1843:
829:
804:
2801:). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997, and by the middle of 1997 had almost completely overrun the country. The only thing that seemed to slow the AFDL forces down was the country's ramshackle infrastructure; irregularly used dirt paths and river ports were all that connected some areas to the outside world. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila, Mobutu fled into exile in Morocco on 17 May. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and marched unopposed into Kinshasa three days later. On 21 May, Kabila officially reverted the name of the country to the
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by implausibly high margins, claiming a unanimous or near-unanimous "yes" vote. The MPR was defined as the country's "single institution," and its president was vested with "plentitude of power exercise." Every five years, a single list of MPR candidates was returned to the
National Assembly, with official figures showing near-unanimous support. All citizens of Zaire automatically became members of the MPR at birth. For all intents and purposes, this gave the president of the MPR—Mobutu—complete political control over the country.
2820:
2502:
Similarly, the JMPR was to act as a major link between the student population and the state. In reality, the government was attempting to bring under its control those sectors where opposition to the regime might be centred. By appointing key labour and youth leaders to the MPR Political Bureau, the regime hoped to harness syndical and student forces to the machinery of the state. Nevertheless, as has been pointed out by numerous observers, there is little evidence that
2610:
2419:, Mobutu later summed up the record of the First Republic as one of "chaos, disorder, negligence, and incompetence". Rejection of the legacy of the First Republic went far beyond rhetoric. In the first two years of its existence, the new regime turned to the urgent tasks of political reconstruction and consolidation. Creating a new basis of legitimacy for the state, in the form of a single party, came next in Mobutu's order of priority.
3063:
3089:, it was "alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions, of friendly governments, and of the commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire's economy". Blumenthal stated that there was "no chance" that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the
671:
2859:. Governors of provinces were no longer elected by provincial assemblies but appointed by the central government. The president had the power to issue autonomous regulations on matters other than those pertaining to the domain of law, without prejudice to other provisions of the constitution. Under certain conditions, the president was empowered to govern by executive order, which carried the force of law.
2585:
Furthermore, another consequence of the reform was to severely curtail the power of traditional authorities at the local level. Hereditary claims to authority would no longer be recognised; instead, all chiefs were to be appointed and controlled by the state via the administrative hierarchy. By then, the process of centralisation had theoretically eliminated all preexisting centres of local autonomy.
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2476:
2401:, however, Mobutu assumed the presidency, rather than remaining behind the scenes. From 1965, Mobutu dominated the political life of the country, restructuring the state on more than one occasion, and claiming the title of "Father of the Nation". He announced the renaming of the country as the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971.
2540:, did the regime agree to tone down its attacks on the Roman Catholic Church and return some of its control of the school system to the church. Meanwhile, in line with a December 1971 law, which allowed the state to dissolve "any church or sect that compromises or threatens to compromise public order", scores of unrecognised
2740:, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic–Parliament of Transition (HCR–PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and
2911:
or, as governmental terminology shifted, Commissariats. Among these individuals were internationally respected appointees such as
Djamboleka Lona Okitongono who was named Secretary of Finance, under Citizen Namwisi (Minister of Finance), and later became President of OGEDEP, the National Debt Management Office.
2447:, the state was henceforth defined as the emanation of the party. Thus, in October 1967, party and administrative responsibilities were merged into a single framework, thereby automatically extending the role of the party to all administrative organs at the central and provincial levels, as well as to the
2704:
came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his
2568:
Running parallel to the efforts of the state to control all autonomous sources of power, important administrative reforms were introduced in 1967 and 1973 to strengthen the hand of the central authorities in the provinces. The central objective of the 1967 reform was to abolish provincial governments
2466:
that consolidated his hold on the country. Every five years (seven years after 1978), the MPR elected a president who was simultaneously nominated as the only candidate for president of the republic; he was confirmed in office via a referendum. Under this system, Mobutu was reelected in 1977 and 1984
3197:
Quite aside from the merits or weaknesses of
Mobutism, the MPR drew much of its legitimacy from the model of the overarching mass parties that had come into existence in Africa in the 1960s, a model which had also been a source of inspiration for the MNC-Lumumba. It was this Lumumbist heritage which
2910:
In the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu's government relied on a selected pool of technocrats, often referred to as the "nomenklatura", from which the Head of State drew, and periodically rotated, competent individuals. They comprised the
Executive Council and led the full spectrum of Ministries, Departments
2435:
By 1967, Mobutu had consolidated his rule and proceeded to give the country a new constitution and a single party. The new constitution was submitted to popular referendum in June 1967 and approved by 98 per cent of those voting. It provided that executive powers be centralised in the president, who
2685:
to Zaire on 2 May 1980, on the centenary of
Catholic evangelization. During his tour, he greeted over a million people, making him the first pontiff to visit Africa as a "messenger of peace". He left Zaire four days later on 6 May shortly after 9 people were trampled to death trying to attend mass.
