Miscarriage of justice

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justice, then one or both of these statements is ultimately deemed to be false. In cases where a large-scale audience is unknowingly witness to a miscarriage of justice, the news-consuming public may develop false beliefs about the nature of crime itself. It may also cause the public to falsely believe that certain types of crime exist, or that certain types of people tend to commit these crimes, or that certain crimes are more commonly prevalent than they actually are. Thus, wrongful convictions can ultimately mold a society's popular beliefs about crime. Because our understanding of crime is socially constructed, it has been shaped by many factors other than its actual occurrence.

1205: 1309: 4022: 385: 483: 3569:, vol. LXVI, no. 20 (19 December 2019), pp. 79–80, 85. According to Judge Rakoff (p. 85), "forensic techniques that in their origin were simply viewed as aids to police investigations have taken on an importance in the criminal justice system that they frequently cannot support. Their results are portrayed... as possessing a degree of validity and reliability that they simply do not have." Rakoff commends (p. 85) the U.S. 618:

where DNA is available. Two Icelandic studies based on self-report conducted ten years apart found the rates of false confession to be 12.2% and 24.4% respectively. These figures provide a proxy for miscarriages of justice because erroneous confessions are likely to lead to wrongful convictions. A more recent Scottish study found the rate of self-reported false confessions among a group of inmates in one prison was 33.4%.

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wrongful convictions for which there is no evidence available to exonerate the defendant. Studies cited by the Innocence Project estimate that between 2.3% and 5% of all prisoners in the U.S. are innocent. However, a more recent study looking at convictions in the state of Virginia during the 1970s and 1980s and matching them to later DNA analysis estimates a rate of wrongful conviction at 11.6%.

517:. Miscarriages are also known as wrongful convictions. Innocent people have sometimes ended up in prison for years before their conviction has eventually been overturned. They may be exonerated if new evidence comes to light or it is determined that the police or prosecutor committed some kind of misconduct at the original trial. In some jurisdictions this leads to the payment of compensation. 935:. Twelve states have no laws requiring compensation to be paid. However, each state differs widely in regard to eligibility requirements, maximum payments, issues concerning factual innocence, the burden of proof, the behavior of the claimant which contributed to the (now overturned) conviction, and the claimant's prior criminal history. In some states, statutes of limitations also applies. 915:

separate inquiry post-exoneration to determine the degree of compensation the victim is entitled to. While most societies agree that a person who did not commit a crime and served a long imprisonment is entitled to significant compensation, it may not be justified, for example, to award compensation to a person who is still believed to have committed a

1335:, but asserted that there are far more false convictions than exonerations. By 2015, the number of individual exonerations was reported as 1,733, with 2015 having the highest annual number of exonerations since 1989. By 2019, the number had risen to 1,934 individuals. 20 individuals have been exonerated while on death row due to DNA evidence. 2313: 1108:

victim that he murdered had returned home and he was released from prison. While he was being released from prison he shared some chilling news. Zuohai shared with the police officers and officials that while he was being taken into custody he repeatedly experienced torture because they were trying to extract a confession from Zuohai.

903:(ICCPR) states that when a miscarriage of justice has occurred and the defendant's conviction has been reversed or they have been pardoned, "the person who has suffered punishment as a result of such conviction shall be compensated according to law". The right to compensation is also authorized by Article 3 of Protocol No. 7 to the 789:, the desire to be paid, the desire to get a deal from prosecutors or police, or an effort to deflect attention from a person's own involvement in a crime. An innocent person is more likely to be convicted when one or more witnesses have an incentive to testify, and those incentives are not disclosed to the jury. According to the 992:

an influence not only on a society's fear of crime but also on its beliefs about the causes of criminal behavior and desirability of one or another approach to crime control. Ultimately, this may have a significant impact on critical public beliefs about emerging forms of crime such as cybercrime, global crime, and terrorism.

1255:"... if a defendant has been denied a fair trial it will almost be inevitable that the conviction will be regarded unsafe, the present case in our view constitutes an exception to the general rule. ... the conviction is to be regarded as safe, even if a breach of Article 6(1) were held to have occurred in the present case." 1349:

works to exonerate people in the United States who have been wrongfully convicted of crime. It has estimated that 1 percent of all U.S. prisoners are innocent. With the number of incarcerated Americans being approximately 2.4 million, by that estimate as many as 20,000 people may be incarcerated as a

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was established specifically to examine possible miscarriages of justice. However, it still requires either strong new evidence of innocence, or new proof of a legal error by the judge or prosecution. For example, merely insisting on one's innocence, asserting the jury made an error, or stating there

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Mass media may also be faulted for distorting the public perception of crime by over-representing certain races and genders as criminals and victims, and for highlighting more sensational and invigorating types of crimes as being more newsworthy. The way a media presents crime-related issues may have

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is a psychological phenomenon whereby people tend to seek and interpret information in ways that support existing beliefs. Two inter-related mechanisms tend to operate: it begins with a biased interpretation of whatever information is available, followed by selectively searching for information which

