence the idea of printing and its advantages in replicating texts quickly became apparent to Buddhists, who by the 7th century, were using woodblocks to create apotropaic documents. These Buddhist texts were printed specifically as ritual items and were not widely circulated or meant for public consumption. Instead they were buried in consecrated ground. The earliest extant example of this type of printed matter is a fragment of a dhāraṇī (Buddhist spell) miniature scroll written in Sanskrit unearthed in a tomb in 1400: 1527: 726: 604:. If they were lucky enough to get one, they thought nothing of copying the entire text out by hand, so they could recite it day and night. In recent years merchants engrave and print all manner of books belonging to the hundred schools, and produce ten thousand pages a day. With books so readily available, you would think that students' writing and scholarship would be many times better than what they were in earlier generations. Yet, to the contrary, young men and examination candidates leave their books tied shut and never look at them, preferring to amuse themselves with baseless chatter. Why is this? 347: 807: 1130:. They were mostly used for prayers and amulets. The technique may have spread from China or been an independent invention, but had very little impact and virtually disappeared at the end of the 14th century. In India the main importance of the technique has always been as a method of printing textiles, which has been a large industry since at least the 10th century. Nowadays wooden block printing is commonly used for creating beautiful textiles, such as block print saree, kurta, curtains, kurtis, dress, shirts, cotton sarees. 1785: 202: 1210: 2971:), p. 435: "Printing in Arabic appears in the Middle East within a century or so of becoming well established in China. Moreover, medieval Arabic chronicles confirm that the craft of paper making came to the Middle East from China by way of Central Asia, and one print was found in the excavation of the medieval Egyptian Red Sea port of al-Qusair al-Qadim where wares imported from China have been discovered. Nevertheless, it seems more likely that Arabic block printing was an independent invention". 1694: 876: 690:, "if no printed edition were available on the market, the hand-copied manuscript of a book would cost ten times as much as the printed work", and also, "once a printed edition appeared, the transcribed copy could no longer be sold and would be discarded". The result is that despite the mutual co-existence of hand-copied manuscripts and printed texts, the cost of the book had declined by about 90 percent by the end of the 16th century. As a result, literacy increased. In 1488, the 509: 897: 584:

together with standard commentaries, are all fully represented. When I was young and devoted myself to learning, there were only one or two scholars in every hundred who possessed copies of all the classics and commentaries. There was no way to copy so many works. Today, printed editions of these works are abundant, and officials and commoners alike have them in their homes. Scholars are fortunate indeed to have been born in such an era as ours!

2984:), p. 427: "Judging from palaeography and the eighth-century date of the introduction of paper to the Islamic world, Arabic block printing must have begun in the ninth or tenth century. It persisted into, but possibly not beyond, the fourteenth century"... "Yet it had so little impact on Islamic society that today only a handful of scholars are aware it ever existed, and no definite textual reference to it has been thought to survive". 224: 1139: 176: 48: 575:. The Three Institutes were one of several imperial libraries, with eight other major palace libraries, not including imperial academies. According to Weng Tongwen, by the 11th century, central government offices were saving tenfold by substituting earlier manuscripts with printed versions. The impact of woodblock printing on Song society is illustrated in the following exchange between 1292:

the almost instantaneous arrival of both xylography and movable type in Europe. The early Jesuit missionaries of late-16th-century China, for instance, had a similar distaste for wood-based printing for very different reasons. These Jesuits found that "the cheapness and omnipresence of printing in China made the prevailing wood-based technology extremely disturbing, even dangerous".

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fifteenth century most books in major libraries were still in manuscript, not in print. Almost to the end of the empire it remained cheaper to pay a copyist than to buy a printed book. Seven hundred and fifty years after the first imperially sponsored printed works in the Northern Song, the greatest book project of the eighteenth century, the

705: 1185:, by comparing the watermarks in the paper used in block books with watermarks in dated documents, concluded that the "heyday" of block books was the 1460s, but that at least one dated from about 1451. Block books printed in the 1470s were often of cheaper quality, as a cheaper alternative to books printed by 660:(四庫全書), was produced as a manuscript, not as a printed collection. About 4 percent of it was printed in movable type in 1773, but it was hand-carved movable wooden type. Indeed, the entire collection was only printed for the first time in the 1980s. Access to books, especially large works, such as the 1464:

Korean printing with movable metallic type developed mainly within the royal foundry of the Yi dynasty. Royalty kept a monopoly of this new technique and by royal mandate suppressed all non-official printing activities and any budding attempts at commercialization of printing. Thus, printing in early

1330:

European book production began to catch up with China after the introduction of the mechanical printing press in the mid fifteenth century. Reliable figures of the number of imprints of each edition are as hard to find in Europe as they are in China, but one result of the spread of printing in Europe

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Other modern scholars such as Endymion Wilkinson hold a more conservative and skeptical view. While Wilkinson does not deny "China's dominance in book production from the fourth to the fifteenth century," he also insists that arguments for the Chinese advantage "should not be extended either forwards

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Only during the Ming and Qing dynasties did wooden and metal movable types see any considerable use, but the preferred method remained woodblock. Usage of movable type in China never exceeded 10 percent of all printed materials while 90 percent of printed books used the older woodblock technology. In

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Despite the appeal of moveable type, however, craftsmen soon decided that the semi-cursive and cursive script style of Japanese writings was better reproduced using woodblocks. By 1640 woodblocks were once again used for nearly all purposes. After the 1640s, movable type printing declined, and books

1684:

is a method for dyeing textiles (usually silk) using wood blocks invented in the 5th–6th centuries in China. An upper and a lower block are made, with carved out compartments opening to the back, fitted with plugs. The cloth, usually folded a number of times, is inserted and clamped between the two

1522:

in Kyoto and started publishing books using domestic wooden movable type printing-press instead of metal from 1599. Ieyasu supervised the production of 100,000 types, which were used to print many political and historical books. In 1605, books using domestic copper movable type printing-press began

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Woodblock printing also changed the shape and structure of books. Scrolls were gradually replaced by concertina binding (經摺裝) from the Tang period onward. The advantage was that it was now possible to flip to a reference without unfolding the entire document. The next development known as whirlwind

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to Qing China, also remarked with some amazement that the printing industry was "as free as in England, and the profession of printing open to everyone". The commercial success and profitability of woodblock printing was attested to by one British observer at the end of the nineteenth century, who

