717:
of autosomal chromosomes while only half the population contains 1 Y chromosome. Thus, genetic drift is an exceptionally strong force acting upon the Y chromosome. Through sheer random assortment, an adult male may never pass on his Y chromosome if he only has female offspring. Thus, although a male may have a well adapted Y chromosome free of excessive mutation, it may never make it into the next gene pool. The repeat random loss of well-adapted Y chromosomes, coupled with the tendency of the Y chromosome to evolve to have more deleterious mutations rather than less for reasons described above, contributes to the species-wide degeneration of Y chromosomes through
58:
1318:
5880:
1338:
759:; these strings of bases contain functioning genes important for male fertility. Most of the sequence pairs are greater than 99.97% identical. The extensive use of gene conversion may play a role in the ability of the Y chromosome to edit out genetic mistakes and maintain the integrity of the relatively few genes it carries. In other words, since the Y chromosome is single, it has duplicates of its genes on itself instead of having a second, homologous, chromosome. When errors occur, it can use other parts of itself as a template to correct them.
8219:
1260:
645:, which encourages further mutation. These two conditions combined put the Y chromosome at a greater opportunity of mutation than the rest of the genome. The increased mutation opportunity for the Y chromosome is reported by Graves as a factor 4.8. However, her original reference obtains this number for the relative mutation rates in male and female germ lines for the lineage leading to humans.
1094:
693:. Massive accumulations of retrotransposable elements are scattered throughout the Y. The random insertion of DNA segments often disrupts encoded gene sequences and renders them nonfunctional. However, the Y chromosome has no way of weeding out these "jumping genes". Without the ability to isolate alleles, selection cannot effectively act upon them.
563:(PAR). The PAR undergoes frequent recombination between the X and Y chromosomes, but recombination is suppressed in other regions of the Y chromosome. These regions contain sex-determining and other male-specific genes. Without this suppression, these genes could be lost from the Y chromosome from recombination and cause issues such as infertility.
2717:, Seattle, investigated the origin of male chromosomes found in the peripheral blood of women who had not had male progeny. A total of 120 subjects (women who had never had sons) were investigated, and it was found that 21% of them had male DNA in their peripheral blood. The subjects were categorised into four groups based on their case histories:
2536:
The cause can be seen as an incomplete Y chromosome: the usual karyotype in these cases is 45X, plus a fragment of Y. This usually results in defective testicular development, such that the infant may or may not have fully formed male genitalia internally or externally. The full range of ambiguity of
788:
intermediates preceding gene conversion were found to rarely take the alternate route of crossover recombination. The Y-Y gene conversion rate in humans is about 1.52 x 10 conversions/base/year. These gene conversion events may reflect a basic function of meiosis, that of conserving the integrity of
716:
Even if a well adapted Y chromosome manages to maintain genetic activity by avoiding mutation accumulation, there is no guarantee it will be passed down to the next generation. The population size of the Y chromosome is inherently limited to 1/4 that of autosomes: diploid organisms contain two copies
2598:, finding a higher than expected number of patients to have an extra Y chromosome. The authors of this study wondered "whether an extra Y chromosome predisposes its carriers to unusually aggressive behaviour", and this conjecture "framed the next fifteen years of research on the human Y chromosome".
1787:
More specifically, PAR1 is at 0.1–2.7 Mb. PAR2 is at 56.9–57.2 Mb. The non-recombining region (NRY) or male-specific region (MSY) sits between. Their sizes is now known perfectly from CHM13: 2.77 Mb and 329.5 kb. Until CHM13 the data in PAR1 and PAR2 was just copied over from X chromosome.
929:
Modern data cast doubt on the hypothesis that the Y-chromosome will disappear. This conclusion was reached by scientists who studied the Y chromosomes of rhesus monkeys. When genomically comparing the Y chromosome of rhesus monkeys and humans, scientists found very few differences, given that humans
2629:
Greater degrees of Y chromosome polysomy (having more than one extra copy of the Y chromosome in every cell, e.g., XYYY) are considerably more rare. The extra genetic material in these cases can lead to skeletal abnormalities, dental abnormalities, decreased IQ, delayed development, and respiratory
582:
of this 1,393-gene loss over 300 million years gives a rate of genetic loss of 4.6 genes per million years. Continued loss of genes at the rate of 4.6 genes per million years would result in a Y chromosome with no functional genes – that is the Y chromosome would lose complete function – within the
797:
According to some theories, in the terminal stages of the degeneration of the Y chromosome, other chromosomes may increasingly take over genes and functions formerly associated with it and finally, within the framework of this theory, the Y chromosome disappears entirely, and a new sex-determining
519:
caused the organism to be male. The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired by
2601:
Through studies over the next decade, this conjecture was shown to be incorrect: the elevated crime rate of XYY males is due to lower median intelligence and not increased aggression, and increased height was the only characteristic that could be reliably associated with XYY males. The "criminal
2493:
Further studies are needed to understand how mosaic Y chromosome loss may contribute to other sex differences in health outcomes, such as how male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers. Potential countermeasures identified so far include not
933:
Outside of mammals, some organisms have lost the Y chromosome, such as most species of
Nematodes. However, in order for the complete elimination of Y to occur, it was necessary to develop an alternative way of determining sex (for example, by determining sex by the ratio of the X chromosome to
2582:
47, XYY syndrome (simply known as XYY syndrome) is caused by the presence of a single extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of a male's cells. 47, XYY males have one X chromosome and two Y chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. Researchers have found that an extra copy of the Y
688:
to natural selection. Deleterious alleles are allowed to "hitchhike" with beneficial neighbors, thus propagating maladapted alleles into the next generation. Conversely, advantageous alleles may be selected against if they are surrounded by harmful alleles (background selection). Due to this
384:
The chromosome was given the name "Y" simply to follow on from
Henking's "X" alphabetically. The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter "Y" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a
1343:
G-banding patterns of human Y chromosome in three different resolutions (400, 550 and 850). Band length in this diagram is based on the ideograms from ISCN (2013). This type of ideogram represents actual relative band length observed under a microscope at the different moments during the
611:
Y chromosomes (first published in 2005) show that the human Y chromosome has not lost any genes since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees between 6–7 million years ago. Additionally, a scientific report in 2012 stated that only one gene had been lost since humans diverged from the
2734:
The study noted that 10% of the women had never been pregnant before, raising the question of where the Y chromosomes in their blood could have come from. The study suggests that possible reasons for occurrence of male chromosome microchimerism could be one of the following:
2567:
of the Y chromosome, but a condition of having an extra X chromosome, which usually results in defective postnatal testicular function. The mechanism is not fully understood; it does not seem to be due to direct interference by the extra X with expression of Y genes.
667:
with respect to the main body of genetic information. Brandeis proposed that the basic function of meiosis (particularly meiotic recombination) is the conservation of the integrity of the genome, a proposal consistent with the idea that meiosis is an adaptation for
2509:(YCM) is a family of genetic disorders caused by missing genes in the Y chromosome. Many affected men exhibit no symptoms and lead normal lives. However, YCM is also known to be present in a significant number of men with reduced fertility or reduced sperm count.
1052:, in which the XY system is still developing and cross over between the X and Y is still possible. Because the male specific region is very small and contains no essential genes, it is even possible to artificially induce XX males and YY females to no ill effect.
934:
autosomes), and any genes necessary for male function had to be moved to other chromosomes. In the meantime, modern data demonstrate the complex mechanisms of Y chromosome evolution and the fact that the disappearance of the Y chromosome is not guaranteed.
1027:
Other organisms have mirror image sex chromosomes: where the homogeneous sex is the male, with two Z chromosomes, and the female is the heterogeneous sex with a Z chromosome and a W chromosome. For example, the ZW sex-determination system is found in
587:
analysis reveals that many mammalian species are experiencing a similar loss of function in their heterozygous sex chromosome. Degeneration may simply be the fate of all non-recombining sex chromosomes, due to three common evolutionary forces: high
1245:
Since almost half of the human Y sequence was unknown before 2022, it could not be screened out as contamination in microbial sequencing projects. As a result, the NCBI RefSeq bacterial genome database mistakenly includes some Y chromosome data.
1114:
Too many subsections. Article might benefit from moving h3 subsections into h2 sections, if we can somehow reconcile the gap between all therians and humans. "Origins and evolution" section has a human focus, but the discussion does include all
1230:(and after many updates) almost half of the Y chromosome remained un-sequenced even in 2021; a different Y chromosome from the HG002 (GM24385) genome was completely sequenced in January 2022 and is included in the new "complete genome" human
5855:
498:
hermaphroditism, where the same organism produces male and female gametes at the same time. Most simultaneous hermaphrodite species are invertebrates, and among vertebrates, simultaneous hermaphroditism has only been discovered in a few
5901:
2839:
139:
42:
2473:
and have a shorter life expectancy. In many cases, a cause and effect relationship between the Y chromosome and health outcomes has not been determined, and some propose loss of the Y chromosome could be a "neutral
3603:
Grützner F, Rens W, Tsend-Ayush E, El-Mogharbel N, O'Brien PC, Jones RC, et al. (December 2004). "In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes".
2583:
chromosome is associated with increased stature and an increased incidence of learning problems in some boys and men, but the effects are variable, often minimal, and the vast majority do not know their karyotype.
620:
model is flawed and suggest that the current human Y chromosome is either no longer shrinking or is shrinking at a much slower rate than the 4.6 genes per million years estimated by the linear extrapolation model.
1064:
possess four or five pairs of XY sex chromosomes, each pair consisting of sex chromosomes with homologous regions. The chromosomes of neighboring pairs are partially homologous, such that a chain is formed during
5973:
Veerappa AM, Padakannaya P, Ramachandra NB (August 2013). "Copy number variation-based polymorphism in a new pseudoautosomal region 3 (PAR3) of a human X-chromosome-transposed region (XTR) in the Y chromosome".
6874:
Yan Z, Lambert NC, Guthrie KA, Porter AJ, Loubiere LS, Madeleine MM, et al. (August 2005). "Male microchimerism in women without sons: quantitative assessment and correlation with pregnancy history".
3994:
Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Pyntikova T, Minx PJ, Graves T, Rozen S, et al. (September 2005). "Conservation of Y-linked genes during human evolution revealed by comparative sequencing in chimpanzee".
2683:), use of the information contained in the Y chromosome is of particular interest because, unlike other chromosomes, the Y chromosome is passed exclusively from father to son, on the patrilineal line.
1069:. The first X chromosome in the chain is also partially homologous with the last Y chromosome, indicating that profound rearrangements, some adding new pieces from autosomes, have occurred in history.
4046:
3655:
Watson JM, Riggs A, Graves JA (October 1992). "Gene mapping studies confirm the homology between the platypus X and echidna X1 chromosomes and identify a conserved ancestral monotreme X chromosome".
1323:
G-banding ideogram of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs. Band length in this diagram is proportional to base-pair length. This type of ideogram is generally used in genome browsers (e.g.
774:. The comparison demonstrated that the same phenomenon of gene conversion appeared to be at work more than 5 million years ago, when humans and the non-human primates diverged from each other.
989:
Many groups of organisms in addition to therian mammals have Y chromosomes, but these Y chromosomes do not share common ancestry with therian Y chromosomes. Such groups include monotremes,
704:
have entropy rates of 1.5–1.9 bits per nucleotide (compared to the theoretical maximum of exactly 2 for no redundancy), the Y chromosome's entropy rate is only 0.84. From the definition of
895:
have evolved fertile females who possess the genotype generally coding for males, XY, in addition to the ancestral XX female, through a variety of modifications to the X and Y chromosomes.
2695:
Research is currently investigating whether male-pattern neural development is a direct consequence of Y-chromosome-related gene expression or an indirect result of Y-chromosome-related
1818:). Among various projects, CCDS takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.
4314:
Rozen S, Skaletsky H, Marszalek JD, Minx PJ, Cordum HS, Waterston RH, et al. (June 2003). "Abundant gene conversion between arms of palindromes in human and ape Y chromosomes".
1186:
only classifies 63 out of 107 genes, though CCDS estimates are often considered lower bounds due to their conservative classification strategy. All single-copy Y-linked genes are
3924:
Goto H, Peng L, Makova KD (February 2009). "Evolution of X-degenerate Y chromosome genes in greater apes: conservation of gene content in human and gorilla, but not chimpanzee".
2311:
547:
mammals are not present on the autosomes of platypus and birds. The older estimate was based on erroneous reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences.
1242:. This added 30 million base pairs, but it was discovered that the Y chromosome can vary a lot in size between individuals, from 45.2 million to 84.9 million base pairs.
4597:
Arakawa Y, Nishida-Umehara C, Matsuda Y, Sutou S, Suzuki H (2002). "X-chromosomal localization of mammalian Y-linked genes in two XO species of the Ryukyu spiny rat".
5131:
Cortez D, Marin R, Toledo-Flores D, Froidevaux L, Liechti A, Waters PD, et al. (April 2014). "Origins and functional evolution of Y chromosomes across mammals".
2462:
Mosaic loss may be related to health outcomes, indicating that the Y chromosome plays important roles outside of sex determination. Males with a higher percentage of
365:. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the smaller chromosome (now labelled "Y") was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by
5575:
Sethakulvichai W, Manitpornsut S, Wiboonrat M, Lilakiatsakun W, Assawamakin A, Tongsima S (2012). "Estimation of band level resolutions of human chromosome images".
641:. Each cellular division provides further opportunity to accumulate base pair mutations. Additionally, sperm are stored in the highly oxidative environment of the
629:
The human Y chromosome is particularly exposed to high mutation rates due to the environment in which it is housed. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively through
7807:
5650:
These values (ISCN start/stop) are based on the length of bands/ideograms from the ISCN book, An
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013).
527:
Until recently, the X and Y chromosomes in mammals were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago. However, research published in 2008 analyzing the
957:
gave the following basic explanation in his 1967 paper on "Extraordinary sex ratios", given the condition that males and females cost equal amounts to produce:
6480:. McInnes, Roderick R., Willard, Huntington F., Hamosh, Ada., Thompson, Margaret W. (Margaret Wilson), 1920- (7th. ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier.