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The possibility that innocent people would admit to a crime they did not commit seems unlikely - and yet this occurs so often, the Innocence Project found false confessions contribute to approximately 25% of wrongful convictions in murder and rape cases. Certain suspects are more vulnerable to making

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The second method for estimating wrongful convictions involves self-report. Researchers ask prisoners whether they have ever confessed to a crime which they did not commit. Self-report allows examination of any and all crimes where wrongful conviction may have occurred, not just murder and rape cases

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Wrongful convictions can also occur when items which become evidence at crime scenes become contaminated in the process of packaging, collection and transportation to a secured facility or laboratory. Contamination can be introduced unintentionally by material that was not present when the crime was

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English law has no official means of correcting a "perverse" verdict (conviction of a defendant on the basis of insufficient evidence). Appeals are based exclusively on new evidence or errors by the judge or prosecution (but not the defence), or jury irregularities. A reversal occurred, however, in

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supports this interpretation. In police investigations, this comes into play when detectives identify a suspect early in an investigation, come to believe he or she is guilty, and then ignore or downplay other evidence that points to someone else or doesn't fit their hypothesis about what occurred.

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According to a 2020 report by the National Registry of Exonerations, official misconduct contributed to 54% of all wrong convictions. The study only counted misconduct when it directly contributed to the convictions, such as the generation of false evidence or concealment of evidence of innocence.

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for the time they were incarcerated. This is currently limited by statute to a maximum sum of £1,000,000 for those who have been incarcerated for more than ten years and £500,000 for any other cases, Between 2007 and 2023 there could be deductions for the cost of food and accommodation during that

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Police may become convinced a particular suspect is guilty but not have sufficient evidence to prove it. Sometimes they may plant evidence in order to secure a conviction because they believe it is in the public interest, or that there is a greater good, in convicting a particular person. In other

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This occurs in numerous ways including the concealment or destruction of exculpatory evidence; the failure to disclose exculpatory evidence to the defence; the failure to reveal that certain witnesses have been paid to testify; and the planting of incriminating evidence. An Innocence Project study

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The Innocence Project says 44% of wrongful convictions are the result of faulty forensic analysis. This occurs when forensic experts inadvertently or deliberately misrepresent the significance, validity or reliability of scientific evidence. Over the years, misrepresentations have been made in the

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When a crime occurs and the wrong person is convicted for it, the actual perpetrator goes free and often goes on to commit additional crimes, including hundreds of cases of violent crime. A 2019 study estimated that "the wrong‐person wrongful convictions that occur annually may lead to more than

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Wrongful convictions appear at first to be "rightful" arrests and subsequent convictions, and also include a public statement about a particular crime having occurred, as well as a particular individual or individuals having committed that crime. If the conviction turns out to be a miscarriage of

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The risk of miscarriages of justice is often cited as a cause to eliminate the death penalty. When condemned persons are executed before they are determined to have been wrongly convicted, the effect of that miscarriage of justice is irreversible. Wrongly executed people nevertheless occasionally

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can also lead to miscarriages of justice. The credibility of expert witnesses depends on numerous factors - in particular, their credentials, personal likability and self-confidence which all impact on how believable they are. The confidence with which experts present their evidence has also been

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has helped overturn 375 convictions of American prisoners with updated DNA evidence. However, DNA testing occurs in only 5 to 10% of all criminal cases, and exonerations achieved by the Innocence Project are limited to murder and rape cases. This raises the possibility that there may be many more

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A series of wrongful convictions were uncovered in the 2010s which had a large impact on the judicial system and undermined public trust in the Chinese justice system. Zhao Zuohai was one of the wrongful convictions, who had to serve 10 years in prison for a murder he did not commit. The alleged

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There are unfavorable psychological effects to those who were wrongfully sanctioned, even in the absence of any public knowledge. In an experiment, participants significantly reduced their pro-social behavior after being wrongfully sanctioned. As a consequence there were negative effects for the

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Many jurisdictions worldwide provide some kind of remedy for those wrongfully convicted. As victims often face a variety of severe negative psychological, social, and financial consequences, they may be offered an opportunity to seek financial compensation. However, most jurisdictions require a

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In a study of different approaches to the payment of compensation in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, only the US and the UK have statutory schemes in place. In the United States, the federal government, the District of Columbia, and 38 states have such

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A number of factors contribute to this process. First, police officers often have heavy workloads and, in high-profile cases, often come under considerable pressure to catch the perpetrator as soon as possible. This may encourage a rush to judgement - in a process described by psychologists as

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was head of the Ontario Pediatric Forensic Pathology Unit from 1982 and the most highly regarded specialist in his field. His testimony led to the convictions of thirteen women whose children died in unexplained circumstance before it came to light that he had "a thing against people who hurt

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was convicted of the 1984 rape and murder of a 9-year-old girl and was sentenced to life imprisonment. In 1995, new testing of DNA evidence showed Morin could not have been the murderer, and the Ontario Court of Appeal overturned his conviction. The case has been described as "a compendium of