2600:
In reality, the conspicuous lack of popular enthusiasm for
Salongo led to widespread resistance and foot dragging (causing many local administrators to look the other way). Although failure to comply carried penalties of one month to six months in jail, by the late 1970s most Zairians shirked their
3074:
was introduced to replace the franc as the new national currency. 100 makuta (singular likuta) equaled one zaïre. The likuta was also divided into 100 sengi. However this unit was worth very little, so the smallest coin was for 10 sengi. The currency and the cities named above had actually already
2847:
The president served as the head of state of Zaïre whose role was to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their areas of responsibility. The ministers, as heads of their respective departments, were to execute the programs and decisions of the president. The president also was to have
3193:
Critics of the regime were quick to point out the shortcomings of
Mobutism as a legitimising formula, in particular its self-serving qualities and inherent vagueness; nonetheless, the MPR's ideological training centre, the Makanda Kabobi Institute, took seriously its assigned task of propagating
3189:
Mobutu used the concept of authenticity as a means of vindicating his own brand of leadership. As he himself stated, "in our
African tradition there are never two chiefs ... That is why we Congolese, in the desire to conform to the traditions of our continent, have resolved to group all the
3108:
The concept of authenticity was derived from the MPR's professed doctrine of "authentic
Zairian nationalism and condemnation of regionalism and tribalism". Mobutu defined it as being conscious of one's own personality and one's own values and of being at home in one's culture. In line with the
3482:
Countries of the World and Their
Leaders: The U.S. Department of State's Report on Status of the World's Nations, Combined with Its Series of Background Notes Portraying Contemporary Political and Economic Conditions, Governmental Policies and Personnel, Political Parties, Religion, History,
2584:
With the January 1973 reform, another major step was taken in the direction of further centralisation. The aim, in essence, was to operate a complete fusion of political and administrative hierarchies by making the head of each administrative unit the president of the local party committee.
2501:
Ostensibly, the aim of the merger, in the terms of the Manifesto of N'Sele, was to transform the role of trade unions from "being merely a force of confrontation" into "an organ of support for government policy", thus providing "a communication link between the working class and the state".
2547:
Mobutu was careful also to suppress all institutions that could mobilise ethnic loyalties. Avowedly opposed to ethnicity as a basis for political alignment, he outlawed such ethnic associations as the Association of Lulua Brothers (Association des Lulua Frères), which had been organised in
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2299:
against Mobutu. With rebel forces making gains westward, Mobutu fled the country, leaving Kabila's forces in charge. The country's name was restored to the Democratic Republic of the Congo the following year. Mobutu died less than four months later, on September 7, 1997, while in exile in
2835:
as the only legally permitted party in the country, though the Congo had effectively been a one-party state since the MPR's formation. Despite the constitution nominally allowing for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party that was allowed to nominate a candidate for the
3194:
through the land "the teachings of the Founder-President, which must be given and interpreted in the same fashion throughout the country". Members of the MPR Political Bureau, meanwhile, were entrusted with the responsibility of serving as "the repositories and guarantors of Mobutism".
210:
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In 1981, despite slow progress, Zaire launched an economic reform to revive its economy in order to keep up its rescheduled payment on the country's tremendous debt of $ 4.4 billion, which had recorded a small rate of economic growth in the last three quarters of 1980.
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the MPR tried to appropriate in its effort to mobilise the Zairian masses behind its founder-president. Intimately tied up with the doctrine of Mobutism was the vision of an all-encompassing single party reaching out to all sectors of the nation.
2731:
In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop
2580:
and sectors (the latter incorporating several chiefdoms). The unitary, centralised state system thus legislated into existence bore a striking resemblance to its colonial antecedent, except that from July 1972 provinces were called regions.
2536:, coupled with Mobutu's insistence on banning all Christian names and establishing JMPR sections in all seminaries, soon brought the Roman Catholic Church and the state into conflict. Not until 1975, and after considerable pressure from the
2786:. In turn, these Zairian Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu, triggering the
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continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on elephant projects". "Structural adjustment programmes" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure.