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Commentaries on printing in China from the 1990s on, which cite contemporary European observers with first-hand knowledge, complicate the traditional narrative. T. H. Barrett points out that only Europeans who had never seen Chinese woodblock printing in action tended to dismiss it, perhaps due to

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by elite scholars and collectors. The age of printing gave the act of copying by hand a new dimension of cultural reverence. Those who considered themselves real scholars and true connoisseurs of the book did not consider imprints to be real books. Under the elitist attitudes of the time, "printed

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The emperor went to the Directorate of Education to inspect the Publications Office. He asked Xing Bing how many woodblocks were kept there. Bing replied, "At the start of our dynasty, there were fewer than four thousand. Today, there are more than one hundred thousand. The classics and histories,

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was done through woodblock prints. The general assumption is that movable type did not replace block printing in places that used Chinese characters due to the expense of producing more than 200,000 individual pieces of type. Even woodblock printing was not as cost productive as simply paying a

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at the inner end, which reads: "Reverently made for universal free distribution by Wang Jie on behalf of his two parents on the 13th of the 4th moon of the 9th year of Xiantong ". It is considered the world's oldest securely dated woodblock scroll. The Diamond sutra was closely followed by the

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As a result of block-printing technology, it became easier and cheaper to produce multiple copies of books quickly. By the eleventh century, the price of books had fallen by about one tenth what they had been before and as a result they were more widely disseminated. Nevertheless, even in the

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Following the maturation of woodblock printing, official, commercial, and private publishing businesses emerged while the size and number of collections grew exponentially. The Song dynasty alone accounts for some 700 known private collections, more than triple the number of all the preceding

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Block books, where both text and images are cut on a single block for a whole page, appeared in Europe in the mid-15th century. As they were almost always undated, and without statement of printer or place of printing, determining their dates of printing has been an extremely difficult task.

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In late Ming/early Qing China, cost for copying 20 to 30 pages was around .02 to .03 tael, which worked out to something like 0.005 tael per hundred characters, while a carver was typically paid 0.02 to 0.03 tael per hundred characters carved, and could carve 100 to 150 characters a

1685:

blocks. By unplugging the different compartments and filling them with dyes of different colours, a multi-coloured pattern can be printed over quite a large area of folded cloth. The method is not strictly printing however, as the pattern is not caused by pressure against the block.

1383:, 1767–1773). The emperor himself commissioned the Jesuits to instruct Chinese artisans in the intaglio technique, but they did not obtain good results. Already in the 19th century, the growing xenophobia against Europeans was progressively relegating the use of engraving in China. 621:

with alternate openings of printed and blank pairs of pages. In the 14th century the folding was reversed outwards to give continuous printed pages, each backed by a blank hidden page. Later the sewn bindings were preferred rather than pasted bindings. Only relatively small volumes

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Around the year 1000, butterfly binding was developed. Woodblock prints allowed two mirror images to be easily replicated on a single sheet. Thus two pages were printed on a sheet, which was then folded inwards. The sheets were then pasted together at the fold to make a

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to printed books, and reproducing them for wider consumption. These books, now known as Kōetsu Books, Suminokura Books, or Saga Books, are considered the first and finest printed reproductions of many of these classic tales; the Saga Book of the Tales of Ise

2459: 760:, of which there are several copies in various museums and collections. It is still commonly reproduced in China today and its images are very popular: it includes landscapes, flowers, animals, reproductions of jades, bronzes, porcelain and other objects. 1346:

During the 16th and 17th centuries, printmaking enjoyed great popularity, especially in the illustration of books such as Buddhist texts, poems, novels, biographies, medical treatises, music, etc. The major center of production was initially in Kien-ngan

264:, includes several ink-squeeze rubbings, believed to have led to the early duplication of texts that inspired printing. A stone inscription cut in reverse dating from the first half of the 6th century implies that it may have been a large printing block. 1278:

Traditionally it has been assumed that the prevalence of woodblock printing in East Asia as a result of Chinese characters led to the stagnation of printing culture and enterprise in that region. S. H. Steinberg describes woodblock printing in his

1672:

were the most common. There is still some controversy among scholars as to whether their introduction preceded or, the majority view, followed the introduction of movable type, with the range of estimated dates being between about 1440–1460.

305:, which advocates the practice of printing apotropaic and merit making texts and images, was translated by Chinese monks. The oldest extant evidence of woodblock prints created for the purpose of reading are portions of the 1585:), printed in 1608, is especially renowned. Saga Books were printed on expensive paper, and used various embellishments, being printed specifically for a small circle of literary connoisseurs. For aesthetic reasons, the 247:

Inscribed seals made of metal or stone, especially jade, and inscribed stone tablets probably provided inspiration for the invention of printing. Copies of classical texts on tablets were erected in a public place in

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in 1930. Influenced by contemporary Russian engraving, this school dealt especially with popular, agricultural and military subjects for propaganda purposes, as is evident in the work of P'an Jeng and Huang Yong-yu.

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Despite the productive effect of woodblock printing, historian Endymion Wilkinson notes that it never supplanted handwritten manuscripts. Indeed, manuscripts remained dominant until the very end of Imperial China:

1363:). On the other hand, in the 18th century, the industry began to decline, with stereotyped images. This coincided with the arrival of European missionaries who introduced Western engraving techniques. The Jesuit 1283:

as having "outlived their usefulness" and their printed material as "cheap tracts for the half-literate, which anyway had to be very brief because of the laborious process of cutting the letters". John Man's

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Imperial establishments such as the Three Institutes: Zhaowen Institute, History Institute, and Jixian Institute also followed suit. At the start of the dynasty the Three Institutes' holdings numbered 13,000

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In modern times, Chinese printing continued the tradition begun in medieval times. Black-and-white woodcuts were generally replaced by colored ones, achieved by printing successive runs with different inks.

419:. However printing onto cloth only became common in Europe by 1300. "In the 13th century the Chinese technique of blockprinting was transmitted to Europe", soon after paper became available in Europe. 1296:

made note of "the exceedingly large numbers of books in circulation here and the ridiculously low prices at which they are sold". Two hundred years later the Englishman John Barrow, by way of the

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the one hundred and four maps of the Chinese Empire made by Jesuit missionaries were printed, as well as illustrations of his military victories, which he commissioned in Paris from the engraver

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was that public and private libraries were able to build up their collections and for the first time in over a thousand years they began to match and then overtake the largest libraries in China.