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Academics believe that six main factors contribute to miscarriages of justice. These include eyewitness misidentification, faulty forensic analysis, false confessions by vulnerable suspects, perjury and lies told by witnesses, misconduct by police, prosecutors or judges and inadequate defense

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Four broad approaches allow for the payment of compensation following a miscarriage of justice: tort liability in common law; claims for a breach of constitutional or human rights; statutory relief where specific legislation exists to compensate individuals who are wrongfully convicted; and

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Third, criminal investigations are generally theory-driven activities. Investigators tend to evaluate evidence based on their preliminary theories or hypotheses about how, and by whom, a crime was committed. Because of the pressures described above, such hypotheses are sometimes based on the

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Until 2005, the parole system assumed all convicted persons were guilty, and poorly handled those who were not. To be paroled, a convicted person had to sign a document in which, among other things, they confessed to the crime for which they were convicted. Someone who refused to sign this

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after the officer who developed it, John Reid. Introduced in the 1940s and 50s, the strategy relies on deception, coercion and aggressive confrontation to secure confessions. It became the leading interrogation method used by law enforcement throughout the United States and has led to many

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led the police to ignore and misinterpret scientific evidence, specifically DNA. Subsequently, the Posthumus II committee investigated whether injustice occurred in similar cases. The committee received 25 applications from concerned and involved scientists and selected three for further

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Second, after spending considerable time and resources trying to build a case against a particular suspect, it becomes difficult for police to admit they may be going down the wrong track. The embarrassment and loss of prestige that follows from admitting erroneous decisions may motivate

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Even when a wrongly convicted person is not executed, years in prison can have a substantial, irreversible effect on the person and their family. The risk of miscarriage of justice is therefore also an argument against long sentences, like a life sentence, and cruel prison conditions.

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identifications are notoriously unreliable, contributing to 70% of wrongful convictions. Starting in the 1970s, psychologists studying memory formation and retention found that the way police lineups are conducted can alter an eyewitness's memory of the suspect and this often leads to

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The significant benefits of statutory schemes is that they provide money and services in compensation to individuals who have been wrongfully convicted without regard to fault or blame; they do not require claimants to prove how the prosecution or police committed their mistakes.

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of guilt. This generally occurs when the defendant pleads guilty to a less serious charge, or to one of several charges, in return for the dismissal of the main charge; or it may mean that the defendant pleads guilty to the main charge in return for a more lenient sentence.

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children", and "was on a crusade and acted more like a prosecutor" than a pathologist. An inquiry into his conduct concluded in October 2008 that Smith "actively misled" his superiors, "made false and misleading statements" in court and exaggerated his expertise in trials.

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found that 25% of DNA exonerations involved testimony that was known to be false by the police and another 11% involved the undisclosed use of coerced witness testimony. In other words, over one third of these wrongful convictions involved prosecutorial misconduct.

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investigators themselves. If proper protocols are not followed, evidence can also be contaminated when it is being analyzed or stored. A miscarriage of justice can occur when procedures to prevent contamination are not carried out carefully and accurately.

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In response to two overturned cases, the Schiedammerpark murder case and the Putten murder, the Netherlands created the "Posthumus I committee" which analyzed what had gone wrong in the Schiedammerpark murder case. The committee concluded that

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noted to influence jurors, who tend to assume that a witness who is anxious or nervous is lying. The manner in which experts testify may have a greater impact on judges and lawyers who prefer experts who provide clear, unequivocal conclusions.

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was not enough evidence to prove guilt, is not enough. It is not possible to question the jury's decision or query on what matters it was based. The waiting list for cases to be considered for review is at least two years on average.

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During the early 1990s, a series of high-profile cases turned out to be miscarriages of justice. Many resulted from police fabricating evidence to convict people they thought were guilty, or simply to get a high conviction rate. The

650:. Witnesses also have considerable difficulty making accurate identifications with suspects from different ethnic groups such that "the rate of mistaken identification is significantly higher than most people tend to believe". 840:

found that "criminal investigations which aim at generating evidence confirming an ill-founded hypothesis pose serious threats both to the security of innocent citizens and to the effectiveness of the law-enforcement system".

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man, was wrongly convicted of murder. Marshall spent 11 years in jail before being acquitted in 1983. The case led to questions about the fairness of the Canadian justice system, especially given that Marshall was an

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Gudjonsson, Gisli Hannes; Gonzalez, Rafael A.; Young, Susan (March 1, 2021). "The Risk of Making False Confessions: The Role of Developmental Disorders, Conduct Disorder, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Compliance".

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confessions by innocent people. As of 2014, this technique was still popular with police interrogators even though the strategy produces less information from suspects, provides fewer true confessions and more

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Norris, Robert J.; Weintraub, Jennifer N.; Acker, James R.; Redlich, Allison D.; Bonventre, Catherine L. (2020). "The criminal costs of wrongful convictions: Can we reduce crime by protecting the innocent?".