2601:
Salongo obligations. By resuscitating one of the most bitterly resented features of the colonial state, obligatory civic work contributed in no small way to the erosion of legitimacy suffered by the Mobutist state.
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in the final stage of Mobutu's government. His progress was fairly typical of the rotational pattern established by Mobutu, who retained the most sensitive ministerial portfolios (such as Defense) for himself.
2426:
in 1974. By 1976, however, this effort had begun to generate its own inner contradictions, thus paving the way for the resurrection of a Bula Matari ("the breaker of rocks") system of repression and brutality.
2592:
after the Lingala term for work), in the form of one afternoon a week of compulsory labor on agricultural and development projects. Officially described as a revolutionary attempt to return to the values of
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3296:) was established. Zaire formally adopted a multiparty system on 24 April 1990, when Mobutu delivered a speech proclaiming the end of the one-party system. The country adopted a three-party system
2728:
to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.
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dictates of authenticity, the name of the country was changed to the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971, and that of the armed forces to Zairian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises—FAZ).
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While the country began to stabilize after Mobutu took control, the economic situation began to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that in 1960. Starting in 1976 the
4394:
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207:
3132:("river", by Nzadi o Nzere, "the river that swallows all the other rivers", another name of the Congo river). General Mobutu became Mobutu Sésé Seko and forced all his citizens to adopt
2597:
and solidarity inherent in the traditional society, Salongo was intended to mobilise the population into the performance of collective work "with enthusiasm and without constraint".
4538:
4248:
4409:
3483:
Education, Press, Radio and TV, and Other Characteristics of Each Nation: Includes Central Intelligence Agency's List of Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments
2938:
2490:. It meant, to begin with, the incorporation of youth groups and worker organisations into the matrix of the MPR. In July 1967, the Political Bureau announced the creation of the
1842:
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4348:
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speakers in large cities. It helped Mobutu that his ethnic affiliation was blurred in the public mind. Nevertheless, as dissatisfaction arose, ethnic tensions surfaced again.
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506:
208:
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The trend toward co-optation of key social sectors continued in subsequent years. Women's associations were eventually brought under the control of the party, as was the
2837:
2514:
2443:(Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—MPR) on 17 April 1967, marking the emergence of "the nation politically organised". Rather than government institutions being the
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A third imperative was to expand the reach of the state in the social and political realms, a process that began in 1970 and culminated in the adoption of a
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2222:. Zaire was established following Mobutu's seizure of power in a military coup in 1965, after five years of political upheaval following independence from
1435:
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2778:-led government, had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the
2264:, Mobutu was forced to declare a new republic in 1990 to cope with demands for change. By the time of its downfall, Zaire was characterised by widespread
4860:
4588:
4497:
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The analogy with the colonial state becomes even more compelling when coupled with the introduction in 1973 of "obligatory civic work" (locally known as
1540:
2573:. The principle of centralisation was further extended to districts and territories, each headed by administrators appointed by the central government.
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4659:
4654:
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The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by
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2697:(Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social—UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.
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proper. The confusion arose from the fact that the government of the Zaire officially recognized and referred to the language simply as "Kikongo".
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2779:
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4719:
4623:
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4266:
3057:
1831:
1505:
763:
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During the 1980s, Zaire remained a one-party state. Although Mobutu maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the
2498:(Union Nationale des Travailleurs Zaïrois—UNTZA), which brought together into a single organisational framework three preexisting trade unions.
4727:
4679:
4603:
163:
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with the enactment of Law No. 90-002 of 5 July 1990, which amended its constitution accordingly, but retained the one-party system of the MPR
2885:. In May 1967, it was made public. Nationalism, revolution, and authenticity were identified as the major themes of what came to be known as "
4752:
4709:
4664:
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policy of the early 1970s, Zairians were obliged to adopt "authentic" names, Mobutu dropped Joseph-Désiré and officially changed his name to
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369:
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2744:
as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place.
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2576:
The only units of government that still retained a fair measure of autonomy—but not for long—were the so-called local collectivities, i.e.
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149:
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1376:
3813:
2513:, and in December 1971 Mobutu proceeded to emasculate the power of the churches. From then on, only three churches were recognised: the
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was to be head of state, head of government, commander in chief of the armed forces and the police, and in charge of foreign policy.