906:, the females, with just one X chromosome each, produce X gametes only, and the males, XY, produce Y gametes, or gametes devoid of any sex chromosome, through
4877:
Hamilton WD (April 1967). "Extraordinary sex ratios. A sex-ratio theory for sex linkage and inbreeding has new implications in cytogenetics and entomology".
1780:
between the X and Y chromosomes. The bulk of the Y chromosome, which does not recombine, is called the "NRY", or non-recombining region of the Y chromosome.
419:, which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production.
4050:
2816:
4471:
Marchal JA, Acosta MJ, Bullejos M, Díaz de la
Guardia R, Sánchez A (2003). "Sex chromosomes, sex determination, and sex-linked sequences in Microtidae".
2653:
portion of the Y chromosome to move to the X chromosome. When such an X chromosome is present in a zygote, male gonads develop because of the SRY gene.
478:
have no sex chromosomes. If these species have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically. For some species, especially
2342:
4370:"Recombination dynamics of a human Y-chromosomal palindrome: rapid GC-biased gene conversion, multi-kilobase conversion tracts, and rare inversions"
737:
discovered a process which may slow down the process of degradation. They found that human Y chromosome is able to "recombine" with itself, using
6585:
Witkin HA, Mednick SA, Schulsinger F, Bakkestrom E, Christiansen KO, Goodenough DR, et al. (August 1976). "Criminality in XYY and XXY men".
6447:
4549:
Just W, Baumstark A, Süss A, Graphodatsky A, Rens W, Schäfer N, et al. (2007). "Ellobius lutescens: sex determination and sex chromosome".
3011:
2137:
Not a gene. First part of the AZF (Azoospermia factor) region on arm q. Contains the four following genes. X counterparts escape inactivation.
7308:
3146:
1934:
211:
170:
6509:
Jacobs PA, Brunton M, Melville MM, Brittain RP, McClemont WF (December 1965). "Aggressive behavior, mental sub-normality and the XYY male".
6347:
4974:"Landscape of snake' sex chromosomes evolution spanning 85 MYR reveals ancestry of sequences despite distinct evolutionary trajectories"
2922:
7035:
2710:
In 1996, it was found that male fetal progenitor cells could persist postpartum in the maternal blood stream for as long as 27 years.
2429:
2217:
2212:
2100:
2095:
2085:
216:
1080:), and the SRY gene so central to sex-determination in most other mammals is apparently not involved in platypus sex-determination.
8140:
7705:
2246:
450:(Swyer syndrome). A Y chromosome may also be present but fail to result in the development of a male phenotype in individuals with
7924:
7840:
7760:
7755:
2621:
The following Y-chromosome-linked diseases are rare, but notable because of their elucidation of the nature of the Y chromosome.
2385:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2114:
2066:
1119:
1013:
with a single X (X0), are male but sterile. There are some species of
Drosophila in which X0 males are both viable and fertile.
454:, instead resulting in a female or ambiguous phenotype. In other cases, the SRY gene is copied to the X, leading to birth of an
2752:
A 2012 study at the same institute has detected cells with the Y chromosome in multiple areas of the brains of deceased women.
2714:
2525:. The lack of the second X results in infertility. In other words, viewed from the opposite direction, the person goes through
2417:
2413:
2405:
2397:
2373:
2336:
2315:
2269:
2207:
Second AZF region on arm q. Prone to NAHR with AZFc. Overlaps with AZFc. Contains three single-copy gene regions and repeats.
2192:
2187:
2119:
4120:
Brandeis M (May 2018). "New-age ideas about age-old sex: separating meiosis from mating could solve a century-old conundrum".
2498:
and at least one potential drug that "may help counteract the harmful effects of the chromosome loss" is under investigation.
969:
Therefore, parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them.
7797:
7438:
7062:
6988:
6569:
5776:
5594:
5559:
3158:
3074:
2992:
2967:
2875:
2771:
1279:, TTTY transcripts, etc. Best if we add a figure that mashes together the tops of Colaco 2018 Fig 1 and PMID 12815422 fig 3..
734:
2404:
CDY1 is actually two identical copies. CDY2 is two closely related copies in palindrome P5. Probably derived from autosomal
8258:
7802:
3702:
1962:
4689:
Ortiz MI, Pinna-Senn E, Dalmasso G, Lisanti JA (2009). "Chromosomal aspects and inheritance of the XY female condition in
1806:
The following are some of the gene count estimates of human Y chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to
578:
By one estimate, the human Y chromosome has lost 1,393 of its 1,438 original genes over the course of its existence, and
7560:
7030:
6223:
Guo X, Dai X, Zhou T, Wang H, Ni J, Xue J, Wang X (April 2020). "Mosaic loss of human Y chromosome: what, how and why".
3099:"Sex determination and sex differentiation in fish: an overview of genetic, physiological, and environmental influences"
784:
are long, about 2,068 base pairs, and significantly biased towards the fixation of G or C nucleotides (GC biased). The
531:
genome suggested that the XY sex-determination system would not have been present more than 166 million years ago, when
8268:
6485:
2776:
966:
A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring.
7301:
7000:
4830:"Sequencing of rhesus macaque Y chromosome clarifies origins and evolution of the DAZ (Deleted in AZoospermia) genes"
4180:
3180:
2662:
1763:
1141:
1001:, the Y chromosome does not trigger male development. Instead, sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes. The
6124:"Loss of chromosome Y (LOY) in blood cells is associated with increased risk for disease and mortality in aging men"
8195:
8010:
7577:
4419:
Bonito M, D'Atanasio E, Ravasini F, Cariati S, Finocchio A, Novelletto A, Trombetta B, Cruciani F (November 2021).
1871:
603:
With a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of the
393:, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.
146:
978:
The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore, 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio.
5254:
2459:
loss. Mosaic loss is strongly associated with age, and smoking is another important risk factor for mosaic loss.
1892:
451:
402:
187:
6977:
855:
spp. have relocated some other genes ancestrally present on the Y chromosome to the X chromosome. Both sexes of
389:. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during
8118:
6422:
6176:"Mosaic loss of chromosome Y in peripheral blood is associated with shorter survival and higher risk of cancer"
3040:
2791:
2541:
is present. When the Y fragment is minimal and nonfunctional, the child is usually a girl with the features of
1781:
708:, the Y chromosome has a much lower information content relative to its overall length, and is more redundant.
515:, when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation (a so-called "sex locus") and simply possessing this
2687:, maternally inherited to both sons and daughters, is used in an analogous way to trace the matrilineal line.
8175:
7423:
6972:
1123:
411:
Most therian mammals have only one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and one
41:
7021:
6319:
5523:
5498:
2896:
8253:
8190:
7990:
7973:
7294:
7244:
762:
Findings were confirmed by comparing similar regions of the Y chromosome in humans to the Y chromosomes of
17:
5805:
3728:"Exchange of genetic information between therian X and Y chromosome gametologs in old evolutionary strata"
689:
inability to sort through its gene content, the Y chromosome is particularly prone to the accumulation of
7919:
7914:
7909:
7904:
7833:
3053:
1768:
The human Y chromosome is normally unable to recombine with the X chromosome, except for small pieces of
1073:
1022:
495:
302:
175:
4779:"Neo-sex chromosomes in the black muntjac recapitulate incipient evolution of mammalian sex chromosomes"
4421:"New insights into the evolution of human Y chromosome palindromes through mutation and gene conversion"
4206:"Sequence space coverage, entropy of genomes and the potential to detect non-human DNA in human samples"
8273:
8128:
7968:
4925:"Bird and mammal sex-chromosome orthologs map to the same autosomal region in a salamander (ambystoma)"
2506:
487:
3098:
7958:
7570:
7055:
7009:
3489:
Warren WC, Hillier LW, Marshall Graves JA, Birney E, Ponting CP, Grützner F, et al. (May 2008).
3397:
Graves JA, Koina E, Sankovic N (June 2006). "How the gene content of human sex chromosomes evolved".
1109:
566:
The lack of recombination across the majority of the Y chromosome makes it a useful tool in studying
521:
228:
204:
57:
6982:
4071:
Lindblad-Toh K, Wade CM, Mikkelsen TS, Karlsson EK, Jaffe DB, Kamal M, et al. (December 2005).
607:. However, these changes have been limited to non-coding sequences and comparisons of the human and
7899:
7624:
7408:
7275:
6628:
Witkin HA, Goodenough DR, Hirschhorn K (October 1977). "XYY men: are they criminally aggressive?".
2595:
2546:
841:
818:
785:
652:
556:
374:
5547:
8180:
6174:
Forsberg LA, Rasi C, Malmqvist N, Davies H, Pasupulati S, Pakalapati G, et al. (June 2014).
5707:
997:
511:
The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes, termed
306:
8096:
8091:
7887:
7882:
7826:
7530:
7503:
1972:
1769:
560:
494:
at different points in its life, but never producing both at the same time. This is opposed to
370:
6365:
Dumanski JP, Rasi C, Lönn M, Davies H, Ingelsson M, Giedraitis V, et al. (January 2015).
972:
Therefore, the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common.
248:
192:
8200:
7565:
7463:
5433:
Hallast P, Ebert P, Loftus M, Yilmaz F, Audano PA, Logsdon GA, et al. (September 2023).
4972:
Viana PF, Ezaz T, de Bello Cioffi M, Liehr T, Al-Rikabi A, Goll LG, et al. (July 2020).
2865:
2781:
2761:
2642:
2482:". However, a 2022 study showed that mosaic loss of the Y chromosome causally contributes to
2090:
X-transposed region (XTR) from Xq21, one of two genes. Once dubbed "PAR3" but later refuted.
1850:
1183:
942:
915:
583:
next 10 million years, or half that time with the current age estimate of 160 million years.
439:
358:
267:
235:
134:
97:
2707:
In 1974, male chromosomes were discovered in fetal cells in the blood circulation of women.
975:
As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away.
871:
possess an XX genotype. The new sex-determining system(s) for these rodents remains unclear.
422:
There are exceptions, however. Among humans, some males are born two Xs and a Y ("XXY", see
8248:
8135:
7785:
7710:
7695:
7525:
7473:
7448:
7388:
7263:
7048:
6923:
6825:
6594:
6518:
6378:
6279:
6077:
5446:
5303:
5140:
4985:
4886:
4702:
4323:
4084:
4003:
3933:
3845:
3739:
3613:
3502:
3266:
3209:
3111:
2558:
1827:
1227:
617:
584:
423:
6814:"Male fetal progenitor cells persist in maternal blood for as long as 27 years postpartum"
6268:"Hematopoietic loss of Y chromosome leads to cardiac fibrosis and heart failure mortality"
5708:"Scientists Reshape Y Chromosome Haplogroup Tree Gaining New Insights Into Human Ancestry"
4642:"Multiple origins of XY female mice (genus Akodon): phylogenetic and chromosomal evidence"
1776:(which comprise about 5% of the chromosome's length). These regions are relics of ancient
8:
8032:
8000:
7453:
7270:
5290:
Rhie A, Nurk S, Cechova M, Hoyt SJ, Taylor DJ, Altemose N, et al. (September 2023).
3976:
3551:
Veyrunes F, Waters PD, Miethke P, Rens W, McMillan D, Alsop AE, et al. (June 2008).
3147:"6. Sex Determination and Gametogenesis §6.4 Environmental Sex Determination in Reptiles"
2806:
2786:
2487:
1328:
1179:
1175:
946:
718:
593:
314:
223:
77:
6927:
6829:
6598:
6522:
6382:
6283:
6266:
Sano S, Horitani K, Ogawa H, Halvardson J, Chavkin NW, Wang Y, et al. (July 2022).
6081:
5578:
2012 Ninth
International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE)
5467:
5450:
5434:
5324:
5307:
5291:
5144:
4989:
4890:
4706:
4527:
4327:
4266:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
4088:
4007:
3937:
3849:
3743:
3617:
3506:
3270:
3213:
3115:
1337:
1281:
Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the
8243:
8145:
8123:
8108:
7036:
Genetic
Genealogy: About the use of mtDNA and Y chromosome analysis in ancestry testing
6946:
6911:
6794:
6740:
6713:
6689:
6664:
6641:
6542:
6399:
6366:
6300:
6267:
6248:
6200:
6175:
6148:
6123:
6101:
5999:
5950:
5923:
5753:
5726:
5600:
5480:
5383:
5356:
5337:
5164:
5113:
5070:
5006:
4973:
4949:
4924:
4854:
4829:
4805:
4778:
4759:
4666:
4641:
4622:
4574:
4496:
4445:
4420:
4396:
4369:
4347:
4286:
4261:
4232:
4205:
4163:
Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The molecular basis of the evolution of sex".
4145:
4027:
3957:
3871:
3809:
3784:
3760:
3727:
3680:
3637:
3577:
3552:
3523:
3490:
3463:
3439:"Y-chromosome evolution: emerging insights into processes of Y-chromosome degeneration"
3438:
3379:
3292:
Lahn BT, Page DC (October 1999). "Four evolutionary strata on the human X chromosome".
3235:
3198:"Hermaphroditism in fishes: an annotated list of species, phylogeny, and mating system"
3066:
2811:
2696:
2666:
1777:
1317:
1049:
922:, evolved new X and Y chromosomes through fusions of the ancestral sex chromosomes and
835:
378:
4172:
3858:
3833:
3123:
415:, while females have two X chromosomes. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene,
8150:
7936:
7865:
7515:
7427:
7238:
6951:
6910:
Chan WF, Gurnot C, Montine TJ, Sonnen JA, Guthrie KA, Nelson JL (26 September 2012).