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Grechenig, Nicklisch & Thoeni, Punishment Despite Reasonable Doubt – A Public Goods Experiment with Sanctions under Uncertainty, Journal of Empirical Legal Studies (JELS) 2010, vol. 7 (4), p. 847-867

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recommendation to "creat an independent National Institute of Forensic Science to do the basic testing and promulgate the basic standards that would make forensic science much more genuinely scientific."

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jury (except during the troubles in Northern Ireland or in the case where there is a significant risk of jury-tampering, such as organised crime cases, when a judge or judges presided without a jury).

654:, a leading researcher in the field, says memory is so unreliable "the end result can be a highly confident witness testifying in a persuasive manner at trial about a detail that is completely false". 595:

where the guilty verdict has been vacated or annulled by a judge or higher court after new evidence has been brought forward proving the "guilty" person is, in fact, innocent. Since 1989, the

2625: 1296:(SCCRC) was established in April 1999. All cases accepted by the SCCRC are subjected to a robust and thoroughly impartial review before a decision on whether or not to refer to the 625:, most wrongful convictions in Israel relate to less serious crimes than major felonies such as rape and murder, as judicial systems are less careful in dealing with those cases. 3909: 3149: 621:

Up to 10,000 people may be wrongfully convicted of serious crimes in the United States each year. According to Professor Boaz Sangero of the College of Law and Business in

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Jamil Ddamulira Mujuzi1. The Right to Compensation for Wrongful Conviction/Miscarriage of Justice in International Law. International Human Rights Law Review, 30 Nov 2019

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Police often use coercive manipulation techniques when conducting interrogations in hopes of obtaining a confession. In the United States, one of these is known as the

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put it, "The name Donald Marshall is almost synonymous with 'wrongful conviction' and the fight for native justice in Canada." Marshall received a lifetime pension of

837: 3183: 1596: 3068: 3031: 2849: 754:, a leading expert on false confessions, says that young people are also particularly vulnerable to confessing, especially when stressed, tired, or traumatized. 3115: 1372:

make up 13.6% of the U.S. population, but 53% of exonerations, and that they were seven times more likely to be falsely convicted compared to White Americans.

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guarantees compensation in cases of miscarriage of justice. This includes those who have been acquitted of their charges or if their case has been dismissed.

1331:, initially reported 873 individual exonerations in the U.S. from January 1989 through February 2012; the report called this number "tiny" in a country with 1179: 2781: 900: 469: 1153:, van Koppen, Israëls, Crombag, and Derksen) concluded that confirmation bias and misuse of complex scientific evidence led to miscarriages of justice. 1095:

official error—from inaccurate eyewitness testimony and police tunnel vision, to scientific bungling and the suppression of evidence." Morin received

1032:, his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. He was released on parole in 1969, and was freed from his parole restrictions in 1974. In 2007, the 3847: 1450: 3617: 1652: 1379:

was released from prison after 48 years of prison. His imprisonment after wrongful conviction is believed to be the longest in American history.

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to publicly share their stories, as a way to counteract these media distortions and to advocate for various types of criminal justice reform.

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10 million by the Saskatchewan government after having spent 23 years in prison. After being tied to it by DNA evidence, serial rapist

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O'Brien, B. (2009), "Prime suspect: An examination of factors that aggravate and counteract confirmation bias in criminal investigations",

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Joy, Peter A. (2006). "Relationship between Prosecutorial Misconduct and Wrongful Convictions: Shaping Remedies for a Broken System".

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Gross, Samuel R.; Possley, Maurice; Otterbourg, Ken; Stephens, Clara; Weinstock Paredes, Jessica; O'Brien, Barbara (September 2022).

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Herrmann, Benedikt, Christian Thöni, and Simon Gächter. "Antisocial punishment across societies." Science 319.5868 (2008): 1362–1367.

1293: 1189:(CCRC), reported in October 2018 that the single biggest cause of miscarriage of justice was the failure to disclose vital evidence. 3142: 2451:

Innocence Compensation: An International Comparative Analysis on Compensation for Wrongful Convictions and Miscarriages of Justice.

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Edmond, G. (2002). "Constructing Miscarriages of Justice: Misunderstanding Scientific Evidence in High Profile Criminal Appeals".

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A series of miscarriages of justice in Canada have led to reforms of the country's criminal justice system. In 1959, 14-year-old

3785: 1403: 281: 275: 3551: 2982: 2567: 2538: 2403: 2361: 2146: 2050: 1511: 2182: 3857: 3852: 3610: 3167: 1455: 1445: 1221:, were refused parole for this reason. In 2005 the system changed, and began to parole prisoners who never admitted guilt. 17: 2040: 1270: 908: 455: 3513: 4060: 1131:. He was arrested in 1983, and sentenced to ten years in jail in 1985, but acquitted of all charges on appeal in 1986. 1036:

overturned Truscott's conviction, based on a reexamination of forensic evidence. The government of Ontario awarded him

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Research into the issue of wrongful convictions have led to the use of methods to avoid wrongful convictions, such as

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made a conservative estimate that 4.1% of inmates awaiting execution on death row in the United States are innocent.