839:'s accession to the throne. The completed work, amounting to some 6,000 volumes, was finished in 1087. Unfortunately the original set of woodblocks was destroyed in a conflagration during the 473:

Prior to the introduction of printing, the size of private collections in China had already seen an increase since the invention of paper. Fan Ping (215–84) had in his collection 7,000 rolls (

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observed during his trip to China that "even village children, ferrymen, and sailors" could read, although this applied mainly to the south, while northern China remained largely illiterate.

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sent the monk Yeoga to request from the Song a copy of the complete Buddhist canon. The request was granted in 991 when Seongjong's official Han Eongong visited the Song court. In 1011,

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makes a similar case: "wood-blocks were even more demanding than manuscript pages to make, and they wore out and broke, and then you had to carve another one – a whole page at a time".

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the first known example is a Diamond sutra of 1341, printed in black and red at the Zifu Temple in modern-day Hubei province. The earliest dated book printed in more than 2 colours is

1574:

and Suminokura Soan. At their studio in Saga, Kyoto, the pair created a number of woodblock versions of the Japanese classics, both text and images, essentially converting

94:. Each page or image is created by carving a wooden block to leave only some areas and lines at the original level; it is these that are inked and show in the print, in a 1271:

one case an entire set of wooden type numbering 250,000 pieces was used for firewood. Woodblocks remained the dominant printing method in China until the introduction of

965:, and people lent woodblock-printed illustrated books of various genres. The content of these books varied widely, including travel guides, gardening books, cookbooks, 771:, London), brought in 1693 by a German physician from China to Europe, which includes flowers, fruits, birds, insects and ornamental motifs reminiscent of the style of 2483: 313:

in 1906. They have been dated to the reign of Wu Zetian using character form recognition. The oldest text containing a specific date of printing was discovered in the

1746:), a book on ink-cakes printed in 1606 and the technique reached its height in books on art published in the first half of the 17th century. Notable examples are the 1321:

in China. When it is considered, too, that a block has been laboriously cut for each leaf, the cheapness of the result is only accounted for by the wideness of sale.

1605:), in which several characters are written in succession with smooth brush strokes. As a result, a single typeface was sometimes created by combining two to four 3801: 1648:

in the 19th century, as the links between the characters require compromises when movable type is used which were considered inappropriate for sacred texts.

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The great pioneers in applying movable type printing press to the creation of artistic books, and in preceding mass production for general consumption, were

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paper scroll. A dhāraṇī sutra was printed in Japan around AD 770. One million copies of the sutra, along with other prayers, were ordered to be produced by

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and its surprisingly enduring nature, having survived completely intact over 760 years, it is considered the most accurate of Buddhist canons written in

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in 1591. However, western printing-press were discontinued after the ban on Christianity in 1614. The moveable type printing-press seized from Korea by

505:. The combined total of all known private book collectors prior to the Song dynasty number around 200, with the Tang alone accounting for 60 of them. 3920: 3423: 1263:

dynasties for printing banknotes. The invention of movable type did not have an immediate effect on woodblock printing and it never supplanted it in

2869: 1660:, woodcut books with both text and images, usually carved in the same block, emerged as a cheaper alternative to manuscripts and books printed with 682:

However, copyists and manuscripts only continued to remain competitive with printed editions by dramatically reducing their price. According to the

632:, with wooden boards at front and back, and loops and pegs to close up the book when not in use. For example, one complete Tripitaka had over 6,400 2213: 109:

by the 7th century AD and remained the most common East Asian method of printing books and other texts, as well as images, until the 19th century.

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can for even less. A penny Prayer-book, admittedly sold at a loss, cannot compete in mass of matter with many of the books to be bought for a few

1460:

in the 20th century. And unlike China, the movable type system was kept mainly within the confines of a highly stratified elite Korean society:

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numbered 81,258 printing blocks, 52,330,152 characters, 1496 titles, and 6568 volumes. Due to the stringent editing process that went into the

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Between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, three—and five—color prints appeared. The oldest surviving print is the

141: 3860:, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on woodblock printing 3365: 2896: 596:

I can recall meeting older scholars, long ago, who said that when they were young they had a hard time getting their hands on a copy of

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Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter (2002) A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp.15–23, 61–73.

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of 1377. This form of metal movable type was described by the French scholar Henri-Jean Martin as "extremely similar to Gutenberg's".

3824: 3009: 2910: 2513: 3863: 1664:. These were all short heavily illustrated works, the bestsellers of the day, repeated in many different block-book versions: the 1367:

edited in 1714–1715 a series of poems by Emperor Kangxi, which he illustrated with landscapes of the imperial summer residence at

2922: 1247: 656: 3833: 3779: 545:. The majority of which were secular in nature. Texts contained material such as medicinal instruction or came in the form of a 2958:), p. 427: "The thesis proposed here, that the word tarsh meant "printblock" in the dialect of the medieval Muslim underworld". 1399: 926:

from the 12th century to the 13th century, many books were printed and published by woodblock printing at Buddhist temples in

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The Xiantong era (咸通 Xián tōng) ran from 860–874, crossing the reigns of Yi Zong (懿宗 Yì zōng) and Xi Zong (僖宗 Xī zōng), see

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ordered another set to be created and work began in 1237, this time only taking 12 years to complete. In 1248 the complete

613:旋風裝) was to secure the first and last leaves to a single large sheet, so that the book could be opened like an accordion. 3427: 2685: 2526: 435:, the Directorate of education and other agencies used these block print disseminate their standardized versions of the 1407: 941:

was due to the high literacy rate of Japanese people. The literacy rate of the Japanese by 1800 was almost 100% for the

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had already reached an astoundingly low price compared to what could be found in his home country. Of this, he said:

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process. Carving the blocks is skilled and laborious work, but a large number of impressions can then be printed.