6892:
6853:
6848:
6813:
6786:
6781:
6765:"Fetal leukocytes in the maternal circulation after delivery. I. Cytological aspects"
6764:
6745:
6694:
6645:
6610:
6565:
6534:
6491:
6481:
6404:
6305:
6252:
6240:
6205:
6153:
6105:
6093:
6050:
5991:
5955:
5758:
5590:
5576:
5555:
5484:
5472:
5388:
5341:
5329:
5215:
5156:
5105:
5062:
5011:
4954:
4902:
4859:
4810:
4751:
4746:
4729:
4671:
4614:
4566:
4531:
4488:
4450:
4401:
4339:
4291:
4237:
4186:
4176:
4137:
4102:
4019:
3949:
3906:
3863:
3814:
3765:
3672:
3629:
3582:
3553:"Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes"
3528:
3468:
3414:
3371:
3309:
3239:
3227:
3176:
3154:
3127:
3070:
2988:
2963:
2937:
2871:
2766:
2684:
2672:
2538:
2495:
2456:
1807:
1282:
1238:
of a human Y chromosome was shown to contain 62,460,029 base pairs and 41 additional
1104:
1077:
763:
608:
347:
6798:
6003:
5604:
5233:
5117:
5074:
4763:
4626:
4578:
4500:
3961:
3875:
3684:
570:, since recombination complicates the mathematical models used to trace ancestries.
559:
during meiosis. However, in males, the X and Y pair in a shared region known as the
377:
is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. In the early 1920s
8103:
7985:
7604:
7483:
6941:
6931:
6884:
6843:
6833:
6776:
6735:
6725:
6684:
6676:
6637:
6602:
6546:
6526:
6394:
6386:
6295:
6287:
6232:
6195:
6187:
6143:
6135:
6085:
6040:
6030:
5983:
5945:
5935:
5784:
5748:
5738:
5635:
5582:
5462:
5454:
5378:
5368:
5319:
5311:
5205:
5195:
5168:
5148:
5097:
5052:
5042:
5001:
4993:
4944:
4936:
4894:
4849:
4841:
4800:
4790:
4741:
4730:"A model of the evolution of the unusual sex chromosome system of Microtus oregoni"
4710:
4661:
4653:
4606:
4558:
4523:
4480:
4440:
4432:
4391:
4381:
4351:
4331:
4281:
4273:
4227:
4217:
4168:
4149:
4129:
4092:
4073:"Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog"
4031:
4011:
3941:
3898:
3853:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3755:
3747:
3664:
3641:
3621:
3572:
3564:
3518:
3510:
3458:
3450:
3406:
3383:
3361:
3301:
3274:
3217:
3119:
3062:
2638:
2521:(i.e., is born with female-like genitalia) even though that person possesses an XY
1967:
In general, the human Y chromosome is extremely gene poor—it is one of the largest
1231:
826:
813:
have reached a stage where the XY system has been modified, in the following ways:
151:
120:
539:
XY system is based on the finding that sequences that are on the X chromosomes of
381:
determined that X and Y chromosomes determined sex in humans (and other mammals).
8185:
8167:
8113:
8057:
7597:
7418:
7366:
7025:
7013:
6936:
6888:
5549:
4898:
4714:
4386:
3305:
2587:
2542:
1815:
1811:
1272:
864:
777:
745:
729:
As it has been already mentioned, the Y chromosome is unable to recombine during
567:
500:
435:
366:
115:
88:
6994:
6730:
5574:
4940:
7941:
7488:
7412:
6818:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6236:
5651:
5586:
5458:
5435:"Assembly of 43 human Y chromosomes reveals extensive complexity and variation"
5315:
4997:
3366:
3349:
3222:
3197:
2610:
2526:
2463:
1832:
1167:
954:
907:
882:
613:
483:
343:
286:
6139:
5987:
5940:
5924:"Genetics of the human Y chromosome and its association with male infertility"
5406:
5101:
5047:
5030:
3945:
3410:
3168:
8263:
8237:
8155:
8086:
8052:
7963:
7929:
7468:
7201:
7196:
7191:
7186:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7141:
5743:
5373:
4514:
Wilson MA, Makova KD (2009). "Genomic analyses of sex chromosome evolution".
3231:
3131:
2606:
1207:
1199:
1163:
899:
756:
690:
638:
634:
597:
589:
579:
7286:
6495:
6390:
6291:
6089:
5551:
ISCN 2013: An
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013)
5088:
Schartl M (July 2004). "A comparative view on sex determination in medaka".
4795:
4222:
8222:
8074:
7946:
7892:
7443:
7317:
7258:
7219:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7071:
6955:
6896:
6749:
6698:
6649:
6606:
6408:
6309:
6244:
6209:
6157:
6097:
6068:
Zeiher A, Braun T (July 2022). "Mosaic loss of Y chromosome during aging".
6054:
5995:
5959:
5830:
5762:
5548:
International Standing Committee on Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013).
5476:
5392:
5333:
5219:
5160:
5109:
5066:
5015:
4958:
4863:
4845:
4814:
4755:
4675:
4657:
4618:
4570:
4535:
4492:
4454:
4405:
4343:
4295:
4277:
4241:
4141:
4106:
4047:"Biologists Debunk the 'Rotting' Y Chromosome Theory, Men Will Still Exist"
4023:
3953:
3910:
3818:
3769:
3633:
3586:
3532:
3472:
3418:
3375:
3313:
3278:
2941:
2577:
2530:
2274:
1987:
1968:
1195:
875:
705:
701:
697:
604:
427:
412:
298:
271:
252:
163:
6857:
6838:
6812:
Bianchi DW, Zickwolf GK, Weil GJ, Sylvester S, DeMaria MA (January 1996).
6790:
6538:
4906:
4436:
4190:
3889:
Graves JA (2004). "The degenerate Y chromosome--can conversion save it?".
3867:
3676:
1040:; the females have ZW sex chromosomes, and males have ZZ sex chromosomes.
7662:
7657:
7520:
7498:
7493:
7361:
7079:
6614:
2025:
1784:(SNPs) in this region are used to trace direct paternal ancestral lines.
1037:
475:
361:
independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year, working with
326:
5152:
4335:
4097:
4072:
4015:
3625:
3514:
3491:"Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution"
1072:
Platypus sex chromosomes have strong sequence similarity with the avian
446:
gene is activated and/or the SRY gene is damaged leading to birth of an
7682:
7672:
7667:
7652:
7592:
7582:
7458:
7432:
7383:
7373:
7321:
6448:"Loss of male sex chromosome may lead to earlier death for men – study"
6045:
5686:
5679:
5671:
5530:. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2015-08-11
5505:. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2014-06-04
4470:
4247:
3668:
3568:
2903:. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2014-06-03
2564:
2466:
2444:
2177:
2172:
2058:
1837:
1235:
1191:
1187:
1155:
991:
810:
752:
738:
669:
540:
329:. The Y chromosome is passed only from male parents to male offspring.
6680:
6530:
6035:
6018:
5258:
5210:
5200:
5183:
5057:
4610:
4562:
4484:
4133:
3751:
3432:
3430:
3428:
8062:
8037:
8027:
8015:
7634:
7378:
7356:
7337:
6367:"Mutagenesis. Smoking is associated with mosaic loss of chromosome Y"
5831:"Human chromosome Y: entries, gene names and cross-references to MIM"
5727:"Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes"
5667:
5357:"Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes"
2801:
2680:
2590:
and colleagues published a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at
2522:
2518:
2475:
1356:
1203:
1005:
Y chromosome does contain genes necessary for male fertility. So XXY
950:
741:
733:
like the other human chromosomes; however, in 2003, researchers from
544:
532:
472:
447:
431:
362:
310:
63:
47:
6191:
4368:
Hallast P, Balaresque P, Bowden GR, Ballereau S, Jobling MA (2013).
3902:
3454:
3254:
2724:
Patients in Group B (22%) had a history of one or more miscarriages.
2630:
issues, but the severity features of these conditions are variable.
995:, some other insects, some fish, some reptiles, and some plants. In
8079:
7980:
7620:
7404:
7211:
7088:
6712:
Kopsida E, Stergiakouli E, Lynn PM, Wilkinson LS, Davies W (2009).
4777:
Zhou Q, Wang J, Huang L, Nie W, Wang J, Liu Y, et al. (2008).
4418:
3602:
3425:
2676:
2591:
2483:
2280:
1773:
1276:
1178:. However, some genes are repeated, making the number of exclusive
1061:
923:
851:
656:
616:
25 million years ago. These facts provide direct evidence that the
528:
512:
406:
351:
342:
The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by
108:
6665:"Rare 48, XYYY syndrome: case report and review of the literature"
6584:
5130:
4596:
3488:
2727:
Patients Group C (57%) had their pregnancies medically terminated.
663:
suggests an evolutionary explanation for the adaptive function of
482:, sex depends on the incubation temperature. Some vertebrates are
8047:
8020:
7790:
7644:
7555:
7550:
7018:
6762:
4070:
2331:
2080:
1990:
1913:
1345:
1324:
1066:
806:
781:
771:
730:
681:
664:
649:
479:
455:
390:
386:
261:
158:
6711:
6562:
Sex Itself: The Search for Male & Female in the Human Genome
5524:"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (550 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)"
4367:
3196:
Kuwamura T, Sunobe T, Sakai Y, Kadota T, Sawada K (2020-07-01).
2897:"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (850 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)"
1259:
8069:
8042:
7875:
7700:
7587:
7351:
7347:
7342:
7040:
5499:"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (400 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3"
2646:
2470:
2455:
Males can lose the Y chromosome in a subset of cells, known as
2323:
2241:
2226:
2033:
891:
802:
767:
685:
660:
642:
536:
535:
split from other mammals. This re-estimation of the age of the
516:
491:
290:
242:
199:
5972:
5568:
4688:
2987:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 170–2.
490:, meaning the organism switches sex, producing male or female
7765:
7750:
7745:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7725:
7720:
7715:
7690:
7628:
6508:
5678:: Region which is negatively stained by G banding, generally
4971:
4548:
2923:"Theophilus Shickel Painter: August 22, 1889-October 5, 1969"
2796:
2479:
2432:
family. The two copies of BPY1 are instead in Yq11.221/AZFa.
2260:
2255:
2231:
2162:
2157:
2147:
2142:
2110:
2071:
2053:
2048:
2038:
1033:
696:
A clear, quantitative indication of this inefficiency is the
630:
6811:
6423:"Loss of male sex chromosome leads to earlier death for men"
3993:
1202:. Traits that are inherited via the Y chromosome are called
7870:
6265:
6173:
5860:
National Center for Biotechnology Information Gene Database
4313:
3350:"Sex chromosome specialization and degeneration in mammals"
2422:
2393:
2381:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2129:
2005:
1239:
1171:
1029:
443:
373:, that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that
309:
chromosome because the presence of the Y chromosome causes
7006:
6763:
Schröder J, Tiilikainen A, De la Chapelle A (April 1974).
6627:
3703:"On PAR: How X and Y Chromosomes Recombine During Meiosis"
2322:
Found in the "blue" amplicon. Identified by similarity to
700:
of the Y chromosome. Whereas all other chromosomes in the
7849:
6662:
4122:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
3550:
3195:
2650:
2443:
Diseases linked to the Y chromosome typically involve an
2020:
2015:
2000:
1979:
Genes on the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome
1159:
846:
648:
The observation that the Y chromosome experiences little
434:), and some have a single X instead of two Xs ("X0", see
416:
322:
318:
6320:"As Y Chromosomes Vanish With Age, Heart Risks May Grow"
5432:
4259:
3785:"Y-chromosomal genes affecting male fertility: A review"
2930:
Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences
1975:
genes, genes encoded on the human Y chromosome include:
7808:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
6909:
6873:
5255:"National Library of Medicine's Genetic Home Reference"
4167:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–70.
3834:"Human evolution. Y-chromosome clues to human ancestry"
3782:
2469:
lacking the Y chromosome have a higher risk of certain
1154:
The human Y chromosome is composed of about 62 million
7818:
6364:
5184:"The evolution of marsupial and monotreme chromosomes"
4592:
4590:
4588:
3343:
2356:
Final (distal) part of the AZF. Multiple palindromes.
1814:
on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see
1271:
about NRY/MSY structure - How there's a huge chunk of
6991:—From the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research
6553:
5966:
3341:
3339:
3337:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3327:
3325:
3323:
3012:"Swyer syndrome — Symptoms, Causes, Treatment | NORD"
1221:
7003:—Use of Novel Mechanism Preserves Y chromosome Genes
6663:
Abedi M, Salmaninejad A, Sakhinia E (January 2018).
3106:. Sex determination and sex differentation in fish.
2817:
Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world
1190:(present on only one chromosome) except in cases of
1166:
and represents almost 2% of the total DNA in a male
6475:
5902:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome non-coding pseudo genes"
5289:
5031:"Sex chromosome evolution in moths and butterflies"
4827:
4727:
4585:
4162:
3396:
3050:
659:and degradative change compared to the rest of the
5798:
5634:For cytogenetic banding nomenclature, see article
5028:
3783:Dhanoa JK, Mukhopadhyay CS, Arora JS (July 2016).
3725:
3320:
3097:
3052:
1757:
930:and rhesus monkeys diverged 30 million years ago.
684:, the Y chromosome is unable to expose individual
486:, though hermaphroditic species are most commonly
6756:
6016:
5806:"Chromosome Y: Chromosome summary — Homo sapiens"
4828:Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Page DC (December 2012).
4203:
3654:
2953:
2951:
27:Sex chromosome in the XY sex-determination system
8235:
7001:National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)
6714:"The Role of the Y Chromosome in Brain Function"
6348:"Y men are more likely to get cancer than women"
6169:
6167:
6117:
6115:
5541:
5181:
4776:
4260:Charlesworth B, Charlesworth D (November 2000).
3707:GEN — Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News
3255:"A gene for the fourth chromosome of Drosophila"
3175:(6th ed.). Sinauer Associates. p. 60.
3061:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 71–74.
963:Suppose male births are less common than female.
889:, and multiple species in the grass mouse genus
6912:"Male microchimerism in the human female brain"
6805:
5428:
5426:
5292:"The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome"
4639:
4466:
4464:
3696:
3694:
2857:
2517:This results in the person presenting a female
2438:
438:). There are other variations in which, during
6869:
6867:
6222:
5873:
5724:
5354:
4363:
4361:
4204:Liu Z, Venkatesh SS, Maley CC (October 2008).