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GOULD, JON B.; LEO, RICHARD A. (2010). "One Hundred Years Later: Wrongful Convictions After a Century of Research".

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In 2002, the Northern Ireland Court of Appeal made an exception to who could avail of the right to a fair trial in

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analysis, microscopic hair comparison, and the analysis of bite marks, shoe prints, soil, fiber, and fingerprints.

1899:, Richard A. Leo, Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online September 2009, 37 (3) 332-343; 1196:, who was executed in 1950 after being wrongfully convicted of a murder that had been committed by his neighbour. 3603: 3514:"Glynn Simmons declared innocent after serving 48 years in Oklahoma – believed to be the longest of any exoneree" 1814: 1149:

case, the Ina Post case, and the Enschede incest case. In those three cases, independent researchers (professors

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A major factor leading to the abolition of capital punishment for murder in the United Kingdom was the case of

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Garrett, Brandon L.; Neufeld, Peter J. (2009). "Invalid Forensic Science Testimony and Wrongful Convictions".

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Giannelli, Paul C. (2007–2008). "Wrongful Convictions and Forensic Science: The Need to Regulate Crime Labs".

2106:"Expert Witness Confidence and Juror Personality: Their Impact on Credibility and Persuasion in the Courtroom" 3271: 1501: 785:

Witnesses in police investigations may lie for a variety of reasons including: personal ill-will towards the

491: 2253: 3570: 3565: 1162: 1053: 793:, 57% of cases where the convicted person was eventually exonerated involves perjury or false accusations. 743: 441: 224: 832:

investigators to continue down a chosen path and disregard evidence that points in a different direction.

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declaration spent longer in jail than someone who signed it. Some wrongly convicted people, such as the

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Natapoff, Alexandra (2006–2007). "Beyond Unreliable: How Snitches Contribute to Wrongful Convictions".

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in 2015. He is seen here addressing an audience as to his advocacy in fighting miscarriages of justice.

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In our collateral review jurisprudence, the term 'miscarriage of justice' means that the defendant is

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Motivational Sources of Confirmation Bias in Criminal Investigations: The Need for Cognitive Closure

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The credentials and reputation of the expert also have a significant impact on juries. For example,

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so that any evidence obtained by the prosecution must be presented to the defense on disclosure.

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Race and systemic racism have been found to be a factor in wrongful convictions; a report by the

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expectations and preconceptions of the investigators rather than on solid facts. A study in the

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Suter, Glenn W.; Efroymson, Rebecca A.; Sample, Bradley E.; Jones, Daniel S. (April 21, 2000).

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eyewitness identification. Leading causes of wrongful convictions in the United States include

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Academic studies have found that the main factors contributing to miscarriages of justice are:

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was convicted of raping and murdering a 12-year-old girl. Originally sentenced to death by

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words, they believe that the ends (or the outcome) justifies the means. This is known as

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Zhong, Lena Y.; Dai, Mengliang (2019). "The Politics of Wrongful Convictions in China".

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The Associated Press (August 29, 2007). "Canadian Court Overturns 1959 Murder Verdict".

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Kelly Walsh; Jeanette Hussemann; Abigail Flynn; Jennifer Yahner; Laura Golian (2017).

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and unscientific forensics. Other causes include police and prosecutorial misconduct.

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Covey, Russell (2012–2013). "Police Misconduct as a Cause of Wrongful Convictions".

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At least 21 states in the U.S. do not offer compensation for wrongful imprisonment.

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Charles Smith scandal: How a mother wrongly accused of killing her son fought back

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In the United Kingdom a jailed person, whose conviction is quashed, might be paid

828:(NFC) - the desire for a clear-cut solution which avoids confusion and ambiguity. 583:

There are two main methods for estimating the prevalence of wrongful convictions.

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Gross, Samuel R.; O'Brien, Barbara; Hu, Chen; Kennedy, Edward H. (May 20, 2014).

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when a miscarriage of justice (or "manifest injustice") would otherwise occur.

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European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms

769: 763: 715: 685: 364: 150: 4039: 3560: 3491: 3389: 3316: 3235: 3179: 3069:"Failure to disclose vital evidence in criminal cases growing, says watchdog" 2220: 2121: 2083: 2017: 1954: 1875: 1867: 1784: 1776: 1740: 1717:"From False Confession to Wrongful Conviction: Seven Psychological Processes" 1683: 1376: 1193: 1146: 668:

committed by anyone entering the crime scene after the event - by uninvolved

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became notorious for such practices, and was disbanded in 1989. In 1997 the

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a false confession under police pressure. This includes individuals who are

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This psychologist explains why people confess to crimes they didn't commit

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1.5 million in compensation and his conviction resulted in changes to the

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Rafter, N. (1990). "The Social Construction of Crime and Crime Control".

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entire group. The extent of wrongful sanctions varies between societies.

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criminal act but whose conviction was overturned due to technicalities.