788:

and the landscape painter Wáng Niè. It was noted for the quality of its polychrome and drawings, which influenced

2439: 17: 3871:, a video demonstrating printing of multicolored wallpaper with a press, using blocks produced by William Morris 3810: 3492: 102: 3770: 1452:

copyist to write out a book by hand if there was no intention of producing more than a few copies. Although

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noted that even before the arrival of western printing methods, the price of books and printed materials in

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It was initiated by the scholar and landscape painter Wáng Gài and expanded and prefaced by the art critic

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Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", 1990, British Museum publications,

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Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1: Paper and Printing

1632:, when Japan opened the country to the West and began to modernize, that this technique was used again. 1499:'s forces in 1593 was also in use at the same time as the printing press from Europe. An edition of the 119:

art print. Most European uses of the technique for printing images on paper are covered by the art term

3868: 3819: 1610: 1440:, but no copies survived to the present. The oldest extant book printed with movable metal type is the 714: 2096: 840: 725: 1017: 458:. It took 10 years to finish the 130,000 blocks needed to print the text. The finished product, the 3915: 3905: 3051: 2051: 1386:

In the 20th century, the genre was revived by the writer Lou Siun, who founded a woodcut school in

835:. The project was suspended in 1031 after Heyongjong's death, but work resumed again in 1046 after 3400: 105:, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220 AD. Woodblock printing existed in 363: 180: 2499: 2348:

Pan, Jixing (1997). "On the Origin of Printing in the Light of New Archaeological Discoveries".

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depicting secular subjects became very popular among the common people and were mass-produced.

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issued the carving of their own set of the Buddhist canon, which would come to be known as the

737: 394:. The document is printed on a 8 cm × 630 cm (3.1 in × 248.0 in) 376: 3229: 2295: 1056:

wrestlers, beautiful women, landscapes of sightseeing spots, historical tales, and so on, and

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characters. In one book, 2,100 characters were created, but 16% of them were used only once.

1242: 1234: 1127: 552: 498: 443:, philosophical works, encyclopedias, collections, and books on medicine and the art of war. 402:. As each copy was then stored in a tiny wooden pagoda, the copies are together known as the 346: 330: 2663: 3900: 3677: 3508: 3099:"Early Card painters and Printers in Germany, Austria and Flanders (14th and 15th century)" 2994: 2421:"A History of Writings in Japanese and Current Studies in the Field of Rare Books in Japan" 2357: 1961: 1218: 1189:. Block books continued to be printed sporadically up through the end of the 15th century. 849: 831: 3789: 3776:

Excellent images and descriptions of examples, mostly Chinese, from the Schoyen Collection

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Movable type never replaced woodblock printing in Korea. Indeed, even the promulgation of

404: 206: 8: 3806: 2001: 1776: 1606: 1318: 1149: 826: 822: 592:

remarked upon the unforeseen effect an abundance of books had on examination candidates:

237: 136: 2361: 1509: 3895: 3612: 3068: 2381: 1602: 1539: 1496: 1182: 1003: 541:(1077–1148) as well as one other individual owned libraries of 6,000 titles in 100,000 1523:

to be published, but copper type did not become mainstream after Ieyasu died in 1616.

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cottager cannot buy anything like the amount of printed matter for his penny that the

399: 3846: 3775: 3733: 3725: 3695: 3685: 3663: 3636: 3575: 3542: 3535: 3488: 3352: 3330: 3235: 3049:

Allan H. Stevenson (Spring 1967). "The Quincentennnial of Netherlandish Blockbooks".

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introduced Hangeul, an alphabetic system, in the 15th century, Hangeul only replaced

1297: 858: 836: 810: 806: 428: 268: 3471: 2832:"Printing woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana and miscellaneous Buddhist scriptures" 2385: 1488: 3604: 3455: 3326:

Bonds of Civility: Aesthetic Networks and the Political Origins of Japanese Culture

3060: 2365: 2203: 2183: 2178: 2116: 2071: 2031: 1784: 1739: 1492: 1453: 1372: 1302: 1175: 844: 576: 416: 154: 87: 3852: 2440:"Gutenberg and the Koreans: The Invention of Movable Metal Type Printing in Korea" 1571: 1508:

was printed in 1598, using a Korean moveable type printing press, at the order of

525:. The earliest extant private Song library catalogue lists 1,937 titles in 24,501 59:

China, the world's earliest printed text containing a date of production, AD 868 (

3783: 3324: 2041: 1981: 1931: 1871: 1669: 1515: 1314: 1144: 1123: 1105: 1065: 923: 367: 201: 95: 60: 2995:"Ashmolean − Eastern Art Online, Yousef Jameel Centre for Islamic and Asian Art" 2061: 2021: 1831: 1581: 1484: 1310: 1209: 1186: 1032: 1022: 785: 772: 768: 395: 35: 3424:"About the Japanese and Composition, the reconstruction of history and future" 2693: 2534: 1693: 875: 3884: 3699: 2400: 2377: 1368: 1193: 1087: 1012: 718: 447: 350:

Bronze plate for printing an advertisement for the Liu family needle shop at

326: 52: 2420: 628:) were bound up, and several of these would be enclosed in a cover called a 624: 3748:

The Cambridge History of China Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty, 1368—1644, Part 2

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Korea served only the small, noble groups of the highly stratified society.

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Evidence of woodblock printing appeared in Korea and Japan soon afterward.

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62nd IFLA General Conference - Conference Proceedings - August 25–31, 1996

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with the techniques of Western paintings became popular, and the works of

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Not only did manuscripts remain competitive with imprints, they were even

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became commonplace while six individuals owned collections of over 30,000

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were mass-produced by conventional woodblock printing during most of the

1364: 1272: 1252: 757: 733: 477:), or a few hundred titles. Two centuries later, Zhang Mian owned 10,000 391: 322: 314: 306: 261: 253: 241: 985: 967: 3794: 3590:"Medieval Arabic Tarsh: A Forgotten Chapter in the History of Printing" 3072: 2369: 2198: 2011: 1951: 1921: 1625: 1566:

is one of the earliest works produced on a movable type press in Japan.

1169: 1092: 938: 915: 687: 124: 116: 106: 3842:

Wood-Block Printing, by F. Morley Fletcher, Illustrated by A. W. Seaby

3616: 3874: 3841: 2193: 2188: 2086: 1861: 1705: 1641: 1500: 1264: 1230: 1083: 1070: 1061: 979: 538: 490: 298: 3064: 947: 283:無垢淨光大陀羅尼經) and was printed using woodblock during the Tang dynasty, 223: 3815: 3759:, Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute 3608: 2814:

Gift Exchange among States in East Asia During the Eleventh Century

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as well as a standard edition for East Asian Buddhist scholarship.