3923:
3144:
3095:
2962:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
2948:
2624:
7834:
7316:
7302:
7056:
6471:
6469:
6164:
6112:
5777:"Statistics & Downloads for chromosome Y"
5029:Sahara K, Yoshido A, Traut W (January 2012).
4918:
4916:
4309:
4307:
4305:
3726:Peneder P, Wallner B, Vogl C (October 2017).
3399:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
2960:X in Sex : How the X Chromosome Controls
2730:Group D (10%) had never been pregnant before.
2501:
1359:of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs
294:
6903:
6705:
6564:. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press. p. 84.
6478:Thompson & Thompson genetics in medicine
5881:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome non-coding genes"
5769:
5718:
5554:. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers.
5423:
5285:
5283:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5275:
5226:
4516:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
4513:
4461:
4113:
3691:
2863:
2602:karyotype" concept is therefore inaccurate.
2010:Sex-determining region. This is the p arm .
1043:
744:sequences. Such a "recombination" is called
321:. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the
6864:
6621:
6578:
6502:
6067:
6017:Raudsepp T, Chowdhary BP (6 January 2016).
5894:
5848:
4358:
4156:
3598:
3596:
3546:
3544:
3542:
2914:
984:
550:
7841:
7827:
7309:
7295:
7063:
7049:
7031:NPR's Human Male: Still A Work In Progress
6559:
6466:
5921:
4913:
4870:
4640:Hoekstra HE, Edwards SV (September 2000).
4302:
3831:
3153:(13th ed.). Oxford University Press.
3051:Dominguez AA, Reijo Pera RA (2013-01-01).
2985:In Pursuit of the Gene: From Darwin to DNA
2957:
2594:'s only special security hospital for the
1275:in q, nomenclature of the palindromes and
56:
40:
6945:
6935:
6847:
6837:
6780:
6739:
6729:
6688:
6398:
6299:
6199:
6147:
6044:
6034:
5949:
5939:
5752:
5742:
5466:
5382:
5372:
5323:
5272:
5209:
5199:
5056:
5046:
5005:
4948:
4922:
4853:
4804:
4794:
4745:
4728:Charlesworth B, Dempsey ND (April 2001).
4665:
4444:
4395:
4385:
4285:
4231:
4221:
4096:
3857:
3808:
3759:
3576:
3522:
3484:
3482:
3462:
3365:
3221:
3035:
3033:
3031:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2721:Group A (8%) had had only female progeny.
2563:Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) is not an
2512:
2428:Three copies of VCX2 (BPY2). Part of the
2345:of RNA recognition motif (RRM) proteins.
1310:G-banding ideograms of human Y chromosome
1142:Learn how and when to remove this message
369:. She realized that the previous idea of
6121:
5856:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome coding genes"
5666:: Region which is positively stained by
4876:
4119:
3891:Reproduction, Fertility, and Development
3593:
3539:
3436:
3291:
2982:
1184:Consensus Coding Sequence (CCDS) Project
1118:Relevant discussion may be found on the
833:, and the Japanese spinous country rats
680:Without the ability to recombine during
675:
520:the Y chromosome through the process of
461:
6345:
5823:
5646:
5644:
5516:
5491:
5087:
5081:
3700:
3166:
3006:
3004:
2450:
2380:RRM genes in two palindromic clusters.
14:
8236:
6317:
6019:"The Eutherian Pseudoautosomal Region"
5928:Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology
3888:
3479:
3347:
3252:
3246:
3028:
2884:
2834:
2832:
2797:Y chromosome Short Tandem Repeat (STR)
2715:Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center
2236:Another copy of ribosomal protein S4.
945:outlines why almost all species using
751:In the case of the Y chromosomes, the
466:
7822:
7798:List of organisms by chromosome count
7290:
7044:
5976:Functional & Integrative Genomics
5182:Deakin JE, Graves JA, Rens W (2012).
2920:
2772:Haplodiploid sex-determination system
2447:, an atypical number of chromosomes.
1170:. The human Y chromosome carries 693
1083:
624:
5641:
5355:Pertea M, Salzberg SL (2010-05-05).
4923:Smith JJ, Voss SR (September 2007).
3977:"Male Chromosome May Evolve Fastest"
3974:
3285:
3096:Devlin RH, Nagahama Y (2002-06-21).
3001:
2656:
1963:Category:Genes on human chromosome Y
1253:
1087:
1055:
1048:There are some species, such as the
325:gene, which triggers development of
7937:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
7007:Ysearch.org – Public Y-DNA database
4528:10.1146/annurev-genom-082908-150105
4262:"The degeneration of Y chromosomes"
4197:
2864:Strachan T, Read A (2 April 2010).
2829:
2633:
2537:structure may occur, especially if
2341:Large number of copies. Part of an
1791:
1302:
792:
24:
6642:10.1002/j.2326-1951.1977.tb01570.x
5922:Colaco S, Modi D (February 2018).
5234:"Ensembl Human MapView release 43"
3067:10.1016/B978-0-12-374984-0.00793-2
3059:Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics
2777:Human Y chromosome DNA haplogroups
1971:in the human genome. Disregarding
1801:
1222:Sequence of the human Y chromosome
1206:traits, or holandric traits (from
724:
25:
8285:
6966:
4165:Molecular Genetics of Development
3169:"Environmental Sex Determination"
2840:"Homo sapiens Y chromosome genes"
2748:possibly from sexual intercourse.
2702:
2690:
2663:Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup
1764:Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup
1016:
845:, have lost the Y chromosome and
8218:
8217:
8011:Evolution of sexual reproduction
7070:
6983:Human Genome Project Information
6877:The American Journal of Medicine
6782:10.1097/00007890-197404000-00003
5781:HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee
4747:10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00803.x
4646:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3041:"XX Male Syndrome — an overview"
2844:CCDS Release 20 for Homo sapiens
1336:
1316:
1258:
1092:
937:
711:
7419:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
6718:Open Neuroendocrinology Journal
6656:
6440:
6415:
6358:
6339:
6259:
6216:
6061:
6023:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
6010:
5915:
5700:
5657:
5628:
5611:
5399:
5348:
5247:
5188:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
5175:
5124:
5022:
4965:
4821:
4770:
4721:
4682:
4633:
4599:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
4542:
4507:
4473:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
4412:
4253:
4064:
4049:. Medical Daily. Archived from
4044:
4038:
3987:
3968:
3917:
3882:
3825:
3776:
3719:
3648:
3390:
3259:Journal of Experimental Zoology
3189:
3145:Barresi MJ, Gilbert SF (2023).
3138:
3057:. In Maloy S, Hughes K (eds.).
2870:. Garland Science. p. 45.
1782:Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
1758:Non-combining region of Y (NRY)
1162:, making it similar in size to
655:and has an accelerated rate of
573:
452:androgen insensitivity syndrome
430:). Some females have three Xs (
403:Androgen insensitivity syndrome
8119:Sexual reproduction in animals
6346:Coghlan A (13 December 2014).
5725:Pertea M, Salzberg SL (2010).
3926:Journal of Molecular Evolution
3832:Brookfield JF (October 1995).
3801:10.14202/vetworld.2016.783-791
3089:
2976:
2792:Single nucleotide polymorphism
2306:Found in the "blue" amplicon.
1234:sequence, CHM13. The complete
350:in 1905 during a study of the
89:
13:
1:
7019:Y chromosome Consortium (YCC)
6985:—Human Chromosome Y Launchpad
4173:10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7
3859:10.1016/S0960-9822(95)00224-7
3124:10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00057-1
2822:
2645:in the formation of the male
2105:The other X-transposed gene.
396:
7991:Sex as a biological variable
7974:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
6937:10.1371/journal.pone.0045592
6889:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.037
6476:Nussbaum, Robert L. (2007).
5783:. 2017-05-12. Archived from
4899:10.1126/science.156.3774.477
4715:10.1016/j.mambio.2008.03.001
4693:(Rodentia, Sigmodontinae)".
4387:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003666
3437:Bachtrog D (February 2013).
3306:10.1126/science.286.5441.964
2439:Y-chromosome-linked diseases
1956:
1249:
914:Outside of the rodents, the
337:
7:
8259:Genes on human chromosome Y
6731:10.2174/1876528900902010020
4941:10.1534/genetics.107.072033
4250:estimators of entropy rate.
3975:Wade N (January 13, 2010).
2755:
2625:More than two Y chromosomes
1112:. The specific problem is:
1023:ZW sex-determination system
332:
303:XY sex-determination system
62:Y chromosome in human male
10:
8290:
8129:Penile-vaginal intercourse
7969:Sequential hermaphroditism
7459:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
6997:—focus on the Y chromosome
6237:10.1007/s00439-020-02114-w
5587:10.1109/JCSSE.2012.6261965
5459:10.1038/s41586-023-06425-6
5316:10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y
4998:10.1038/s41598-020-69349-5
3367:10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.024
3223:10.1007/s10228-020-00754-6
2660:
2575:
2556:
2507:Y chromosome microdeletion
2502:Y chromosome microdeletion
1960:
1761:
1020:
400:
385:well-defined shape during
46:Human Y chromosome (after
8269:Sex-determination systems
8213:
8166:
7999:
7959:Testis-determining factor
7856:
7803:List of sequenced genomes
7778:
7681:
7643:
7613:
7571:Chromosomal translocation
7541:
7444:A chromosome/B chromosome
7435:(or accessory chromosome)
7397:
7328:
7251:
7237:
7210:
7087:
7078:
6318:Kolata G (14 July 2022).
6140:10.1007/s00439-017-1799-2
5988:10.1007/s10142-013-0323-6
5941:10.1186/s12958-018-0330-5
5407:"Definition of holandric"
5102:10.1016/j.mod.2004.03.001
5090:Mechanisms of Development
5048:10.1007/s10577-011-9262-z
3946:10.1007/s00239-008-9189-y
3411:10.1016/j.gde.2006.04.007
2124:Testis-specific protein.
1810:their predictions of the
1044:Non-inverted Y chromosome
633:, which undergo multiple
506:
426:), one X and two Ys (see
260:
241:
234:
222:
210:
198:
186:
181:
169:
157:
145:
133:
128:
114:
104:
87:
75:
70:
55:
39:
34:
7900:Sex-determination system
7625:Telomere-binding protein
7439:Supernumerary chromosome
6122:Forsberg LA (May 2017).
5744:10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206
5374:10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206
3701:LeMieux J (2020-05-29).
3443:Nature Reviews. Genetics
3348:Graves JA (March 2006).
2867:Human Molecular Genetics
2596:developmentally disabled
2547:mixed gonadal dysgenesis
2388:are autosomal homologs.
1796:
985:Non-therian Y chromosome
842:Tokudaia tokunoshimensis
819:Transcaucasian mole vole
551:Recombination inhibition
305:, in which the Y is the
7848:
7245:Human mitochondrial DNA
6391:10.1126/science.1262092
6292:10.1126/science.abn3100
6090:10.1126/science.add0839
4796:10.1186/gb-2008-9-6-r98
4223:10.1186/1471-2164-9-509
3202:Ichthyological Research
2616:
1770:pseudoautosomal regions
998:Drosophila melanogaster
805:in the sister families
7883:Sexual differentiation
7561:Structural alterations
6989:On Topic: Y Chromosome
6978:Ensembl genome browser
6973:CHM13v2.0 Y chromosome
6607:10.1126/science.959813
6560:Richardson SS (2013).
6427:University of Virginia
5528:Genome Decoration Page
5503:Genome Decoration Page
4846:10.1002/bies.201200066
4658:10.1098/rspb.2000.1217
4278:10.1098/rstb.2000.0717
3279:10.1002/jez.1400170303
2901:Genome Decoration Page
2571:
2552:
2529:but fails to complete
2513:Defective Y chromosome
2279:Found in the "yellow"
2043:Ribosomal protein S4.
1269:is missing information
561:pseudoautosomal region
371:Clarence Erwin McClung
7925:Temperature-dependent
7578:Numerical alterations
7566:Chromosomal inversion
7464:Homologous chromosome
6839:10.1073/pnas.93.2.705
6669:Clinical Case Reports
3732:Ecology and Evolution
3173:Developmental Biology
3151:Developmental Biology
2958:Bainbridge D (2003).
2782:List of Y-STR markers
2762:Genealogical DNA test
2681:traditional genealogy
2643:genetic recombination
2182:Histone demethylase.
1762:Further information:
887:Dicrostonyx torquatus
863:have an XO genotype (
780:tracts formed during
676:Inefficient selection
462:Origins and evolution
440:embryonic development
359:Edmund Beecher Wilson
83:62,460,029 bp (CHM13)
7786:Extrachromosomal DNA
7474:Satellite chromosome
7449:Lampbrush chromosome
7389:Nuclear organization
7264:Human Genome Project
7239:Mitochondrial genome
5581:. pp. 276–282.
2713:A 2004 study at the
2675:(the application of
2559:Klinefelter syndrome
2451:Loss of Y chromosome
2152:Ubiquitin protease.
1833:Non-coding RNA genes
1828:Protein-coding genes
1228:Human Genome Project
1124:improve this section
1108:to meet Knowledge's
1076:, (indicating close
920:Muntiacus crinifrons
670:repairing DNA damage
618:linear extrapolation
580:linear extrapolation
424:Klinefelter syndrome
301:, it is part of the
182:External map viewers
8254:Chromosomes (human)
8141:Hormonal motivation
8114:Fungal reproduction
8033:Reproductive system
7479:Centromere position
7454:Polytene chromosome
7424:Circular chromosome
7271:List of human genes
6928:2012PLoSO...745592C
6830:1996PNAS...93..705B
6599:1976Sci...193..547W
6523:1965Natur.208.1351J
6383:2015Sci...347...81D
6284:2022Sci...377..292S
6082:2022Sci...377..266Z
5693:: Variable region;
5451:2023Natur.621..355H
5308:2023Natur.621..344R
5153:10.1038/nature13151
5145:2014Natur.508..488C
5035:Chromosome Research
4990:2020NatSR..1012499V
4891:1967Sci...156..477H
4707:2009MamBi..74..125O
4437:10.1093/hmg/ddab189
4336:10.1038/nature01723
4328:2003Natur.423..873R
4272:(1403): 1563–1572.