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was exonerated of the murder of his wife. There is no right to a trial

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Cramer, Robert J.; Brodsky, Stanley L.; DeCoster, Jamie (March 2009).

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Xiaofeng, Wu (2011). "An Analysis of Wrongful Convictions in China".

2339: 2212: 2009: 1358: 1289: 947:

The concept of miscarriage of justice has important implications for

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Death by Design: Capital Punishment as a Social Psychological System

2412: 2105: 1896: 384: 3929: 2850:"Killer behind David Milgaard's wrongful conviction dies in prison" 2603: 932: 3829: 2420:"1. Miscarriages of Justice: The Impact of Wrongful Imprisonment" 1313: 1292:, which differs from that of the rest of the United Kingdom, the 1174: 1124: 1029: 673: 669: 537: 533: 115: 2388:

Compensation for Wrongful Convictions: A Comparative Perspective

2110:

Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online

1815:"Qualitatively Estimating the Incidence of Wrongful Convictions" 968: 306: 265: 105: 3448: 995:

Some wrongfully sanctioned people join organizations like the

3272:"How the wrongfully convicted are compensated for years lost" 1974: 1972: 510: 2658: 2386:

Jasiński, Wojciech; Kremens, Karolina (February 22, 2023).

2356:(7th ed.). St. Paul, Minn.: West Group. p. 1173. 887: 100: 27:

Conviction of a person for a crime that they did not commit

3480:"Man Cleared of Murder After More Than 48 Years in Prison" 1969: 1099:

1.25 million in compensation from the Ontario government.

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Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling

509:, such as the conviction and punishment of a person for a 3093: 2038: 1897:

False Confessions: Causes, Consequences, and Implications

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Gravestone of George Johnson who was unjustly hanged in

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to prevent, identify, and correct wrongful convictions.

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strategies put forward by the defendant's legal team.

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following the miscarriage of justice surrounding the

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Gross, Samuel R.; Shaffer, Michael (June 22, 2012).

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Dr. Charles Smith: The man behind the public inquiry

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was wrongfully convicted for the rape and murder of

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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