1620:
1428:
4797:
2125:
1533:
862:
4313:
2386:
2037:
809:
1960:
960:
2556:, and Liboke lya Bangala (literally, "a bundle of Bangala"), an association formed in the 1950s to represent the interests of
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1020:
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Translating the concept of "the nation politically organised" into reality implied a major expansion of state control of
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Zaire collapsed in the late 1990s, amid the destabilization of the eastern parts of the country in the aftermath of the
225:
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2840:. Mobutu was confirmed in office by an implausible margin of over 10,131,000 votes against only 157 who voted "no." At
2828:
2440:
2412:, or, more commonly, Mobutu Sésé Seko, roughly meaning "the all-conquering warrior, who goes from triumph to triumph".
2219:
1974:
1526:
916:
4204:
4122:
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4002:
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the power to appoint and dismiss the governors of the provinces and the judges of all courts, including those of the
1950:
953:
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held two weeks later, voters were presented with a single MPR list that was approved with over 99 per cent support.
157:
4811:
4365:
4257:
2907:". Thus, "neither right nor left" became one of the legitimising slogans of the regime, along with "authenticity".
2802:
2713:, where he was the first African head of state to be invited for a state meeting with newly elected U.S. President
2260:, was also launched under Mobutu's direction. Weakened by the termination of American support after the end of the
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2014:
1665:
887:
847:
822:
31:
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4279:
3814:""Zaire's Mobutu Visits America", by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, June 29, 1989"
3629:. Historical Dictionaries of Africa. Vol. 112 (3, illustrated ed.). Scarecrow Press. pp. li, 102.
1937:
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245:
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1702:
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This article is about the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1997. For the present-day country, see
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4306:
1995:
1240:
928:
770:
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4890:
4190:
The Real Economy of Zaire: The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth
2763:
1615:
1588:
1481:
1297:
1260:
988:
738:
4026:
3569:
Memoir, Descriptive and Explanatory, to Accompany the New Chart of the Ethiopic Or Southern Atlantic Ocean
3427:
1148:
143:
3557:
Narrative of an Expedition to Explore the River Zaire, Usually Called the Congo, in South Africa, in 1816
3261:
The term "Kikongo" in the Constitution was actually referring to the Kituba language – which is known as
1466:
1309:
1194:
529:
2947:. In 1988, the province of Kivu was split into three regions. They were renamed into provinces in 1997.
2494:(Jeunesse du Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—JMPR), following the launching a month earlier of the
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provided stabilizing loans to his regime. Much of this money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle.
2733:
1680:
1598:
1486:
1235:
1164:
2899:, described as a "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", meant "the repudiation of both
3938:
3066:
A 5 makuta coin from 1977, which portrays Mobutu Sese Seko, the president of Zaire during this time
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17:
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with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers began
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as the name used by the local population (i.e. derived from Portuguese usage) remained common.
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1707:
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1073:
1054:
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35:
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2393:) between President and Parliament led to a stalemate and threatened the country's stability.
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2877:, which was issued from the president's rural residence at N'sele, 60 km further up the
2522:
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2423:
2234:
2211:
1670:
1650:
1314:
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615:
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424:
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940:
2797:, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (
1603:
1491:
2782:(FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire, known as the
2552:
in 1953 in reaction to the growing political and economic influence in Kasai of the rival
8:
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2644:(renamed "Shaba" in 1972). The rebels were driven out with military assistance from the
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energies of the citizens of our country under the banner of a single national party."
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4200:
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3182:, names in 1972 and the abandonment of Western dress in favour of the wearing of the
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An Abstract of a Voyage to Congo River, Or the Zair and to Cabinde in the Year 1700
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The doctrinal foundation was disclosed shortly after its birth, in the form of the
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The bicameral parliament was replaced by a unicameral legislative body called the
2506:
succeeded in mobilising support for the regime beyond the most superficial level.
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was the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to
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59:
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3914:
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Three years after changing the country's name to Zaire, Mobutu promulgated a
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1985:
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702:
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260:
247:
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1898:
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325:
67:
3435:. Springfield, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 1986. p. 271.
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from 1965 to 1997. With a population of over 23 million, Zaire was the
3990:
3479:
Services, United States Dept of State Office of Media (15 July 1975).
4104:
3410:, article 5: "Sa devise est : Paix — Justice — Travail" Source:
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2904:
2577:
2256:, ridding the country of the influences from the colonial era of the
3970:"IMF and World Bank: Agents of Poverty or Partners of Development?"