4098:10.1038/nature04338
4089:2005Natur.438..803L
4016:10.1038/nature04101
4008:2005Natur.437..100H
3938:2009JMolE..68..134G
3850:1995CBio....5.1114B
3744:2017EcoEv...7.8478P
3626:10.1038/nature03021
3618:2004Natur.432..913G
3515:10.1038/nature06936
3507:2008Natur.453..175W
3271:1914JEZ....17..325M
3214:2020IchtR..67..341K
3167:Gilbert SF (2000).
3116:2002Aquac.208..191D
2983:Schwartz J (2009).
2807:Y-chromosomal Aaron
2745:vanished male twin,
1980:
1360:
1329:UCSC Genome Browser
1214:, "whole" + ἀνδρός
1182:genes just 42. The
1174:, 107 of which are
947:sexual reproduction
879:Myopus schisticolor
801:Several species of
585:Comparative genomic
467:Before Y chromosome
315:sexual reproduction
129:Complete gene lists
116:Centromere position
8146:Human reproduction
8124:Sexual intercourse
8109:Plant reproduction
7024:2017-01-16 at the
7012:2011-01-04 at the
6324:The New York Times
5810:Ensembl Release 88
4978:Scientific Reports
4551:Sexual Development
4246:Fig. 6, using the
3669:10.1007/BF00360536
3569:10.1101/gr.7101908
3253:Muller HJ (1914).
2812:Y-chromosomal Adam
2697:androgenic hormone
2667:Y-chromosomal Adam
2478:related to normal
1978:
1355:
1226:At the end of the
1084:Human Y chromosome
1050:Japanese rice fish
943:Fisher's principle
861:Ellobius lutescens
836:Tokudaia osimensis
823:Ellobius lutescens
625:High mutation rate
379:Theophilus Painter
236:Full DNA sequences
35:Human Y chromosome
8274:Sexual dimorphism
8231:
8230:
8151:Lordosis behavior
7866:Sexual dimorphism
7816:
7815:
7774:
7773:
7511:Centromere number
7428:Linear chromosome
7284:
7283:
7276:Human archaeology
7233:
7232:
6681:10.1002/ccr3.1311
6593:(4253): 547–555.
6571:978-0-226-08468-8
6531:10.1038/2081351a0
6036:10.1159/000443157
5596:978-1-4673-1921-8
5561:978-3-318-02253-7
5445:(7978): 355–364.
5302:(7978): 344–354.
5201:10.1159/000339433
5139:(7497): 488–493.
4885:(3774): 477–488.
4740:(Pt 4): 387–394.
4695:Mammalian Biology
4652:(1455): 1825–31.
4611:10.1159/000071608
4563:10.1159/000104771
4485:10.1159/000074347
4431:(23): 2272–2285.
4322:(6942): 873–876.
4134:10.1111/brv.12367
4083:(7069): 803–819.
4002:(7055): 100–103.
3844:(10): 1114–1115.
3752:10.1002/ece3.3278
3738:(20): 8478–8487.
3501:(7192): 175–183.
3160:978-0-19-757459-1
3076:978-0-12-374984-0
2994:978-0-674-03491-4
2969:978-0-674-01621-7
2877:978-1-136-84407-2
2767:Genetic genealogy
2685:Mitochondrial DNA
2673:genetic genealogy
2657:Genetic genealogy
2586:In 1965 and 1966
2490:, and mortality.
2436:
2435:
1954:
1953:
1808:genome annotation
1755:
1754:
1300:
1299:
1152:
1151:
1144:
1110:quality standards
1101:This section may
1056:Multiple XY pairs
555:Most chromosomes
375:sex determination
348:Bryn Mawr College
297:. Along with the
279:
278:
16:(Redirected from
8281:
8221:
8220:
8181:Animal sexuality
8104:Sexual selection
7843:
7836:
7829:
7820:
7819:
7641:
7640:
7605:Polyploidization
7433:Extra chromosome
7348:Genetic material
7311:
7304:
7297:
7288:
7287:
7085:
7084:
7065:
7058:
7051:
7042:
7041:
6960:
6959:
6949:
6939:
6907:
6901:
6900:
6871:
6862:
6861:
6851:
6841:
6809:
6803:
6802:
6784:
6760:
6754:
6753:
6743:
6733:
6709:
6703:
6702:
6692:
6660:
6654:
6653:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6582:
6576:
6575:
6557:
6551:
6550:
6517:(5017): 1351–2.
6506:
6500:
6499:
6473:
6464:
6463:
6461:
6459:
6444:
6438:
6437:
6435:
6433:
6419:
6413:
6412:
6402:
6362:
6356:
6355:
6343:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6330:
6313:
6303:
6263:
6257:
6256:
6220:
6214:
6213:
6203:
6171:
6162:
6161:
6151:
6119:
6110:
6109:
6065:
6059:
6058:
6048:
6038:
6014:
6008:
6007:
5970:
5964:
5963:
5953:
5943:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5910:
5909:
5898:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5888:
5877:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5867:
5852:
5846:
5845:
5843:
5842:
5827:
5821:
5820:
5818:
5817:
5802:
5796:
5795:
5793:
5792:
5773:
5767:
5766:
5756:
5746:
5722:
5716:
5715:
5704:
5698:
5661:
5655:
5648:
5639:
5632:
5626:
5615:
5609:
5608:
5572:
5566:
5565:
5545:
5539:
5538:
5536:
5535:
5520:
5514:
5513:
5511:
5510:
5495:
5489:
5488:
5470:
5430:
5421:
5420:
5418:
5417:
5403:
5397:
5396:
5386:
5376:
5352:
5346:
5345:
5327:
5287:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5266:
5257:. Archived from
5251:
5245:
5244:
5242:
5241:
5230:
5224:
5223:
5213:
5203:
5194:(2–4): 113–129.
5179:
5173:
5172:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5096:(7–8): 639–645.
5085:
5079:
5078:
5060:
5050:
5026:
5020:
5019:
5009:
4969:
4963:
4962:
4952:
4920:
4911:
4910:
4874:
4868:
4867:
4857:
4825:
4819:
4818:
4808:
4798:
4774:
4768:
4767:
4749:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4686:
4680:
4679:
4669:
4637:
4631:
4630:
4594:
4583:
4582:
4546:
4540:
4539:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4479:(3–4): 266–273.
4468:
4459:
4458:
4448:
4416:
4410:
4409:
4399:
4389:
4365:
4356:
4355:
4311:
4300:
4299:
4289:
4257:
4251:
4245:
4235:
4225:
4201:
4195:
4194:
4160:
4154:
4153:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4100:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4042:
4036:
4035:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3861:
3829:
3823:
3822:
3812:
3780:
3774:
3773:
3763:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3698:
3689:
3688:
3652:
3646:
3645:
3600:
3591:
3590:
3580:
3548:
3537:
3536:
3526:
3486:
3477:
3476:
3466:
3434:
3423:
3422:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3369:
3345:
3318:
3317:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3225:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3164:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3101:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3056:
3048:
3037:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3016:rarediseases.org
3008:
2999:
2998:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2955:
2946:
2945:
2927:
2921:Glass B (1990).
2918:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2893:
2882:
2881:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2836:
2787:Muller's ratchet
2641:occurs due to a
2639:XX male syndrome
2634:XX male syndrome
2496:stopping smoking
1981:
1977:
1821:
1820:
1792:Sequence classes
1746:
1741:
1714:
1709:
1681:
1676:
1649:
1644:
1616:
1611:
1584:
1579:
1552:
1547:
1520:
1515:
1488:
1483:
1455:
1450:
1423:
1418:
1361:
1354:
1340:
1320:
1303:Cytogenetic band
1295:
1292:
1286:
1262:
1254:
1232:reference genome
1147:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1127:
1096:
1095:
1088:
1060:Monotremes like
1009:are female, and
904:Microtus oregoni
869:Ellobius tancrei
831:Ellobius tancrei
827:Zaisan mole vole
798:system arises.
793:Future evolution
719:Muller's ratchet
355:Tenebrio molitor
275:
256:
91:
60:
44:
32:
31:
21:
8289:
8288:
8284:
8283:
8282:
8280:
8279:
8278:
8234:
8233:
8232:
8227:
8209:
8196:Differentiation
8186:Human sexuality
8176:Plant sexuality
8162:
8058:Spermatogenesis
8002:
7995:
7858:
7852:
7847:
7817:
7812:
7770:
7677:
7639:
7609:
7598:Paleopolyploidy
7543:
7537:
7393:
7367:Heterochromatin
7330:
7324:
7315:
7285:
7280:
7247:
7229:
7206:
7074:
7069:
7026:Wayback Machine
7014:Wayback Machine
6969:
6964:
6963:
6908:
6904:
6872:
6865:
6810:
6806:
6769:Transplantation
6761:
6757:
6710:
6706:
6661:
6657:
6626:
6622:
6583:
6579:
6572:
6558:
6554:
6507:
6503:
6488:
6474:
6467:
6457:
6455:
6452:The Independent
6446:
6445:
6441:
6431:
6429:
6421:
6420:
6416:
6377:(6217): 81–83.
6363:
6359:
6344:
6340:
6328:
6326:
6278:(6603): 292–7.
6264:
6260:
6221:
6217:
6192:10.1038/ng.2966
6180:Nature Genetics
6172:
6165:
6120:
6113:
6076:(6603): 266–7.
6066:
6062:
6015:
6011:
5971:
5967:
5920:
5916:
5907:
5905:
5900:
5899:
5895:
5886:
5884:
5879:
5878:
5874:
5865:
5863:
5854:
5853:
5849:
5840:
5838:
5829:
5828:
5824:
5815:
5813:
5804:
5803:
5799:
5790:
5788:
5775:
5774:
5770:
5723:
5719:
5714:. 3 April 2008.
5706:
5705:
5701:
5682:and gene rich;
5674:and gene poor;
5662:
5658:
5649:
5642:
5633:
5629:
5621:": Short arm; "
5616:
5612:
5597:
5573:
5569:
5562:
5546:
5542:
5533:
5531:
5522:
5521:
5517:
5508:
5506:
5497:
5496:
5492:
5431:
5424:
5415:
5413:
5405:
5404:
5400:
5353:
5349:
5288:
5273:
5264:
5262:
5253:
5252:
5248:
5239:
5237:
5236:. February 2014
5232:
5231:
5227:
5180:
5176:
5129:
5125:
5086:
5082:
5027:
5023:
4970:
4966:
4921:
4914:
4875:
4871:
4840:(12): 1035–44.
4826:
4822:
4775:
4771:
4726:
4722:
4687:
4683:
4638:
4634:
4595:
4586:
4547:
4543:
4512:
4508:
4469:
4462:
4417:
4413:
4380:(7): e1003666.
4366:
4359:
4312:
4303:
4258:
4254:
4202:
4198:
4183:
4161:
4157:
4118:
4114:
4069:
4065:
4056:
4054:
4043:
4039:
3992:
3988:
3973:
3969:
3922:
3918:
3903:10.1071/RD03096
3887:
3883:
3838:Current Biology
3830:
3826:
3781:
3777:
3724:
3720:
3711:
3709:
3699:
3692:
3663:(10): 596–601.
3653:
3649:
3612:(7019): 913–7.
3601:
3594:
3557:Genome Research
3549:
3540:
3487:
3480:
3455:10.1038/nrg3366
3435:
3426:
3395:
3391:
3346:
3321:
3300:(5441): 964–7.
3290:
3286:
3251:
3247:
3194:
3190:
3183:
3165:
3161:
3143:
3139:
3094:
3090:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3049:
3039:
3038:
3029:
3020:
3018:
3010:
3009:
3002:
2995:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2956:
2949:
2925:
2919:
2915:
2906:
2904:
2895:
2894:
2885:
2878:
2862:
2858:
2849:
2847:
2838:
2837:
2830:
2825:
2758:
2705:
2693:
2669:
2661:Main articles:
2659:
2636:
2627:
2619:
2605:There are also
2588:Patricia Jacobs
2580:
2574:
2561:
2555:
2543:Turner syndrome
2531:masculinization
2515:
2504:
2453:
2441:
2343:RBM gene family
1973:pseudoautosomal
1965:
1959:
1816:gene prediction
1812:number of genes
1804:
1802:Number of genes
1799:
1794:
1766:
1760:
1744:
1739:
1712:
1707:
1679:
1674:
1647:
1642:
1614:
1609:
1582:
1577:
1550:
1545:
1518:
1513:
1486:
1481:
1453:
1448:
1421:
1416:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1353:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1346:mitotic process
1341:
1333:
1332:
1321:
1312:
1311:
1305:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1280:
1273:heterochromatin
1263:
1252:
1224:
1148:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1117:
1097:
1093:
1086:
1058:
1046:
1025:
1019:
1011:D. melanogaster
1007:D. melanogaster
1003:D. melanogaster
987:
940:
867:), whereas all
865:Turner syndrome
795:
778:Gene conversion
746:gene conversion
727:
725:Gene conversion
714:
678:
627:
576:
568:human evolution
553:
509:
469:
464:
436:Turner syndrome
409:
399:
367:Hermann Henking
340:
335:
307:sex-determining
295:other organisms
291:therian mammals
287:sex chromosomes
266:
247:
123:
66:
51:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8287:
8277:
8276:
8271:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8229:
8228:
8226:
8225:
8214:
8211:
8210:
8208:
8207:
8206:
8205:
8204:
8203:
8198:
8193:
8178:
8172:
8170:
8164:
8163:
8161:
8160:
8159:
8158:
8153:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8133:
8132:
8131:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8100:
8099:
8094:
8084:
8083:
8082:
8077:
8067:
8066:
8065:
8060:
8050:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8024:
8023:
8018:
8007:
8005:
7997:
7996:
7994:
7993:
7988:
7983:
7978:
7977:
7976:
7971:
7961:
7956:
7955:
7954:
7949:
7942:Sex chromosome
7939:
7934:
7933:
7932:
7927:
7922:
7917:
7912:
7907:
7897:
7896:
7895:
7890:
7880:
7879:
7878:
7873:
7862:
7860:
7854:
7853:
7846:
7845:
7838:
7831:
7823:
7814:
7813:
7811:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7794:
7793:
7782:
7780:
7776:
7775:
7772:
7771:
7769:
7768:
7763:
7758:
7753:
7748:
7743:
7738:
7733:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7708:
7703:
7698:
7693:
7687:
7685:
7679:
7678:
7676:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7660:
7655:
7649:
7647:
7638:
7637:
7632:
7617:
7615:
7611:
7610:
7608:
7607:
7602:
7601:
7600:
7595:
7590:
7585:
7575:
7574:
7573:
7568:
7558:
7553:
7547:
7545:
7539:
7538:
7536:
7535:
7534:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7508:
7507:
7506:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7489:Submetacentric
7486:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7436:
7430:
7421:
7416:
7415:or heterosome)
7409:Sex chromosome
7401:
7399:
7395:
7394:
7392:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7370:
7369:
7364:
7354:
7345:
7340:
7334:
7332:
7326:
7325:
7314:
7313:
7306:
7299:
7291:
7282:
7281:
7279:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7267:
7266:
7255:
7253:
7252:Related topics
7249:
7248:
7243:
7241:
7235:
7234:
7231:
7230:
7228:
7227:
7222:
7216:
7214:
7212:Sex chromosome
7208:
7207:
7205:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7099:
7093:
7091:
7082:
7080:Nuclear genome
7076:
7075:
7068:
7067:
7060:
7053:
7045:
7039:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7016:
7004:
6998:
6992:
6986:
6980:
6975:
6968:
6967:External links
6965:
6962:
6961:
6902:
6883:(8): 899–906.