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and greatly developed Japanese woodblock printing culture such as

1068:

established the technique of multicolor woodblock printing called

1007:(puppet) theatre, etc. The best-selling books of this period were 390:, South Korea in 1966 and dated between 704 and 751 in the era of 3864:

The History of Chinese Bookbinding: the case of Dunhuang findings

3652:

Knowledge and Text Production in an Age of Print: China, 900-1400

3010:"Block Printing History, Types, Process and Materials To Be Used" 2168: 1846: 1709: 1519: 1448: 1406:, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. 1360: 1356: 1138: 1057: 1040: 991: 942: 889: 885: 814: 694: 691: 459: 455: 412: 249: 146: 120: 111: 31: 175: 82:

or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in

2872:

Izumi Munemura. (2010). The Surface Finishing Society of Japan.

2173: 1752:

Treatise on the Paintings and Writings of the Ten Bamboo Studio

1730:

Colour is very common in Asian woodblock printing on paper; in

1429: 1348: 1161: 1049: 741: 589: 547: 358:(960-1279). The world's oldest extant print advertising medium. 310: 817:

is one of the foremost Chogye Buddhist temples in South Korea.

47: 34:. For the related technique invented in the 18th century, see 3825:"Multiple Impressions: Contemporary Chinese Woodblock Prints" 3301:, Vol. 79, No. 2 (April -June , 1959), pp. 96–103 (103). 3098: 3088:

Master E.S., Alan Shestack, Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1967.

2163: 1731: 1717: 1613: 1575: 1457: 1441: 1420: 1352: 1245:. The earliest extant book printed using movable type is the 1118: 927: 618: 351: 210: 184: 91: 83: 79: 2708: 1414: 1404:

Jikji: Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters

763:

Another outstanding series is the collection of twenty-nine

3836:—Numerous links to Online Resources and Other Organizations 3187: 3185: 2642: 2640: 2579: 2577: 1720: 1053: 2820:(PhD dissertation). University of Washington. p. 191. 2331: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 1595:, like that of traditional handwritten books, adopted the 679:

books were for those who did not truly care about books".

431:

and an assortment of other texts were printed. During the

3858:

Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures

3158: 2768: 1640:

In countries using Arabic scripts, works, especially the

1547: 1418:

Movable type used to print the earliest extant book, the

1341: 1153: 962: 551:(類書), a type of encyclopedic reference book used to help 533:, Chen Zhensun's collection lists 3,096 titles in 51,180 3279: 3182: 3148: 3146: 3133: 3131: 3116: 2637: 2574: 711:

Painting Manual of the Garden as Large as a Mustard Seed

3266:. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 330. 3032: 3030: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2312: 1309:

We have an extensive penny literature at home, but the

1255:

c. 1139–1193. Metal movable type was used in the Song,

1116:

A few specimen of wood block printing, possibly called

493:

and his cousin Xiao Mai both had collections of 30,000

2283: 1596: 1590: 1561: 1551: 1217:

characters arranged primarily by rhyming scheme, from

664:, remained difficult right into the twentieth century. 501:(508–555) was said to have had a collection of 80,000 3802:

Chinese book-binding methods, from the V&A Museum

3370:(in Japanese). Printing Museum, Tokyo. Archived from 3170: 3143: 3128: 1126:, have been excavated from a 10th-century context in 754:

Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Calligraphy and Paintings

3262:

Needham, Joseph; Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (11 July 1985).

3231:

Writing and Literacy in Chinese, Korean and Japanese

3027: 2751: 2729:

Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China

2398: 2290:

Suarez, Michael F.; Woudhuysen, H. R., eds. (2013).

2250: 2238: 2226: 1152:

correspondences between the Old and New Testaments:

955:(farmer) class due to the spread of private schools 381: 294:

sutra, was also discovered and dated to 690 to 699.

1716:

The earliest woodblock printing known is in colour—

517:centuries combined. Private libraries of 10–20,000 27:

Early printing technique using carved wooden blocks

3682:Images from the Floating World: The Japanese Print 3541:. Pelican History of Art (3rd ed.). Penguin. 3534: 3461:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 3454: 3304: 3084: 3082: 3048: 2870:The Past, Present and Future of Printing in Japan. 2739: 2625: 2613: 2601: 2589: 2560:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 830. 1434:Prescribed Texts for Rites of the Past and Present 1192:The method was also used extensively for printing 1064:are the most famous artists. In the 18th century, 3662:(in Spanish). Barcelona: Planeta-Agostini. 1988. 1702:Views of Famous Places in the Sixty-odd Provinces 260:, the blibography of the official history of the 3882: 3709:THE BOOK: The Story of Printing & Bookmaking 2901:. Konosuke Hashiguchi. (2013) Seikei University. 2289: 2214:Conservation and restoration of woodblock prints 961:. There were more than 600 rental bookstores in 781:, published in two parts between 1679 and 1701. 3399:(in Japanese). Letterpress Labo. Archived from 3079: 2341: 1530: 937:The mass production of woodblock prints in the 267:The rise of printing was greatly influenced by 1537: 1009:Kōshoku Ichidai Otoko (Life of an Amorous Man) 2726: 2466:. Hyundae Bulkyo Media Center. Archived from 2407:. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress 2143: 1428:In 1234, cast metal movable type was used in 1035:, and these books were reprinted many times. 1001:, art books, play scripts for the kabuki and 408:(百万塔陀羅尼, "1,000,000 towers/pagodas Darani"). 3877:, UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. 2009. 3532: 3474:The Japan Federation of Printing Industries. 3261: 3227: 2512:. The book was thus prepared in the time of 1688: 775:ceramics. Equally famous is the compilation 700: 227:Coloured woodcut Buddha, 10th century, China 3684:. Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky. 3635:(8th ed.). Delaware: Oak Knoll Books. 2880: 2878: 2294:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 1351:) and, from the 17th century, in Sin-ngan ( 1213:A revolving table typecase with individual 1038:From the 17th century to the 19th century, 3745: 3711:, Oxford University Press, seventh edition 3421: 3392: 3234:. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 266. 3164: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2774: 2150: 2136: 1783: 1241:. Metal movable type also appeared in the 3754: 3706: 3285: 3228:Taylor, Insup; Taylor, Martin M. (1995). 3191: 3122: 2923:Shin hanga bringing ukiyo-e back to life. 2731:. Stanford University Press. p. 36. 2714: 2646: 2583: 2335: 1199: 3921:Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity 3658: 3597:Journal of the American Oriental Society 3509:"Shi zhu zhai shu hua pu (FH.910.83-98)" 3485:Print Culture: From Steam Press to Ebook 3299:Journal of the American Oriental Society 3297:Sohn, Pow-Key, "Early Korean Printing," 3215: 2875: 1692: 1525: 1413: 1398: 1208: 1137: 1111: 895: 874: 805: 724: 704: 507: 345: 222: 200: 174: 140: 46: 3875:China engraved block printing technique 3715: 3587: 3565: 3513:University of Cambridge Digital Library 3322: 3203: 3176: 3152: 3137: 2981: 2968: 2955: 2850: 2798: 2786: 2256: 2244: 2232: 1248:Auspicious Tantra of All-Reaching Union 657:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 529:. Zhou Mi's collection numbered 42,000 439:. Other disseminated works include the 256:for scholars and students to copy. The 38:. For Japanese woodblock printing, see 14: 3883: 3630: 3452: 3036: 2824: 2660:"Dunhuang concertina binding findings" 2269: 2267: 2265: 1342:Decline of woodblock printing in China 3834:American Printing History Association 3724: 2885:Edo Picture Books and the Edo Period. 2762: 1628:. It was after the 1870s, during the 1237:around the year 1041 by the commoner 415:by 1000 AD and could be found in the 334:earliest extant printed almanac, the 127:produced mainly in the 15th century. 3829:University of Michigan Museum of Art 3676: 3649: 3310: 3007: 2810: 2745: 2631: 2619: 2607: 2595: 3720:(in Spanish). Madrid: Espasa Calpe. 3718:Summa Artis XX. El arte de la China 3428:Japan Science and Technology Agency 2555: 2500:"Printed copy of the Diamond Sutra" 2347: 2262: 1757:Mustard Seed Garden Painting Manual 1142:Three episodes from the block book 277:Great spell of unsullied pure light 24: 3771:Centre for the History of the Book 3660:Diccionario Larousse de la Pintura 3323:Ikegami, Eiko (28 February 2005). 2399:Andrea Matles Savada, ed. (1993). 1491:in 1590, and was first printed in 730:Morning Shine on the Western Ridge 446:In 971 work began on the complete 51:The intricate frontispiece of the 25: 3942: 3764: 3568:The Woman Who Discovered Printing 3537:The Art and Architecture of China 3264:Science and Civilisation in China 3008:Khan, Irshad (10 February 2023). 1518:established a printing school at 1381:Conquests of the Emperor of China 1108:gained international popularity. 795: 778:Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden 411:Woodblock printing spread across 297:This coincides with the reign of 2488:Cultural Heritage Administration 1408:Bibliothèque Nationale de France 579:and Xing Bing in the year 1005: 281:Wugou jingguang da tuoluoni jing 3533:Sickman, L.; Soper, A. (1971). 3526: 3501: 3477: 3465: 3446: 3415: 3386: 3358: 3343: 3316: 3291: 3270: 3255: 3221: 3209: 3197: 3091: 3042: 3001: 2987: 2974: 2961: 2948: 2928: 2916: 2904: 2890: 2804: 2792: 2780: 2720: 2678: 2652: 2549: 1644:were printed from blocks or by 1432:(Korea) to print the 50-volume 643: 422: 383:Muggujeonggwang Dadharanigyeong 329:is 14 feet long and contains a 3869:Video: Block-printed wallpaper 3811:International Dunhuang Project 3732:, Cambridge University Press, 3707:McMurtrie, Douglas C. (1962), 3566:Barrett, Timothy Hugh (2008), 3559: 3329:. Cambridge University Press. 2519: 2460:"Early Print Culture in Korea" 2415:– via Countrystudies.us. 2392: 1635: 1371:. During the reign of Emperor 1281:Five Hundred Years of Printing 290:–670 AD. A similar piece, the 13: 1: 3757:Chinese History: A New Manual 3457:A History of Japan: 1334–1615 2219: 2076: 1851: 1836: 1090:. In the early 20th century, 945:class and 50% to 60% for the 713:(c. 1679–1701), by Wang Kai, 284: 214: 209:, the oldest printed text in 188: 183:, the oldest printed text in 158: 3807:Chinese book-binding methods 3755:Wilkinson, Endymion (2012), 3750:, Cambridge University Press 3716:Rivière, Jean Roger (1966). 3588:Bulliet, Richard W. (1987). 2556:Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1970). 2405:North Korea: A Country Study 1760:published in 1679 and 1701. 