3226:
3144:
3124:, was fundamentally authentic to pre-colonial African roots, while
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of government funds for personal use. In June 1989, Mobutu visited
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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2223:
2182:
2051:
1403:
1177:
390:
293:
2939:
Administrative divisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2895:
implied the achievement of economic and political independence.
3162:
2617:
2194:
3362:
3333:
4256:
3994:
Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
3626:
Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
3356:
2178:
2177:, it was, by area, the third-largest country in Africa after
751:
99:
4197:
The State–Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective
3128:
is in fact a Portuguese corruption of another African word,
3327:
3186:
were subsequently promoted as expressions of authenticity.
2798:
2767:
2292:
1287:
3835:
3833:
3286:
one-party state since 20 May 1967, the date on which the
3218:
3212:
3079:
2475:
2439:
But the most far-reaching change was the creation of the
775:
3937:
3845:
3830:
2569:
and replace them with state functionaries appointed by
2356:
gradually in English usage during the 18th century and
2747:
4165:
3353:
3324:
2774:), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of an
4214:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985,
4169:
3282:
one-party state on 23 December 1970, but had been a
3174:
In addition, the adoption of Zairian, as opposed to
4060:
IANA Report on Deletion of the .zr Top-Level Domain
3903:
3623:Kisangani, Emizet Francois; Bobb, Scott F. (2009).
3359:
3330:
2933:
Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2943:Zaire was divided into 8 regions with its capital
4192:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
3991:Emizet Francois Kisangani; Scott F. Bobb (2010).
3237:and other international sporting events like the
2929:Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2720:In May 1990, Mobutu agreed to the principle of a
4842:
3085:According to the 1982 report by the IMF's envoy
2815:Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2323:
115:
3112:This decision was curious, given that the name
3058:Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2348:('river that swallows all rivers'). The use of
4103:Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim, eds. (1994).
4031:. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 211.
4025:Young, Crawford; Turner, Thomas Edwin (1985).
3201:
4866:States and territories disestablished in 1997
4242:
4199:. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984,
4102:
3984:
3967:
3886:
3800:
3781:
3738:
3699:
3676:
3649:
3622:
3610:
3585:
2241:. The period is sometimes referred to as the
2143:
1534:
1429:
961:
870:
83:
4087:. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing.
4084:Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002
3291:
2762:and genocide had spilled over to Zaire (see
2313:
2284:
2249:
194:
176:
51:
4024:
3513:. New York: Oxford University Press. 1990.
2922:
2628:In 1977 and 1978, Katangan rebels based in
2492:Youth of the Popular Revolutionary Movement
2343:
2337:
600:2,345,409 km (905,567 sq mi)
4861:States and territories established in 1971
4249:
4235:
4066:. 20 June 2001. Retrieved on 11 June 2009.
3412:Journal Officiel de la République du Zaïre
3233:, which the nation's athletes used at the
2808:
2563:
2482:, the president of Zaire from 1965 to 1997
2150:
2136:
1541:
1527:
1436:
1422:
968:
954:
877:
863:
224:
4212:The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State
4028:The rise and decline of the Zairian state
3947:. Africa World Press, 1986. p. 226.
3136:names and many cities were also renamed.
2671:miners held as hostages by pro-Communist
2544:were dissolved and their leaders jailed.
2470:
2430:
2410:Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga
2197:. Zaire played a central role during the
884:
3944:The Crisis in Zaire: Myths and Realities
3478:
3465:Sandra W. Meditz and Tim Merrill (eds.)
3139:Some of the conversions are as follows:
3061:
2953:
2818:
2758:By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring
2608:
2474:
2695:Union for Democracy and Social Progress
14:
4843:
4080:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3882:
3880:
3851:
3839:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3734:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3408:Constitution de la République du Zaïre
2620:, visiting Mobutu in Zaire during The
2415:In retrospective justification of his
2283:and growing ethnic violence. In 1996,
2173:from 1971 to May 18, 1997. Located in
1377:Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila
4230:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3796:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3672:
3670:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3606:
3604:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3422:
3420:
3383:
2838:1 November 1970 presidential election
2659:, fought in May 1978, resulted in an
2332:, which in turn was derived from the
1736:
1522:
1417:
1332:
1206:
1161:
1139:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
949:
858:
27:Country in Central Africa (1971–1997)
3520:from the original on 2 February 2014
3293:Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution
3075:been renamed between 1966 and 1971.