6863:
6804:
6775:(4): 346–354.
6755:
6704:
6675:(1): 179–184.
6655:
6620:
6577:
6570:
6552:
6501:
6487:978-1416030805
6486:
6465:
6454:. 14 July 2022
6439:
6414:
6357:
6338:
6336:
6335:
6316:News article:
6258:
6231:(4): 421–446.
6225:Human Genetics
6215:
6163:
6134:(5): 657–663.
6128:Human Genetics
6111:
6060:
6029:(2–3): 81–94.
6009:
5982:(3): 285–293.
5965:
5914:
5893:
5872:
5847:
5822:
5797:
5768:
5731:Genome Biology
5717:
5699:
5656:
5652:Arbitrary unit
5640:
5627:
5610:
5595:
5567:
5560:
5540:
5515:
5490:
5422:
5411:Dictionary.com
5398:
5361:Genome Biology
5347:
5271:
5246:
5225:
5174:
5123:
5080:
5021:
4964:
4935:(1): 607–613.
4912:
4869:
4820:
4783:Genome Biology
4769:
4720:
4681:
4632:
4605:(1–4): 303–9.
4584:
4557:(4): 211–221.
4541:
4522:(1): 333–354.
4506:
4460:
4411:
4357:
4301:
4252:
4196:
4181:
4155:
4128:(2): 801–810.
4112:
4063:
4037:
3986:
3981:New York Times
3967:
3932:(2): 134–144.
3916:
3897:(5): 527–534.
3881:
3824:
3775:
3718:
3690:
3647:
3592:
3563:(6): 965–973.
3538:
3478:
3449:(2): 113–124.
3424:
3405:(3): 219–224.
3389:
3360:(5): 901–914.
3319:
3284:
3265:(3): 325–336.
3245:
3208:(3): 341–360.
3188:
3181:
3159:
3137:
3110:(3): 191–364.
3088:
3075:
3045:Science Direct
3027:
3000:
2993:
2975:
2968:
2947:
2913:
2883:
2876:
2856:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2704:
2703:Microchimerism
2701:
2692:
2691:Brain function
2689:
2658:
2655:
2649:, causing the
2635:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2618:
2615:
2611:XXXXY syndrome
2576:Main article:
2573:
2570:
2557:Main article:
2554:
2551:
2527:defeminization
2514:
2511:
2503:
2500:
2452:
2449:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2426:
2420:
2410:
2409:
2402:
2400:
2390:
2389:
2378:
2376:
2358:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2320:
2318:
2308:
2307:
2304:
2295:
2285:
2284:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2237:
2234:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2180:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2117:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2056:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2023:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1985:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1772:(PARs) at the
1759:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1342:
1335:
1334:
1322:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1266:
1264:
1257:
1251:
1248:
1223:
1220:
1180:protein-coding
1176:protein-coding
1150:
1149:
1122:. Please help
1100:
1098:
1091:
1085:
1082:
1057:
1054:
1045:
1042:
1021:Main article:
1018:
1017:ZW chromosomes
1015:
986:
983:
982:
981:
980:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
964:
955:W. D. Hamilton
939:
936:
912:
911:
908:nondisjunction
896:
883:Arctic lemming
872:
794:
791:
726:
723:
713:
710:
677:
674:
635:cell divisions
626:
623:
614:rhesus macaque
592:, inefficient
575:
572:
552:
549:
508:
505:
484:hermaphrodites
468:
465:
463:
460:
398:
395:
344:Nettie Stevens
339:
336:
334:
331:
317:to be of male
285:is one of two
277:
276:
264:
258:
257:
245:
239:
238:
232:
231:
226:
220:
219:
214:
208:
207:
202:
196:
195:
190:
184:
183:
179:
178:
173:
167:
166:
161:
155:
154:
149:
143:
142:
137:
131:
130:
126:
125:
118:
112:
111:
106:
102:
101:
94:
85:
84:
81:
73:
72:
68:
67:
61:
53:
52:
45:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8286:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8242:
8241:
8239:
8224:
8216:
8215:
8212:
8202:
8199:
8197:
8194:
8192:
8189:
8188:
8187:
8184:
8183:
8182:
8179:
8177:
8174:
8173:
8171:
8169:
8165:
8157:
8156:Pelvic thrust
8154:
8152:
8149:
8147:
8144:
8142:
8139:
8137:
8134:
8130:
8127:
8126:
8125:
8122:
8121:
8120:
8117:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8098:
8095:
8093:
8090:
8089:
8088:
8087:Fertilization
8085:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8072:
8071:
8068:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8055:
8054:
8053:Gametogenesis
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8022:
8019:
8017:
8014:
8013:
8012:
8009:
8008:
8006:
8004:
7998:
7992:
7989:
7987:
7986:parasexuality
7984:
7982:
7979:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7966:
7965:
7964:Hermaphrodite
7962:
7960:
7957:
7953:
7950:
7948:
7945:
7944:
7943:
7940:
7938:
7935:
7931:
7930:Haplodiploidy
7928:
7926:
7923:
7921:
7918:
7916:
7913:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7902:
7901:
7898:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7885:
7884:
7881:
7877:
7874:
7872:
7869:
7868:
7867:
7864:
7863:
7861:
7855:
7851:
7844:
7839:
7837:
7832:
7830:
7825:
7824:
7821:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7792:
7789:
7788:
7787:
7784:
7783:
7781:
7777:
7767:
7764:
7762:
7759:
7757:
7754:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7744:
7742:
7739:
7737:
7734:
7732:
7729:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7709:
7707:
7704:
7702:
7699:
7697:
7694:
7692:
7689:
7688:
7686:
7684:
7680:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7664:
7661:
7659:
7656:
7654:
7651:
7650:
7648:
7646:
7642:
7636:
7633:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7619:
7618:
7616:
7612:
7606:
7603:
7599:
7596:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7580:
7579:
7576:
7572:
7569:
7567:
7564:
7563:
7562:
7559:
7557:
7554:
7552:
7549:
7548:
7546:
7544:and evolution
7540:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7513:
7512:
7509:
7505:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7481:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7469:Isochromosome
7467:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7414:
7410:
7406:
7403:
7402:
7400:
7396:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7359:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7341:
7339:
7336:
7335:
7333:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7312:
7307:
7305:
7300:
7298:
7293:
7292:
7289:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7265:
7262:
7261:
7260:
7257:
7256:
7254:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7240:
7236:
7226:
7223:
7221:
7218:
7217:
7215:
7213:
7209:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7135:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7125:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7100:
7098:
7095:
7094:
7092:
7090:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7066:
7061:
7059:
7054:
7052:
7047:
7046:
7043:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7023:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7011:
7008:
7005:
7002:
6999:
6996:
6993:
6990:
6987:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6970:
6957:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6929:
6925:
6922:(9): e45592.
6921:
6917:
6913:
6906:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6870:
6868:
6859:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6808:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6774:
6770:
6766:
6759:
6751:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6715:
6708:
6700:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6666:
6659:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6624:
6616:
6612:
6608:
6604:
6600:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6581:
6573:
6567:
6563:
6556:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6505:
6497:
6493:
6489:
6483:
6479:
6472:
6470:
6453:
6449:
6443:
6428:
6424:
6418:
6410:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6392:
6388:
6384:
6380:
6376:
6372:
6368:
6361:
6353:
6352:New Scientist
6349:
6342:
6325:
6321:
6315:
6314:
6311:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6262:
6254:
6250:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6219:
6211:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6177:
6170:
6168:
6159:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6118:
6116:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6064:
6056:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6013:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5969:
5961:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5918:
5903:
5897:
5882:
5876:
5861:
5857:
5851:
5836:
5832:
5826:
5811:
5807:
5801:
5787:on 2017-06-29
5786:
5782:
5778:
5772:
5764:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5721:
5713:
5712:Science Daily
5709:
5703:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5660:
5653:
5647:
5645:
5637:
5631:
5624:
5620:
5614:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5579:
5571:
5563:
5557:
5553:
5552:
5544:
5529:
5525:
5519:
5504:
5500:
5494:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5429:
5427:
5412:
5408:
5402:
5394:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5358:
5351:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5280:
5278:
5276:
5261:on 2012-03-29
5260:
5256:
5250:
5235:
5229:
5221:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5178:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5127:
5119:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5084:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5025:
5017:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4968:
4960:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4919:
4917:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4873:
4865:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4824:
4816:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4773:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4724:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4691:Akodon azarae
4685:
4677:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4636:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4593:
4591:
4589:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4545:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4510:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4467:
4465:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4425:Hum Mol Genet
4422:
4415:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4364:
4362:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4297:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4256:
4249:
4243:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4200:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4182:9780120176243
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4159:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4116:
4108:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4067:
4053:on 2012-02-25
4052:
4048:
4041:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3990:
3982:
3978:
3971:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3920:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3885:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3828:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3795:(7): 783–91.
3794:
3790:
3786:
3779:
3771:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3708:
3704:
3697:
3695:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3651:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3599:
3597:
3588:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3485:
3483:
3474:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3344:
3342:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3288:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3184:
3182:0-87893-243-7
3178:
3174:
3170:
3162:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3092:
3078:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3054:"Infertility"
3047:. 2023-09-12.
3046:
3042:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3017:
3013:
3007:
3005:
2996:
2990:
2986:
2979:
2971:
2965:
2961:
2954:
2952:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2917:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2879:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2860:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2828:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2739:miscarriages,
2738:
2737:
2736:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2711:
2708:
2700:
2698:
2688:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2664:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2631:
2622:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2607:XXXY syndrome
2603:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2569:
2566:
2560:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2508:
2499:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2464:hematopoietic
2460:
2458:
2448:
2446:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1845:Release date
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:Estimated by
1823:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1789:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1751:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1347:
1339:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1294:
1284:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1267:This article
1265:
1261:
1256:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1208:Ancient Greek
1205:
1201:
1200:XXYY syndrome
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1164:chromosome 19
1161:
1157:
1146:
1143:
1135:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1099:
1090:
1089:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1063:
1053:
1051:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1024:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
999:
994:
993:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
961:
960:
959:
958:
956:
952:
948:
944:
938:1:1 sex ratio
935:
931:
927:
925:
921:
917:
916:black muntjac
909:
905:
901:
900:creeping vole
897:
894:
893:
888:
884:
880:
877:
873:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
853:
848:
844:
843:
838:
837:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
815:
814:
812:
808:
804:
799:
790:
787:
786:recombination
783:
779:
775:
773:
769:
765:
760:
758:
757:noncoding DNA
754:
749:
747:
743:
740:
736:
732:
722:
720:
712:Genetic drift
709:
707:
703:
699:
694:
692:
687:
683:
673:
671:
666:
662:
658:
654:
653:recombination
651:
646:
644:
640:
639:gametogenesis
636:
632:
622:
619:
615:
610:
606:
601:
599:
598:genetic drift
595:
591:
590:mutation rate
586:
581:
571:
569:
564:
562:
558:
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
525:
523:
522:translocation
518:
514:
504:
502:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
474:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
420:
418:
414:
408:
404:
394:
392:
388:
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
353:
349:
345:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
273:
269:
265:
263:
259:
254:
250:
246:
244:
240:
237:
233:
230:
227:
225:
221:
218:
215:
213:
209:
206:
203:
201:
197:
194:
191:
189:
185:
180:
177:
174:
172:
168:
165:
162:
160:
156:
153:
150:
148:
144:
141:
138:
136:
132:
127:
122:
119:
117:
113:
110:
107:
103:
99:
95:
93:
86:
82:
79:
74:
69:
65:
59:
54:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
8075:spermatozoon
8003:reproduction
7952:Y chromosome
7951:
7947:X chromosome
7893:Virilization
7888:Feminization
7510:
7478:
7318:Cytogenetics
7259:Human genome
7224:
7072:Human genome
6919:
6915:
6905:
6880:
6876:
6824:(2): 705–8.
6821:
6817:
6807:
6772:
6768:
6758:
6721:
6717:
6707:
6672:
6668:
6658:
6636:(6): 10–13.
6633:
6630:The Sciences
6629:
6623:
6590:
6586:
6580:
6561:
6555:
6514:
6510:
6504:
6477:
6456:. Retrieved
6451:
6442:
6430:. Retrieved
6426:
6417:
6374:
6370:
6360:
6351:
6341:
6327:. Retrieved
6323:
6275:
6271:
6261:
6228:
6224:
6218:
6186:(6): 624–8.