1676: 1096:that fused the tradition of 86:in antiquity as a method of 30:For Western art prints, see 7: 2484:"National Treasure No. 126" 1763: 1651: 1597: 1591: 1562: 1552: 1531: 881:Under the Wave off Kanagawa 871:Woodblock printing in Japan 802:Woodblock printing in Korea 512:Western woodcut press, 1872 382: 303:Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra 103:method of printing on cloth 40:Woodblock printing in Japan 10: 3947: 3792:of a European block-book, 3746:Twitchett, Denis (1998b), 3633:An ABC for Book Collectors 3393:Kazuo Mori (25 May 2017). 2836:UNESCO Memory of the World 2292:The Book: A Global History 1727:printed in three colours. 1475: 1275:in the late 19th century. 1204: 1173: 1167: 977:(books on urban culture), 868: 799: 715:Metropolitan Museum of Art 563:, by the year 1023 39,142 134: 130: 115:is the best-known type of 29: 3820:SOAS University of London 3487:, p.75, 2013, Routledge, 2115: 2105: 2097:Thermal-transfer printing 2095: 2085: 2070: 2060: 2050: 2040: 2030: 2020: 2010: 2000: 1990: 1980: 1970: 1960: 1950: 1940: 1930: 1920: 1910: 1900: 1890: 1880: 1870: 1860: 1845: 1830: 1820: 1810: 1800: 1743: 1689:Colour woodblock printing 1538: 1133: 701:Three-five colored prints 588:In 1076, the 39 year old 371: 341: 3816:Chinese woodblock prints 3395: 3366: 3052:British Museum Quarterly 2934:Junko Nishiyama. (2018) 2558:The Rise of Modern China 2350:Chinese Science Bulletin 1972:Photostat and rectigraph 1698:Mino province: Yoro-taki 1487:was brought to Japan by 1394: 1286:The Gutenberg Revolution 864: 338:(乾符四年曆書), dated to 877. 231: 3853:Block printing in India 3453:Sansom, George (1961). 2811:Hyun, Jeongwon (2013). 1771:Part of a series on the 1326:or backwards in time." 364:The Great Dharani Sutra 181:The Great Dharani Sutra 3650:Chia, Lucille (2011), 2938:. p18. Tokyo Bijutsu. 2887:National Diet Library. 2727:Kai-Wing Chow (2004). 2690:The Schøyen Collection 2531:The Schøyen Collection 1822:Intaglio (printmaking) 1713: 1656:Around the mid-1400s, 1567: 1473: 1425: 1411: 1377:Charles-Nicolas Cochin 1339: 1323: 1226: 1200:Impact of movable type 1165: 1018:Nansō Satomi Hakkenden 919: 893: 818: 745: 738:National Palace Museum 722: 672: 606: 586: 513: 470:, was printed in 983. 359: 228: 220: 198: 172: 64: 3798:, with hand-colouring 3631:Carter, John (2006). 3572:Yale University Press 3014:Wooden Printing block 2510:List of Tang Emperors 1942:Hot metal typesetting 1696: 1529: 1462: 1417: 1402: 1328: 1307: 1243:Southern Song dynasty 1235:Northern Song dynasty 1233:were invented in the 1212: 1156:and the serpent, the 1141: 1112:Asia and North Africa 1028:Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige 908:Twenty Views of Tōkyō 899: 878: 809: 728: 708: 651: 594: 581: 571:, and by 1127 73,877 511: 499:Emperor Yuan of Liang 349: 226: 204: 178: 144: 50: 3483:Robertson, Frances, 3472:History of printing. 3374:on 29 September 2022 3350:Kotobank Saga Books. 1962:Daisy wheel printing 1082:influenced European 971:(satirical novels), 855:Goryeo Daejanggyeong 850:Goryeo Daejanggyeong 832:Goryeo Daejanggyeong 466:, also known as the 427:From 932 to 955 the 386:) was discovered at 88:printing on textiles 3931:Textual scholarship 3911:History of printing 3782:11 May 2008 at the 3206:, pp. 580–581) 2801:, pp. 578–579) 2789:, pp. 577–578) 2446:. 13 September 2006 2362:1997ChSBu..42..976P 2002:Dot matrix printing 1777:History of printing 1576:emaki (handscrolls) 1546:: libretto for the 1231:wooden movable type 827:Hyeonjong of Goryeo 823:Seongjong of Goryeo 372:무구정광대다라니경/無垢淨光大陀羅尼經 336:Qianfu sinian lishu 325:. This copy of the 292:Saddharma pundarika 275:. It is called the 238:Book of Southern Qi 137:History of printing 74:is a technique for 3891:Chinese inventions 3726:Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin 3403:on 30 January 2023 2936:新版画作品集 ―なつかしい風景への旅 2898:第6回和本の楽しみ方4 江戸の草紙 2717:, p. 910-911. 2696:on 4 November 2006 2537:on 4 November 2006 2506:. British Library. 2497: • 2481: • 2457: • 2437: • 2418: • 2370:10.1007/BF02882611 2087:Solid ink printing 1802:Woodblock printing 1714: 1568: 1497:Toyotomi Hideyoshi 1426: 1412: 1336:Endymion Wilkinson 1227: 1183:Allan H. Stevenson 1166: 920: 894: 819: 746: 723: 709:Illustration from 669:Endymion Wilkinson 514: 360: 301:, under which the 229: 221: 199: 173: 117:Japanese woodblock 68:Woodblock printing 65: 3847:Project Gutenberg 3691:978-1-56852-481-8 3581:978-0-300-12728-7 3570:, Great Britain: 3495:, 9780415574167, 3353:The Asahi Shimbun 2494:on 16 March 2008. 2160: 2159: 2125: 2124: 1992:Spirit duplicator 1902:Chromolithography 1754:of 1633, and the 1298:Macartney mission 1225:, published 1313. 989:(romance novel), 983:(comical books), 859:Classical Chinese 811:Tripitaka Koreana 567:, by 1068 47,588 485:(441–513) 20,000 405:Hyakumantō Darani 380: 269:Mahayana Buddhism 244:(before AD 220). 236:According to the 207:Hyakumantō Darani 123:, except for the 16:(Redirected from 3938: 3849: 3760: 3751: 3742: 3721: 3712: 3703: 3673: 3655: 3646: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3594: 3584: 3553: 3552: 3540: 3530: 3524: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3505: 3499: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3430:. Archived from 3422:Noriyuki Kasai. 3419: 3413: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3390: 3384: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3362: 3356: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3320: 3314: 3308: 3302: 3295: 3289: 3283: 3277: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3225: 3219: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3141: 3135: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3077: 3076: 3046: 3040: 3034: 3025: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3005: 2999: 2998: 2991: 2985: 2978: 2972: 2965: 2959: 2952: 2946: 2932: 2926: 2925:The Japan Times. 2920: 2914: 2908: 2902: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2873: 2867: 2848: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2838:. United Nations 2828: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2760: 2749: 2743: 2737: 2736: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2692:. Archived from 2682: 2676: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2662:. Archived from 2656: 2650: 2644: 2635: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2572: 2571: 2553: 2547: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2533:. Archived from 2523: 2517: 2507: 2504:Collection Items 2495: 2490:. Archived from 2479: 2477: 2475: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2444:Rightreading.com 2435: 2433: 2431: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2396: 2390: 2389: 2356:(12): 976–981 . 