757: 3250:"Government Misconduct and Convicting the Innocent" 3165: 3020:. Duncan Campbell, The Guardian. February 23, 2015. 2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 1482:. Harvard Law School. April 26, 1993. p. 736. 777:than less confrontational interviewing techniques. 3451:Race and Wrongful Convictions in the United States 2828:"Milgaard will get $ 10 million compensation" 2555: 2526: 975:the conviction—or have their convictions quashed. 927:schemes based on the largesse of the government. 3910:Race in the United States criminal justice system 3848:List of wrongful convictions in the United States 2042:Ecological Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites 1451:List of wrongful convictions in the United States 1123:television, was accused of being a member of the 4037: 3544:Barred: Why the Innocent Can't Get Out of Prison 3541: 3269: 3134: 2351: 2300: 1982:, J Am Acad Psychiatry Law, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1999 1611:Estimating the Prevalence of Wrongful Conviction 780: 2385: 1653:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 606:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4009:List of death row inmates in the United States 3375: 3356: 2728:"Acquitted in killing, Marshall is jubilant". 1715:Leo, Richard A.; Davis, Deborah (March 2010). 1329:Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law 3611: 3337: 1476:"United States v. Olano, 507 U.S. 725 (1993)" 463: 3140: 2562:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 2492:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 1597:How many Innocent people are there in prison 1333:2.3 million people in prisons and jails 1180:Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom 3863:Overturned convictions in the United States 3305:The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 3168:"Prisoners Exonerated, Prosecutors Exposed" 2325: 2183:The Seismic Change in Police Interrogations 1626: 1277:. c. 26) increased the jurisdiction of the 796: 3625: 3618: 3604: 3410: 1493: 1079:. He was released in 1992 and compensated 501:occurs when an unfair outcome occurs in a 470: 456: 3286:"How Many Innocent People are in Prison?" 3225: 3166:The Editorial Board (February 12, 2016). 2991: 2861: 2859: 2743:Reluctant Hero: The Donald Marshall Story 2283: 2065: 2059: 1944: 1691: 1673: 1294:Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission 844: 3302: 3270:Stephanie Slifer, ed. (March 27, 2014). 3208:Garrett, Brandon L. (January 13, 2020). 2953: 2918: 2688: 2445: 2443: 2441: 1927:Garrett, Brandon L. (January 13, 2020). 1856:Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 1714: 1599:, The Innocence Project, Wayback machine 1307: 1203: 709: 481: 3997:Capital punishment in the United States 3477: 3207: 3066: 2553: 2265: 1926: 1461: 628: 14: 4038: 3511: 3227:10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024739 3155:from the original on October 21, 2013. 2856: 2812:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2489: 2462: 2285:10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024739 1991: 1946:10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024739 1822:, Criminal Law Bulletin 48(2) 221—279 1543: 1541: 1499: 1404:False allegation of child sexual abuse 812:Role of bias and cognitive distortions 3599: 3203: 3201: 3148:. University of Michigan Law School. 2998:Enzo Tortora: When justice miscarries 2972: 2745:CBC.ca, URL accessed 10 January 2006. 2623: 2582: 2524: 2438: 1585:DNA Exonerations in the United States 1087:was convicted of the murder in 1999. 638:Unreliability of eyewitness testimony 3858:List of miscarriage of justice cases 3853:List of exonerated death row inmates 3478:Jiménez, Jesus (December 20, 2023). 3186:from the original on October 4, 2017 2194: 2149:. Cbc.ca. CBC News, 8 December 2009. 2066:Giannelli, Paul C. (December 2007). 1456:List of exonerated death row inmates 1446:List of miscarriage of justice cases 1185:Richard Foster, the Chairman of the 895:Compensation for wrongful conviction 874:Another technique used by police is 730: 657: 571:Some prosecutors' offices undertake 3512:Andone, Dakin (December 21, 2023). 3429: 2956:Oklahoma City University Law Review 2533:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1992:Loftus, Elizabeth F. (April 2019). 1849: 1721:The Journal of Psychiatry & Law 1616:(Report). US Department of Justice. 1538: 1271:Criminal Appeal (Scotland) Act 1927 1200:England, Wales and Northern Ireland 909:American Convention on Human Rights 24: 3535: 3198: 3096:. Government of the United Kingdom 3094:"Criminal Cases Review Commission" 3067:Bowcott, Owen (October 11, 2018). 3007:, The Florentine, October 30, 2008 2328:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 1548:Compensating The Wrongly Convicted 1500:Garner, Bryan A. (June 25, 2009). 1040:6.5 million in compensation. 863: 696: 25: 4072: 3935:Ineffective assistance of counsel 3889:National Registry of Exonerations 3577: 3458:National Registry of Exonerations 3340:Golden Gate University Law Review 3257:National Registry of Exonerations 2891: 1439: 1366:National Registry of Exonerations 1325:University of Michigan Law School 1321:National Registry of Exonerations 1279:Scottish Court of Criminal Appeal 1239:West Midlands Serious Crime Squad 1168: 1058:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 791:National Registry of Exonerations 758:Coercive interrogation techniques 554:ineffective assistance of counsel 4020: 3413:Washington University Law Review 2256:, Innocence Project New Orleans. 2185:, Marshall Project, 3 July 2017. 1424:Perverting the course of justice 1303: 1243:Criminal Cases Review Commission 1187:Criminal Cases Review Commission 662: 383: 3505: 3471: 3442: 3423: 3404: 3369: 3350: 3331: 3296: 3278: 3263: 3242: 3159: 3108: 3086: 3060: 3042: 3024: 3010: 2966: 2947: 2912: 2885: 2842: 2820: 2774: 2748: 2736: 2721: 2703: 2662:Criminology & Public Policy 2652: 2617: 2608: 2595: 2576: 2547: 2518: 2483: 2465:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 2456: 2370: 2345: 2319: 2259: 2247: 2235: 2188: 2176: 2164: 2152: 2140: 2128: 2097: 2032: 1985: 1920: 1890: 1850:Leo, Richard A. (August 2005). 