6183:
6179:
6131:
6127:
6073:
6069:
6063:
6026:
6022:
6012:
5979:
5975:
5968:
5931:
5927:
5917:
5906:. Retrieved
5904:. 2017-05-19
5896:
5885:. Retrieved
5883:. 2017-05-19
5875:
5864:. Retrieved
5862:. 2017-05-19
5859:
5850:
5839:. Retrieved
5837:. 2018-02-28
5834:
5825:
5814:. Retrieved
5812:. 2017-03-29
5809:
5800:
5789:. Retrieved
5785:the original
5780:
5771:
5734:
5730:
5720:
5711:
5702:
5694:
5690:
5683:
5675:
5670:, generally
5663:
5659:
5630:
5625:": Long arm.
5622:
5618:
5613:
5577:
5570:
5550:
5543:
5532:. Retrieved
5527:
5518:
5507:. Retrieved
5502:
5493:
5442:
5438:
5414:. Retrieved
5410:
5401:
5364:
5360:
5350:
5299:
5295:
5263:. Retrieved
5259:the original
5249:
5238:. Retrieved
5228:
5191:
5187:
5177:
5136:
5132:
5126:
5093:
5089:
5083:
5041:(1): 83–94.
5038:
5034:
5024:
4984:(1): 12499.
4981:
4977:
4967:
4932:
4928:
4882:
4878:
4872:
4837:
4833:
4823:
4786:
4782:
4772:
4737:
4733:
4723:
4701:(2): 125–9.
4698:
4694:
4690:
4684:
4649:
4645:
4635:
4602:
4598:
4554:
4550:
4544:
4519:
4515:
4509:
4476:
4472:
4428:
4424:
4414:
4377:
4373:
4319:
4315:
4269:
4265:
4255:
4213:
4210:BMC Genomics
4209:
4199:
4164:
4158:
4125:
4121:
4115:
4080:
4076:
4066:
4055:. Retrieved
4051:the original
4040:
3999:
3995:
3989:
3980:
3970:
3929:
3925:
3919:
3894:
3890:
3884:
3841:
3837:
3827:
3792:
3788:
3778:
3735:
3731:
3721:
3710:. Retrieved
3706:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3609:
3605:
3560:
3556:
3498:
3494:
3446:
3442:
3402:
3398:
3392:
3357:
3353:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3262:
3258:
3248:
3205:
3201:
3191:
3172:
3150:
3140:
3107:
3103:
3091:
3080:. Retrieved
3058:
3044:
3019:. Retrieved
3015:
2984:
2978:
2959:
2933:
2929:
2916:
2905:. Retrieved
2900:
2866:
2859:
2848:. Retrieved
2846:. 2016-09-08
2843:
2751:
2742:pregnancies,
2733:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2699:production.
2694:
2670:
2637:
2628:
2620:
2604:
2600:
2585:
2581:
2578:XYY syndrome
2562:
2535:
2516:
2505:
2492:
2461:
2454:
2442:
2275:XK (protein)
1969:gene deserts
1966:
1805:
1786:
1767:
1291:October 2021
1288:
1268:
1244:
1225:
1215:
1211:
1196:XYY syndrome
1153:
1138:
1132:October 2021
1129:
1113:
1102:
1074:Z chromosome
1071:
1059:
1047:
1026:
1010:
1006:
1002:
996:
990:
988:
941:
932:
928:
919:
913:
903:
890:
886:
878:
876:wood lemming
868:
860:
856:
850:
840:
834:
830:
822:
800:
796:
789:the genome.
776:
761:
750:
728:
715:
706:entropy rate
702:human genome
698:entropy rate
695:
679:
647:
628:
605:human genome
602:
577:
574:Degeneration
565:
554:
526:
510:
496:simultaneous
470:
428:XYY syndrome
421:
413:X chromosome
410:
383:
354:
341:
313:produced in
299:X chromosome
283:Y chromosome
282:
280:
229:Chromosome Y
217:Chromosome Y
205:Chromosome Y
193:Chromosome Y
29:
18:Y-chromosome
8249:Chromosomes
7531:Polycentric
7521:Monocentric
7504:Holocentric
7499:Acrocentric
7494:Telocentric
7484:Metacentric
7362:Euchromatin
7322:chromosomes
6046:10576/22940
3104:Aquaculture
2494:smoking or
2488:heart risks
2026:Zinc finger
1950:2017-05-19
1929:2018-02-28
1908:2017-03-29
1887:2017-05-12
1866:2016-09-08
1838:Pseudogenes
1218:, "male").
1126:if you can.
1038:butterflies
764:chimpanzees
753:palindromes
476:vertebrates
473:ectothermic
327:male gonads
121:Acrocentric
8238:Categories
8136:Copulation
7857:Biological
7683:Centromere
7614:Structures
7593:Polyploidy
7583:Aneuploidy
7384:Nucleosome
7374:Chromosome
5908:2017-05-20
5887:2017-05-20
5866:2017-05-20
5841:2018-03-16
5816:2017-05-19
5791:2017-05-19
5737:(5): 206.
5687:Centromere
5534:2017-04-26
5509:2017-04-26
5416:2020-01-21
5367:(5): 206.
5265:2009-11-09
5240:2007-04-14
5211:1885/64794
5058:2115/49121
4789:(6): R98.
4374:PLOS Genet
4248:Lempel-Ziv
4216:(1): 509.
4057:2012-02-23
3712:2023-11-13
3657:Chromosoma
3185:. NBK9989.
3082:2023-09-12
3021:2023-09-12
2936:: 309–37.
2907:2017-04-26
2850:2017-05-28
2823:References
2565:aneuploidy
2467:stem cells
2445:aneuploidy
2326:(Chr. 4).
2167:Helicase.
2059:Amelogenin
1961:See also:
1745:57,227,415
1740:26,600,001
1713:26,600,000
1708:23,800,001
1680:23,800,000
1675:19,600,001
1648:19,600,000
1643:17,100,001
1615:17,100,000
1610:12,400,001
1583:12,400,000
1578:10,600,001
1551:10,600,000
1546:10,400,001
1519:10,400,000
1514:10,300,001
1487:10,300,000
1236:sequencing
1192:aneuploidy
1188:hemizygous
1156:base pairs
1062:platypuses
992:Drosophila
849:entirely.
811:Cricetidae
739:palindrome
691:"junk" DNA
609:chimpanzee
541:marsupials
533:monotremes
488:sequential
401:See also:
397:Variations
124:(10.4 Mbp)
8244:Andrology
8191:Mechanics
8168:Sexuality
8063:Oogenesis
8038:Sex organ
8028:Germ cell
8016:Anisogamy
7635:Protamine
7542:Processes
7526:Dicentric
7379:Chromatid
7357:Chromatin
7338:Karyotype
6724:: 20–30.
6458:31 August
6432:31 August
6329:21 August
6253:211036885
6106:250579530
5934:(1): 14.
5668:G banding
5485:261098546
5342:254181409
4834:BioEssays
3789:Vet World
3240:254168012
3232:1616-3915
3132:0044-8486
2802:Y linkage
2671:In human
2539:mosaicism
2523:karyotype
2519:phenotype
2476:karyotype
2425:through 3
1957:Gene list
1774:telomeres
1283:talk page
1277:amplicons
1250:Structure
1120:talk page
1115:therians.
951:sex ratio
924:autosomes
859:spp. and
742:base pair
594:selection
557:recombine
545:eutherian
513:autosomes
503:of fish.
448:XY female
432:Trisomy X
363:Hemiptera
338:Discovery
311:offspring
249:NC_000024
176:Gene list
164:Gene list
152:Gene list
140:Gene list
64:karyogram
48:G-banding
8223:Category
8201:Activity
8097:Internal
8092:External
7981:Intersex
7779:See also
7621:Telomere
7588:Euploidy
7516:Acentric
7413:allosome
7405:Autosome
7331:concepts
7089:Autosome
7022:Archived
7010:Archived
6956:23049819
6916:PLOS ONE
6897:16084184
6799:35983351
6750:20396406
6699:29375860
6650:11662398
6496:72774424
6409:25477213
6310:35857592
6245:32020362
6210:24777449
6158:28424864
6098:35857599
6055:26730606
6004:13443194
5996:23708688
5960:29454353
5763:20441615
5697:: Stalk.
5605:16666470
5477:37612510
5468:10726138
5393:20441615
5334:37612512
5325:10752217
5220:22777195
5161:24759410
5118:17401686
5110:15210173
5075:15130561
5067:22187366
5016:32719365
4959:17660573
4929:Genetics
4864:23055411
4815:18554412
4764:34489270
4756:11520338
4734:Heredity
4676:11052532
4627:39633026
4619:12900579
4579:25939138
4571:18391532
4536:19630566
4501:10526522
4493:14684993
4455:34244762
4406:23935520
4344:12815433
4296:11127901
4242:18973670
4142:28913952
4107:16341006
4024:16136134
3962:24010421
3954:19142680
3911:15367368
3876:16081591
3819:27536043
3770:29075464
3685:26978106
3634:15502814
3587:18463302
3533:18464734
3473:23329112
3419:16650758
3376:16530039
3314:10542153
2942:11616163
2756:See also
2677:genetics
2592:Scotland
2484:fibrosis
2281:amplicon
1778:homology
1396:Density
1388:Basepair
1383:Basepair
1204:Y-linked
1194:such as
1103:require
1078:homology
953:of 1:1.
857:Tokudaia
852:Tokudaia
772:gorillas
755:are not
657:mutation
529:platypus
480:reptiles
407:Intersex
352:mealworm
333:Overview
268:CM000686
109:Allosome
92:of genes
76:Length (
71:Features
8048:Meiosis
8021:Isogamy
7791:Plasmid
7645:Histone
7556:Meiosis
7551:Mitosis
6947:3458919
6924:Bibcode
6858:8570620
6826:Bibcode
6791:4823382
6741:2854822
6690:5771943
6595:Bibcode
6587:Science
6547:4145850
6539:5870205
6519:Bibcode
6400:4356728
6379:Bibcode
6371:Science
6301:9437978
6280:Bibcode
6272:Science
6201:5536222
6149:5418310
6078:Bibcode
6070:Science
5951:5816366
5835:UniProt
5754:2898077
5680:CG-rich
5672:AT-rich
5447:Bibcode
5384:2898077
5304:Bibcode
5169:4462870
5141:Bibcode
5007:7385105
4986:Bibcode
4950:2013703
4907:6021675
4887:Bibcode
4879:Science
4855:3581811
4806:2481430
4703:Bibcode
4667:1690748
4446:8600007
4397:3723533
4352:4323263
4324:Bibcode
4287:1692900
4233:2628393
4191:3324702
4150:4764175
4085:Bibcode
4045:Hsu C.
4032:4418662
4004:Bibcode
3934:Bibcode
3868:8548280
3846:Bibcode
3810:4983133
3761:5648654
3740:Bibcode
3677:1424984
3642:4379897
3614:Bibcode
3578:2413164
3524:2803040
3503:Bibcode
3464:4120474
3384:8379688
3294:Science
3267:Bibcode
3210:Bibcode
3112:Bibcode
2647:gametes
2471:cancers
2430:VCX/VCY
2332:RBMY1A1
2218:CXorf15
2213:CYorf15
2101:TGIF2LX
2096:TGIF2LY
2086:PDCH11X
2081:PCDH11Y
1991:paralog
1914:UniProt
1893:Ensembl
1842:Source
1482:600,001
1454:600,000
1449:300,001
1422:300,000
1357:G-bands
1325:Ensembl
1105:cleanup
1067:mitosis
949:have a
898:In the
807:Muridae
782:meiosis
768:bonobos
731:meiosis
686:alleles
682:meiosis
665:meiosis
650:meiotic
637:during
537:therian
492:gametes
456:XX male
391:mitosis
387:mitosis
262:GenBank
188:Ensembl
159:UniProt
8070:Gamete
8043:Mating
8001:Sexual
7876:Female
7352:Genome
7343:Ploidy
6995:Nature
6954:
6944:
6895:
6856:
6846:
6797:
6789:
6748:
6738:
6697:
6687:
6648:
6615:959813
6613:
6568:
6545:
6537:
6511:Nature
6494:
6484:
6407:
6397:
6308:
6298:
6251:
6243:
6208:
6198:
6156:
6146:
6104:
6096:
6053:
6002:
5994:
5958:
5948:
5761:
5751:
5603:
5593:
5558:
5483:
5475:
5465:
5439:Nature
5391:
5381:
5340:
5332:
5322:
5296:Nature
5218:
5167:
5159:
5133:Nature
5116:
5108:
5073:
5065:
5014:
5004:
4957:
4947:
4905:
4862:
4852:
4813:
4803:
4762:
4754:
4674:
4664:
4625:
4617:
4577:
4569:
4534:
4499:
4491:
4453:
4443:
4404:
4394:
4350:
4342:
4316:Nature
4294:
4284:
4240:
4230:
4189:
4179:
4148:
4140:
4105:
4077:Nature
4030:
4022:
3996:Nature
3960:
3952:
3909:
3874:
3866:
3817:
3807:
3768:
3758:
3683:
3675:
3640:
3632:
3606:Nature
3585:
3575:
3531:
3521:
3495:Nature
3471:
3461:
3417:
3382:
3374:
3312:
3238:
3230:
3179:
3157:
3130:
3073:
2991:
2966:
2940:
2874:
2457:mosaic
2353:(none)
2324:PTPN13
2247:EIF4AX
2242:EIF1AY
2227:RPS4Y2
2204:(none)
2134:(none)
2034:RPS4Y1
1665:11.223
1633:11.222
1600:11.221
1393:Stain
1385:start
1375:start
1216:andrós
1036:, and
1034:snakes
892:Akodon
881:, the
825:, the
803:rodent
661:genome
643:testis
596:, and
517:allele
507:Origin
501:orders
442:, the
243:RefSeq
200:Entrez
7859:terms
7629:TINF2
7398:Types
7329:Basic
6849:40117
6795:S2CID
6543:S2CID
6354:: 17.