1834:the Democratic Republic of the Congo
1333:
4064:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
3910:Congo: The Epic History of a People
3892:
3442:from the original on 13 April 2021.
2748:First Congo War and demise of Zaire
2604:
2517:(L'Église du Christ au Zaïre), the
2318:, was derived from the name of the
1760:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency
1207:
1162:
24:
4166:Further reading and external links
4109:(4th ed.). Washington, D.C.:
3857:
3787:
3744:
3705:
3682:
3655:
3591:
3574:
3456:Third Edition, First Printing 1979
3417:
2914:Djamboleka became Governor of the
2829:Popular Movement of the Revolution
2726:looting Kinshasa in September 1991
2441:Popular Movement of the Revolution
2220:Popular Movement of the Revolution
1443:
288:Recognised national languages
25:
4902:
4349:Transitional Government (2003–06)
2496:National Union of Zairian Workers
2191:most populous Francophone country
2187:11th-largest country in the world
1750:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
1548:
4881:1997 disestablishments in Africa
4258:Democratic Republic of the Congo
4172:
4136:
3349:
3320:
2827:The country was governed by the
2803:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2171:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2119:
1841:
975:
848:Democratic Republic of the Congo
827:
823:Democratic Republic of the Congo
802:
670:
669:
205:
156:
142:
32:Democratic Republic of the Congo
4052:
4018:
3961:
3931:
3806:
3643:
3616:
3555:(1746). James Hingston Tuckey,
3545:
3532:
3508:"Human Development Report 1990"
3372:
2663:in an aim of rescuing Zairian,
2397:again seized power. Unlike the
4285:Colonial governors (1885–1960)
4073:
3997:. Scarecrow Press. p. i.
3500:
3472:
3459:
3446:
3401:
3307:
3272:
3255:
2823:Presidential standard of Zaire
1144:Torture and killing of Lumumba
13:
1:
3968:Aikins Adusei (30 May 2009).
3559:(1818). "Congo River, called
3394:
3116:, which referred both to the
2738:Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba
4876:1971 establishments in Zaire
4366:M23 offensive (2022–present)
4339:Second Congo War (1998–2003)
4314:Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65)
4290:Congo Free State (1885–1908)
3567:by the natives" John Purdy,
3216:". It has since changed to "
2736:as its chairman, along with
2307:
1666:M23 offensive (2022–present)
1589:2009 Eastern Congo offensive
1261:Assassination of Habyarimana
7:
4481:Foreign policy under Mobutu
4210:Young, C., and Turner, T.,
3202:Standards and abbreviations
2862:
2385:, the division of power in
2097:Félix Tshisekedi presidency
1802:Child soldiers in the Congo
1320:Ascension of Laurent Kabila
1195:Non-aggression pact of 1979
10:
4907:
4856:Former countries in Africa
4324:State of Katanga (1960–63)
4155:: CS1 maint: postscript (
3265:by its speakers – not the
3241:. It has since changed to
3101:
3097:
3055:
3051:
2952:
2936:
2926:
2866:
2812:
2751:
2371:
2237:, and foreign assets were
1273:Great Lakes refugee crisis
29:
4770:
4718:
4650:
4641:
4584:
4575:
4451:
4442:
4385:
4376:
4334:First Congo War (1996–98)
4265:
4111:Federal Research Division
3887:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3801:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3782:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3739:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3700:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3677:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3650:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3611:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3586:Meditz & Merrill 1994
3496:– via Google Books.
3486:. Gale Research Company.
2734:Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya
2515:Church of Christ in Zaire
2376:
2285:
2243:Second Congolese Republic
1951:Intl. African Association
1745:
1737:
1599:2014 North Kivu offensive
1558:
1453:
1345:
1241:War in Uganda (1986–1994)
1236:Second Sudanese Civil War
1219:
1174:
1149:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
985:
895:
843:
781:
769:
757:
747:
737:
713:
698:
678:
663:
649:
645:
635:
625:
621:
614:
604:
594:
589:
585:
575:
562:
549:
539:
526:
522:
512:
502:
498:
486:
476:• 1977–1979 (first)
474:
470:
460:
456:
444:
440:
430:
399:
389:
340:
324:
286:
276:
232:
223:
189:
185:"Peace — Justice — Work"
172:
138:
133:
45:
4456:Administrative divisions
3939:Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja
3414:(N. 1 du 1 janvier 1983)
3385:[ʁepyblikdyzaiʁ]
3248:
2923:Administrative divisions
2648:, particularly from the
2632:launched two invasions,
2530:universities of Kinshasa
2087:Joseph Kabila presidency
1797:Western DR Congo clashes
1777:2011 coup d'etat attempt
553:Constitution promulgated
178:Paix — Justice — Travail
4361:M23 rebellion (2012–13)
4302:Belgian Congo (1908–60)
3917:, 2012. p. 374ff.