1843: 1825: 1807: 1755: 1708: 1368:found that, as of August 2022, 1350:result of wrongful conviction. 982: 942: 923:non-statutory relief by way of 42:Criminal trials and convictions 2352:Garner, Bryan A., ed. (2000). 1765:Journal of Attention Disorders 1639: 1620: 1602: 1590: 1578: 1560: 1525:A grossly unfair outcome in a 1134: 714:Overly confident testimony by 612: 586: 332:Sexually violent predator laws 13: 1: 2975:Wrongful Convictions in China 2933:10.1080/10670564.2018.1511396 2921:Journal of Contemporary China 2715:attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca 2449:Dr Myles Frederick McLellan, 2244:, Western Michigan University 2242:Causes of Wrongful Conviction 2137:. CBC Radio, January 12, 2017 1014: 955:will often only exercise its 882:provides a concession to the 781:Perjury and false accusations 578: 3571:National Academy of Sciences 3566:The New York Review of Books 3214:Annual Review of Criminology 2272:Annual Review of Criminology 2266:Garrett, Brandon L. (2020). 2201:Applied Cognitive Psychology 1998:Applied Cognitive Psychology 1933:Annual Review of Criminology 1568:"Conviction Integrity Units" 746:, and those who suffer from 573:conviction integrity reviews 522:eyewitness misidentification 225:Cruel and unusual punishment 7: 3915:Innocent prisoner's dilemma 3563:, "Jailed by Bad Science", 2504:10.1177/0022427890027004004 1414:Innocent prisoner's dilemma 1382: 1290:Scotland's own legal system 1264: 1011:41,000 additional crimes". 591:The first is the number of 10: 4077: 2424:JustResearch Edition no.13 1980:Testifying with Confidence 1733:10.1177/009318531003800103 867: 848: 824:involving a high need for 800: 761: 734: 603:A 2014 study published in 427: English/Welsh courts 4061:Abuse of the legal system 4017: 3989: 3948: 3902: 3876: 3838: 3808:Eyewitness identification 3754: 3633: 3542:Daniel S. Medwed (2022). 3359:North Carolina Law Review 2898:The Canadian Encyclopedia 2871:The Canadian Encyclopedia 2760:The Canadian Encyclopedia 2711:"Newsroom : Results" 2072:North Carolina Law Review 1323:, a joint project of the 1019: 3981:Innocence Protection Act 3641:Prosecutorial misconduct 2624:Acker, James R. (2013). 2589:Punishment & Society 1868:10.1177/1043986205277477 1777:10.1177/1087054719833169 1298:High Court of Justiciary 1156: 1119:, a TV host on national 1111: 1102: 803:Prosecutorial misconduct 797:Prosecutorial misconduct 532:by vulnerable suspects; 81:Presumption of innocence 3976:Equal Protection Clause 3894:Investigating Innocence 3825:Tampering with evidence 3116:"Appeal Court Judgment" 3036:London Evening Standard 2674:10.1111/1745-9133.12463 1675:10.1073/pnas.1306417111 1227:William Herbert Wallace 1034:Ontario Court of Appeal 744:intellectually impaired 243:Indefinite imprisonment 3741:Spoliation of evidence 3627:Miscarriage of justice 3587:miscarriage of justice 3210:"Wrongful Convictions" 3003:April 5, 2015, at the 2636:: 1629. Archived from 2558:Policing Contingencies 2554:Manning, P.K. (2003). 2354:Black's law dictionary 2268:"Wrongful Convictions" 2173:, Science 13 June 2019 1994:"Eyewitness testimony" 1929:"Wrongful Convictions" 1553:April 5, 2023, at the 1503:miscarriage of justice 1316: 1213: 907:and Article 10 of the 858:noble cause corruption 851:Noble cause corruption 845:Noble cause corruption 499:miscarriage of justice 494: 302:Miscarriage of justice 3966:Right to a fair trial 3820:Misinformation effect 3666:Selective enforcement 3661:Malicious prosecution 3656:Selective prosecution 2894:"Guy Paul Morin Case" 2867:"Guy Paul Morin Case" 2583:Rajah, Valli (2021). 2396:10.4324/9781003229414 2390:. London: Routledge. 2195:Vrij, Aldert (2019). 1913:Duncan, Colby (2019) 1311: 1283:Trial of Oscar Slater 1207: 1163:Constitution of Spain 931:legislation on their 899:Article 14(6) of the 868:Further information: 849:Further information: 801:Further information: 762:Further information: 735:Further information: 710:Overconfident experts 485: 327:Sex offender registry 47:Rights of the accused 3961:Exculpatory evidence 3940:Prosecutor's fallacy 3920:Blue wall of silence 3903:Contributing factors 3840:Wrongful convictions 3432:Wisconsin Law Review 3292:. December 12, 2011. 2756:"Donald Marshall Jr" 2477:10.1093/ojls/22.1.53 2161:, Innocence Project. 1462:Notes and references 1434:Presumption of guilt 1259:Christy Walsh (Case) 1208:Paddy Hill from the 1001:Witness to Innocence 678:emergency responders 629:Contributing factors 542:misconduct by police 413:English/Welsh courts 341:Related areas of law 18:Wrongful prosecution 3686:Abuse of discretion 3676:Attorney misconduct 3634:Types of misconduct 3378:Virginia Law Review 2640:on February 4, 2022 1666:2014PNAS..111.7230G 1633:Scientific American 1587:, Innocence Project 1557:, Innocence Project 1527:judicial proceeding 1145:investigation: the 1066:Canada Evidence Act 1045:Donald Marshall Jr. 971:—which essentially 967:receive posthumous 536:and lies stated by 322:Restorative justice 4003:Batson v. Kentucky 3949:Norms and remedies 3868:Wrongful execution 3786:Child sexual abuse 3591:. Merriam-Webster. 3484:The New York Times 3172:The New York Times 2973:Jiang, Na (2016). 2900:. Historica Canada 2873:. Historica Canada 2762:. Historica Canada 2730:The Globe and Mail 2697:The New York Times 2525:Haney, C. (2005). 2426:. November 1, 2005 2159:Research Resources 1531:failure of justice 1480:U.S. Supreme Court 1319:In June 2012, the 1317: 1275:17 & 18 Geo. 5 1214: 949:standard of review 886:in exchange for a 560:strategies by the 556:(e.g., inadequate 495: 212:Capital punishment 204:Dangerous offender 91:Self-incrimination 36:Criminal procedure 4033: 4032: 3884:Innocence Project 3813:Cross-race effect 3803:Eyewitness memory 3798:Mistaken identity 3769:Forced confession 3731:Witness tampering 3706:Legal malpractice 3701:Gaming the system 3651:Police corruption 3646:Police misconduct 3553:978-1-5416-7591-9 3290:Innocence Project 3122:on April 15, 2010 3056:. August 6, 2023. 3038:. 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