6249:S2CID
6102:S2CID
6000:S2CID
5695:stalk
5636:locus
5601:S2CID
5481:S2CID
5338:S2CID
5165:S2CID
5114:S2CID
5071:S2CID
4760:S2CID
4623:S2CID
4575:S2CID
4497:S2CID
4348:S2CID
4146:S2CID
4028:S2CID
3958:S2CID
3872:S2CID
3681:S2CID
3638:S2CID
3380:S2CID
3236:S2CID
2926:(PDF)
2480:aging
2386:DAZLA
2302:HSFX2
2298:HSFX1
2293:HSFY2
2289:HSFY1
2261:KDM5C
2256:KDM5D
2232:RPS4X
2163:DDX3X
2158:DDX3Y
2148:USP9X
2143:USP9Y
2115:TSPY2
2111:TSPY1
2072:TBL1X
2067:TBL1Y
2054:AMELX
2049:AMELY
2039:RPS4X
1995:Note
1984:Name
1797:Genes
1698:11.23
1568:11.21
1439:11.31
1407:11.32
1390:stop
1380:stop
1370:Band
1364:Chr.
1240:genes
1212:hólos
1210:ὅλος
1172:genes
1030:birds
631:sperm
471:Many
272:FASTA
253:FASTA
8264:Male
8080:ovum
7871:Male
7411:(or
6952:PMID
6893:PMID
6854:PMID
6787:PMID
6746:PMID
6695:PMID
6646:PMID
6611:PMID
6566:ISBN
6535:PMID
6492:OCLC
6482:ISBN
6460:2022
6434:2022
6405:PMID
6331:2022
6306:PMID
6241:PMID
6206:PMID
6154:PMID
6094:PMID
6051:PMID
5992:PMID
5956:PMID
5759:PMID
5684:acen
5676:gneg
5664:gpos
5591:ISBN
5556:ISBN
5473:PMID
5389:PMID
5330:PMID
5216:PMID
5157:PMID
5106:PMID
5063:PMID
5012:PMID
4955:PMID
4903:PMID
4860:PMID
4811:PMID
4752:PMID
4672:PMID
4615:PMID
4567:PMID
4532:PMID
4489:PMID
4451:PMID
4402:PMID
4340:PMID
4292:PMID
4238:PMID
4187:PMID
4177:ISBN
4138:PMID
4103:PMID
4020:PMID
3950:PMID
3907:PMID
3864:PMID
3815:PMID
3766:PMID
3673:PMID
3630:PMID
3583:PMID
3529:PMID
3469:PMID
3415:PMID
3372:PMID
3354:Cell
3310:PMID
3228:ISSN
3177:ISBN
3155:ISBN
3128:ISSN
3071:ISBN
2989:ISBN
2964:ISBN
2938:PMID
2872:ISBN
2665:and
2617:Rare
2609:and
2423:VCX1
2418:VCY2
2414:VCY1
2406:CDYL
2398:CDY2
2394:CDY1
2384:and
2382:BOLL
2374:DAZ4
2370:DAZ3
2366:DAZ2
2362:DAZ1
2350:AZFc
2337:RBMY
2316:PRY2
2270:XKRY
2201:AZFb
2193:TB4X
2188:TB4Y
2130:AZFa
2120:TSPX
2006:SOX3
1945:400
1935:NCBI
1903:392
1882:381
1872:HGNC
1851:CCDS
1749:gvar
1736:3650
1733:2346
1717:gneg
1704:2346
1701:2160
1684:gpos
1671:2160
1668:1881
1652:gneg
1639:1881
1636:1713
1619:gpos
1606:1713
1603:1397
1587:gneg
1574:1397
1571:1266
1555:acen
1542:1266
1539:1117
1536:11.1
1523:acen
1510:1117
1507:1043
1504:11.1
1491:gneg
1478:1043
1472:11.2
1458:gpos
1426:gneg
1378:ISCN
1373:ISCN
1367:Arm
1168:cell
874:The
839:and
817:The
809:and
770:and
543:and
444:WNT4
405:and
293:and
281:The
224:UCSC
212:NCBI
171:NCBI
147:HGNC
135:CCDS
105:Type
98:CCDS
96:63 (
7850:Sex
7663:H2B
7658:H2A
6942:PMC
6932:doi
6885:doi
6881:118
6844:PMC
6834:doi
6777:doi
6736:PMC
6726:doi
6685:PMC
6677:doi
6638:doi
6603:doi
6591:193
6527:doi
6515:208
6395:PMC
6387:doi
6375:347
6296:PMC
6288:doi
6276:377
6233:doi
6229:139
6196:PMC
6188:doi
6144:PMC
6136:doi
6132:136
6086:doi
6074:377
6041:hdl
6031:doi
6027:147
5984:doi
5946:PMC
5936:doi
5749:PMC
5739:doi
5691:var
5583:doi
5463:PMC
5455:doi
5443:621
5379:PMC
5369:doi
5320:PMC
5312:doi
5300:621
5206:hdl
5196:doi
5192:137
5149:doi
5137:508
5098:doi
5094:121
5053:hdl
5043:doi
5002:PMC
4994:doi
4945:PMC
4937:doi
4933:177
4895:doi
4883:156
4850:PMC
4842:doi
4801:PMC
4791:doi
4742:doi
4711:doi
4662:PMC
4654:doi
4650:267
4607:doi
4559:doi
4524:doi
4481:doi
4477:101
4441:PMC
4433:doi
4392:PMC
4382:doi
4332:doi
4320:423
4282:PMC
4274:doi
4270:355
4228:PMC
4218:doi
4169:doi
4130:doi
4093:doi
4081:438
4012:doi
4000:437
3942:doi
3899:doi
3854:doi
3805:PMC
3797:doi
3756:PMC
3748:doi
3665:doi
3661:101
3622:doi
3610:432
3573:PMC
3565:doi
3519:PMC
3511:doi
3499:453
3459:PMC
3451:doi
3407:doi
3362:doi
3358:124
3302:doi
3298:286
3275:doi
3218:doi
3120:doi
3108:208
3063:doi
2679:to
2651:SRY
2572:XYY
2553:XXY
2545:or
2312:PRY
2178:UTX
2173:UTY
2021:ZFX
2016:ZFY
2001:SRY
1942:122
1900:109
1687:50
1622:50
1475:298
1461:50
1445:298
1442:149
1413:149
1198:or
1160:DNA
1158:of
847:SRY
735:MIT
417:SRY
346:at
323:SRY
319:sex
289:in
90:No.
8240::
7920:ZO
7915:XO
7910:ZW
7905:XY
7706:C2
7701:C1
7673:H4
7668:H3
7653:H1
7623::
7320::
7202:22
7197:21
7192:20
7187:19
7182:18
7177:17
7172:16
7167:15
7162:14
7157:13
7152:12
7147:11
7142:10
6950:.
6940:.
6930:.
6918:.
6914:.
6891:.
6879:.
6866:^
6852:.
6842:.
6832:.
6822:93
6820:.
6816:.
6793:.
6785:.
6773:17
6771:.
6767:.
6744:.
6734:.
6720:.
6716:.
6693:.
6683:.
6671:.
6667:.
6644:.
6634:17
6632:.
6609:.
6601:.
6589:.
6541:.
6533:.
6525:.
6513:.
6490:.
6468:^
6450:.
6425:.
6403:.
6393:.
6385:.
6373:.
6369:.
6350:.
6322:.
6304:.
6294:.
6286:.
6274:.
6270:.
6247:.
6239:.
6227:.
6204:.
6194:.
6184:46
6182:.
6178:.
6166:^
6152:.
6142:.
6130:.
6126:.
6114:^
6100:.
6092:.
6084:.
6072:.
6049:.
6039:.
6025:.
6021:.
5998:.
5990:.
5980:13
5978:.
5954:.
5944:.
5932:16
5930:.
5926:.
5858:.
5833:.
5808:.
5779:.
5757:.
5747:.
5735:11
5733:.
5729:.
5710:.
5689:.
5643:^
5599:.
5589:.
5526:.
5501:.
5479:.
5471:.
5461:.
5453:.
5441:.
5437:.
5425:^
5409:.
5387:.
5377:.
5365:11
5363:.
5359:.
5336:.
5328:.
5318:.
5310:.
5298:.
5294:.
5274:^
5214:.
5204:.
5190:.
5186:.
5163:.
5155:.
5147:.
5135:.
5112:.
5104:.
5092:.
5069:.
5061:.
5051:.
5039:20
5037:.
5033:.
5010:.
5000:.
4992:.
4982:10
4980:.
4976:.
4953:.
4943:.
4931:.
4927:.
4915:^
4901:.
4893:.
4881:.
4858:.
4848:.
4838:34
4836:.
4832:.
4809:.
4799:.
4785:.
4781:.
4758:.
4750:.
4738:86
4736:.
4732:.
4709:.
4699:74
4697:.
4670:.
4660:.
4648:.
4644:.
4621:.
4613:.
4603:99
4601:.
4587:^
4573:.
4565:.
4553:.
4530:.
4520:10
4518:.
4495:.
4487:.
4475:.
4463:^
4449:.
4439:.
4429:30
4427:.
4423:.
4400:.
4390:.
4376:.
4372:.
4360:^
4346:.
4338:.
4330:.
4318:.
4304:^
4290:.
4280:.
4268:.
4264:.
4236:.
4226:.
4212:.
4208:.
4185:.
4175:.
4144:.
4136:.
4126:93
4124:.
4101:.
4091:.
4079:.
4075:.
4026:.
4018:.
4010:.
3998:.
3979:.
3956:.
3948:.
3940:.
3930:68
3928:.
3905:.
3895:16
3893:.
3870:.
3862:.
3852:.
3840:.
3836:.
3813:.
3803:.
3791:.
3787:.
3764:.
3754:.
3746:.
3734:.
3730:.
3705:.
3693:^
3679:.
3671:.
3659:.
3636:.
3628:.
3620:.
3608:.
3595:^
3581:.
3571:.
3561:18
3559:.
3555:.
3541:^
3527:.
3517:.
3509:.
3497:.
3493:.
3481:^
3467:.
3457:.
3447:14
3445:.
3441:.
3427:^
3413:.
3403:16
3401:.
3378:.
3370:.
3356:.
3352:.
3322:^
3308:.
3296:.
3273:.
3263:17
3261:.
3257:.
3234:.
3226:.
3216:.
3206:67
3204:.
3200:.
3171:.
3149:.
3126:.
3118:.
3102:.
3069:.
3043:.
3030:^
3014:.
3003:^
2950:^
2934:59
2932:.
2928:.
2899:.
2886:^
2842:.
2831:^
2613:.
2549:.
2533:.
2486:,
2416:,
2408:.
2396:,
2372:,
2368:,
2364:,
2314:,
2300:,
2291:,
2283:.
2113:,
2061:.
2028:.
1939:73
1924:—
1918:47
1897:63
1879:55
1876:45
1861:—
1855:63
1730:12
1727:q
1695:q
1662:q
1630:q
1597:q
1565:q
1533:q
1501:p
1469:p
1436:p
1404:p
1331:).
1327:,
1032:,
926:.
918:,
902:,
885:,
829:,
821:,
766:,
748:.
721:.
672:.
600:.
524:.
458:.
357:.
274:)
255:)
78:bp
7842:e
7835:t
7828:v
7766:T
7761:Q
7756:P
7751:O
7746:N
7741:M
7736:K
7731:J
7726:I
7721:H
7716:F
7711:E
7696:B
7691:A
7631:)
7627:(
7426:/
7407:/
7350:/
7310:e
7303:t
7296:v
7225:Y
7220:X
7137:9
7132:8
7127:7
7122:6
7117:5
7112:4
7107:3
7102:2
7097:1
7064:e
7057:t
7050:v
6958:.
6934::
6926::
6920:7
6899:.
6887::
6860:.
6836::
6828::
6801:.
6779::
6752:.
6728::
6722:2
6701:.
6679::
6673:6
6652:.
6640::
6617:.
6605::
6597::
6574:.
6549:.
6529::
6521::
6498:.
6462:.
6436:.
6411:.
6389::
6381::
6333:.
6312:.
6290::
6282::
6255:.
6235::
6212:.
6190::
6160:.
6138::
6108:.
6088::
6080::
6057:.
6043::
6033::
6006:.
5986::
5962:.
5938::
5911:.
5890:.
5869:.
5844:.
5819:.
5794:.
5765:.
5741::
5654:.
5638:.
5623:q
5619:p
5617:"
5607:.
5585::
5564:.
5537:.
5512:.
5487:.
5457::
5449::
5419:.
5395:.
5371::
5344:.
5314::
5306::
5268:.
5243:.
5222:.
5208::
5198::
5171:.
5151::
5143::
5120:.
5100::
5077:.
5055::
5045::
5018:.
4996::
4988::
4961:.
4939::
4909:.
4897::
4889::
4866:.
4844::
4817:.
4793::
4787:9
4766:.
4744::
4717:.
4713::
4705::
4678:.
4656::
4629:.
4609::
4581:.
4561::
4555:1
4538:.
4526::
4503:.
4483::
4457:.
4435::
4408:.
4384::
4378:9
4354:.
4334::
4326::
4298:.
4276::
4244:.
4220::
4214:9
4193:.
4171::
4152:.
4132::
4109:.
4095::
4087::
4060:.
4034:.
4014::
4006::
3983:.
3964:.
3944::
3936::
3913:.
3901::
3878:.
3856::
3848::
3842:5
3821:.
3799::
3793:9
3772:.
3750::
3742::
3736:7
3715:.
3687:.
3667::
3644:.
3624::
3616::
3589:.
3567::
3535:.
3513::
3505::
3475:.
3453::
3421:.
3409::
3386:.
3364::
3316:.
3304::
3281:.
3277::
3269::
3242:.
3220::
3212::
3163:.
3134:.
3122::
3114::
3085:.
3065::
3024:.
2997:.
2972:.
2944:.
2910:.
2880:.
2853:.
1988:X
1921:—
1858:—
1724:Y
1692:Y
1659:Y
1627:Y
1594:Y
1562:Y
1530:Y
1498:Y
1466:Y
1433:Y
1417:1
1410:0
1401:Y
1348:.
1293:)
1289:(
1285:.
1145:)
1139:(
1134:)
1130:(
910:.
270:(
251:(
100:)
80:)
50:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.