3429:The World Factbook 1986
2842:parliamentary elections
2809:Government and politics
2564:Centralisation of power
2528:Nationalisation of the
2352:seems to have replaced
2230:. Zaire had a strongly
1792:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion
1594:M23 rebellion (2012–13)
1584:2008 Nord-Kivu campaign
989:Force Publique mutinies
577:• Death of Mobutu
277:Official languages
116:
68:
4886:Military dictatorships
4319:Congo Crisis (1960–65)
4280:Colonization (1867–85)
4106:Zaire: a country study
4081:Abbott, Peter (2014).
3467:Zaire: A Country Study
3454:Zaire: A Country Study
3379:
3292:
3155:Élisabethville became
3067:
2958:
2824:
2625:
2483:
2471:Totalitarian expansion
2445:emanation of the state
2431:Constitutional changes
2344:
2338:
2324:
2314:
2274:economic mismanagement
2250:
2169:, was the name of the
1708:Kasindi church bombing
1482:October 2020 offensive
1074:Port Francqui incident
195:
177:
100:
84:
52:
36:Zaire (disambiguation)
34:. For other uses, see
4188:Macgaffey, J., 1991.
3452:Kaplan, Irving (ed.)
3120:and to the mediaeval
3065:
2957:
2927:Further information:
2822:
2813:Further information:
2795:Laurent-Désiré Kabila
2612:
2523:Roman Catholic Church
2478:
2457:student organisations
2417:1965 seizure of power
2391:former Belgian colony
2287:Laurent-Désiré Kabila
2212:military dictatorship
1787:2013 Kinshasa attacks
1671:Anti-MONUSCO protests
1288:Formation of the AFDL
606:• Water (%)
425:military dictatorship
3149:Stanleyville became
3143:Léopoldville became
3104:Authenticité (Zaire)
2780:Zairian armed forces
2395:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
2312:The country's name,
2248:A wider campaign of
1604:2017 CNPSC offensive
1118:Violettes Imperiales
4891:Totalitarian states
4823: /
4115:Library of Congress
3905:David van Reybrouck
3469:Fourth Edition 1993
3380:République du Zaïre
3167:Albertville became
2875:Manifesto of N'sele
2857:Legislative Council
2322:, sometimes called
1961:Intl. Congo Society
1703:August 2022 attacks
1362:Gbadolite Agreement
1315:Overthrow of Mobutu
1251:Burundian Civil War
541:• Established
507:Legislative Council
488:• 1997 (last)
257: /
202:"The Song of Zaire"
69:Repubilika ya Zaïre
53:République du Zaïre
4619:Telecommunications
4466:Court of Cassation
4430:Former place names
3161:Jadotville became
3068:
2959:
2825:
2722:multi-party system
2661:airborne operation
2626:
2519:Kimbanguist Church
2484:
2387:Congo-Léopoldville
2291:, the head of the
2204:The country was a
2101:2019–present
2038:Congo–Léopoldville
1782:Batwa–Luba clashes
1755:Katanga insurgency
1723:Kirindera massacre
1497:Nyamamba and Mbogi
1388:Effacer le tableau
1382:Kisangani massacre
1367:Sun City Agreement
1293:Massacres of Hutus
1133:Other major events
1014:Congo-Stanleyville
941:Léopoldville riots
934:1944 Kivu uprising
810:Léopoldville Congo
659:1983 estimate
326:Ethnic groups
85:Republíki ya Zaïre
4806:
4805:
4766:
4765:
4685:Human trafficking
4637:
4636:
4571:
4570:
4539:Political parties
4532:National Assembly
4476:Foreign relations
4438:
4437:
4220:978-0-299-10110-7
4151:cite encyclopedia
4094:978-1-78200-076-1
3924:978-0-06-220011-2
3907:(25 March 2014).
3854:, pp. 34–35.
3842:, pp. 33–35.