2345: 2339: 2333: 2310: 2309: 2287: 2281: 2271: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2204:Textile printing 2184:New Year picture 2179:Old master print 2152: 2145: 2138: 2117:Digital printing 2081: 2078: 2072:Thermal printing 2032:Phototypesetting 1856: 1853: 1841: 1838: 1798: 1797: 1787: 1768: 1767: 1745: 1700:from the series 1600: 1594: 1565: 1555: 1545: 1543: 1542: 1534: 1510:Emperor Go-Yōzei 1493:Kazusa, Nagasaki 1471: 1454:Sejong the Great 1337: 1176:Old master print 732:(1714-1715), by 670: 577:Emperor Zhenzong 468:Kaibao Tripitaka 450:Buddhist Canon ( 417:Byzantine Empire 385: 375: 373: 289: 286: 258:Suishu jingjizhi 219: 216: 197: 193: 190: 167: 163: 160: 145:A fragment of a 21: 3946: 3945: 3941: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3936: 3935: 3916:Relief printing 3906:Decorative arts 3881: 3880: 3839: 3784:Wayback Machine 3767: 3740: 3692: 3670: 3643: 3621: 3619: 3592: 3582: 3562: 3557: 3556: 3549: 3531: 3527: 3517: 3515: 3507: 3506: 3502: 3482: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3451: 3447: 3437: 3435: 3434:on 23 July 2022 3426:(in Japanese). 3420: 3416: 3406: 3404: 3397: 3391: 3387: 3377: 3375: 3368: 3364: 3363: 3359: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3321: 3317: 3309: 3305: 3296: 3292: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3271: 3260: 3256: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3226: 3222: 3218:, p. 2110) 3214: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3190: 3183: 3175: 3171: 3165:Twitchett 1998b 3163: 3159: 3151: 3144: 3136: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3107: 3105: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3080: 3065:10.2307/4422966 3047: 3043: 3035: 3028: 3018: 3016: 3006: 3002: 2993: 2992: 2988: 2979: 2975: 2966: 2962: 2953: 2949: 2933: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2909: 2905: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2876: 2868: 2851: 2841: 2839: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2775:Twitchett 1998b 2773: 2769: 2761: 2752: 2744: 2740: 2725: 2721: 2713: 2709: 2699: 2697: 2684: 2683: 2679: 2669: 2667: 2666:on 9 March 2000 2658: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2638: 2630: 2626: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2582: 2575: 2568: 2554: 2550: 2540: 2538: 2525: 2524: 2520: 2498: 2496: 2482: 2480: 2473: 2471: 2470:on 19 July 2011 2458: 2456: 2449: 2447: 2438: 2436: 2429: 2427: 2419: 2417: 2410: 2408: 2397: 2393: 2346: 2342: 2334: 2313: 2306: 2288: 2284: 2272: 2263: 2255: 2251: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2156: 2127: 2126: 2079: 2052:Dye-sublimation 2042:Inkjet printing 1982:Screen printing 1932:Offset printing 1872:Relief printing 1854: 1839: 1795: 1766: 1736:Chengshi moyuan 1691: 1679: 1670:Biblia pauperum 1654: 1638: 1535: 1516:Tokugawa Ieyasu 1478: 1472: 1469: 1397: 1344: 1338: 1335: 1207: 1202: 1178: 1172: 1145:Biblia pauperum 1136: 1114: 1106:Hiroshi Yoshida 1066:Suzuki Harunobu 924:Kamakura period 873: 867: 841:Mongol invasion 804: 798: 765:Kaempfer Prints 703: 671: 668: 646: 611:xuanfeng zhuang 462:edition of the 429:Twelve Classics 425: 400:Empress Shōtoku 344: 287: 234: 217: 195: 191: 165: 161: 139: 133: 96:relief printing 61:British Library 43: 28: 23: 22: 18:Woodblock print 15: 12: 11: 5: 3944: 3934: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3879: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3861: 3855: 3850: 3837: 3831: 3822: 3813: 3804: 3799: 3787: 3773: 3766: 3765:External links 3763: 3762: 3761: 3752: 3743: 3738: 3722: 3713: 3704: 3690: 3674: 3668: 3656: 3647: 3641: 3628: 3609:10.2307/603463 3603:(3): 427–438. 3585: 3580: 3561: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3547: 3525: 3500: 3476: 3464: 3445: 3414: 3385: 3357: 3342: 3335: 3315: 3303: 3290: 3288:, p. 911. 3286:Wilkinson 2012 3278: 3269: 3254: 3240: 3220: 3216:Larousse (1988 3208: 3196: 3194:, p. 935. 3192:Wilkinson 2012 3181: 3169: 3167:, p. 637. 3157: 3142: 3127: 3125:, p. 909. 3123:Wilkinson 2012 3115: 3090: 3078: 3059:(3/4): 83–87. 3041: 3026: 3000: 2986: 2973: 2960: 2947: 2944:978-4808711016 2927: 2915: 2913:Mitsui Fdosan. 2903: 2889: 2874: 2849: 2823: 2803: 2791: 2779: 2777:, p. 636. 2767: 2765:, p. 373. 2750: 2738: 2719: 2715:Wilkinson 2012 2707: 2677: 2651: 2649:, p. 912. 2647:Wilkinson 2012 2636: 2624: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2586:, p. 930. 2584:Wilkinson 2012 2573: 2566: 2548: 2518: 2391: 2340: 2338:, p. 910. 2336:Wilkinson 2012 2311: 2304: 2282: 2261: 2249: 2237: 2224: 2223: 2221: 2218: 2217: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2158: 2157: 2155: 2154: 2147: 2140: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2123: 2122: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2093: 2092: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2064: 2062:Laser printing 2058: 2057: 2054: 2048: 2047: 2044: 2038: 2037: 2034: 2028: 2027: 2024: 2022:Spark printing 2018: 2017: 2014: 2008: 2007: 2004: 1998: 1997: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1974: 1968: 1967: 1964: 1958: 1957: 1954: 1948: 1947: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1904: 1898: 1897: 1894: 1888: 1887: 1884: 1878: 1877: 1874: 1868: 1867: 1864: 1858: 1857: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1834: 1832:Printing press 1828: 1827: 1824: 1818: 1817: 1814: 1808: 1807: 1804: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1780: 1779: 1773: 1772: 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2681: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2648: 2643: 2641: 2634:, p. 38. 2633: 2628: 2622:, p. 33. 2621: 2616: 2610:, p. 21. 2609: 2604: 2598:, p. 43. 2597: 2592: 2585: 2580: 2578: 2569: 2567:0-19-501240-2 2563: 2559: 2552: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2522: 2515: 2511: 2505: 2501: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2445: 2441: 2426: 2422: 2406: 2402: 2395: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2337: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2307: 2305:9780191668746 2301: 2297: 2293: 2286: 2280: 2279:0-7141-1447-2 2276: 2270: 2268: 2266: 2259:, p. 61. 2258: 2253: 2247:, p. 50. 2246: 2241: 2235:, p. 60. 2234: 2229: 2225: 2215: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2200: 2197: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2161: 2153: 2148: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2134: 2133: 2131: 2130: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2088: 2084: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2025: 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