3049:
3048:
2764:History of Rwanda
2760:Rwandan Civil War
2715:George H. W. Bush
2679:Pope John Paul II
2657:Battle of Kolwezi
2297:popular rebellion
2167:Republic of Zaire
2165:, officially the
2160:
2159:
2105:
2104:
2004:
2003:
1927:
1926:
1909:Kingdom of Chokwe
1814:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1732:
1731:
1676:Kishishe massacre
1574:Makobola massacre
1518:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1467:North Night Final
1409:ICC investigation
1328:
1327:
1256:Rwandan Civil War
1246:1991 Zaire unrest
1202:
1201:
1188:Battle of Kolwezi
1157:
1156:
993:Secession crisis
853:
852:
839:
838:
835:
834:
815:
814:
566:Mobutu overthrown
446:• 1965–1997
216:
117:Ditunga dia Zaïre
47:Republic of Zaire
16:(Redirected from
4898:
4871:One-party states
4838:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4828:
4827:4.400°S 15.400°E
4824:
4821:
4820:
4819:
4816:
4786:
4779:
4648:
4647:
4609:Franc (currency)
4582:
4581:
4449:
4448:
4383:
4382:
4251:
4244:
4237:
4228:
4227:
4182:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4160:
4154:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4098:
4067:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4022:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4011:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3965:
3959:
3958:
3935:
3929:
3928:
3901:
3890:
3884:
3855:
3849:
3843:
3837:
3828:
3827:
3826:on 21 July 2006.
3825:
3819:. Archived from
3818:
3810:
3804:
3798:
3785:
3779:
3742:
3736:
3703:
3697:
3680:
3674:
3653:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3620:
3614:
3608:
3589:
3583:
3572:
3549:
3543:
3538:Forbath, Peter.
3536:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3519:
3512:
3504:
3498:
3497:
3476:
3470:
3463:
3457:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3441:
3434:
3424:
3415:
3405:
3388:
3387:
3376:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3348:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3319:
3311:
3305:
3295:
3276:
3270:
3259:
3239:All-Africa Games
3208:top-level domain
3087:Erwin Blumenthal
2988:Kasaï-Occidental
2950:
2949:
2770:militia forces (
2711:Washington, D.C.
2642:Katanga Province
2624:Conflict in 1977
2605:Growing conflict
2480:Mobutu Sese Seko
2464:new constitution
2424:new constitution
2404:When, under the
2347:
2341:
2327:
2317:
2290:
2289:
2281:Rwandan genocide
2255:
2216:Mobutu Sese Seko
2152:
2145:
2138:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2077:Second Congo War
2010:
2009:
1971:Congo Free State
1933:
1932:
1889:Kingdom of Lunda
1869:Kingdom of Kongo
1851:
1850:
1845:
1835:
1817:
1816:
1765:Operation Shujaa
1740:
1734:
1733:
1718:Mukondi massacre
1713:Makugwe massacre
1698:Otomabere attack
1579:Makombo massacre
1553:
1543:
1536:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1448:
1438:
1431:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1357:Lusaka Ceasefire
1351:Operation Kitona
1340:
1338:
1337:Second Congo War
1330:
1329:
1268:Rwandan genocide
1214:
1212:
1204:
1203:
1169:
1167:
1159:
1158:
1038:Battle of Kabalo
980:
970:
963:
956:
947:
946:
912:Congo Free State
890:
879:
872:
865:
856:
855:
831:
830:
819:
818:
806:
805:
799:
798:
783:
782:
724:
723:
694:
693:
685:
673:
672:
656:
581:7 September 1997
535:24 November 1965
451:Mobutu Sese Seko
289:
272:
271:
269:
268:
267:
262:
261:4.317°S 15.317°E
258:
255:
254:
253:
250:
235:and largest city
228:
218:
217:
200:
183:
180:
160:
146:
128:
127:
119:
112:
111:
103:
101:Jamhuri ya Zaïre
96:
95:
87:
80:
79:
71:
64:
63:
55:
43:
42:
21:
4906:
4905:
4901:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4896:
4895:
4841:
4840:
4831:
4829:
4825:
4822:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4809:
4807:
4802:
4789:
4782:
4775:
4762:
4758:Public holidays
4714:
4633:
4567:
4505:Law enforcement
4434:
4372:
4329:Zaire (1965–97)
4261:
4255:
4225:
4178:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4163:
4148:
4147:
4137:
4125:
4095:
4076:
4071:
4070:
4057:
4053:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4023:
4019:
4009:
4007:
4005:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3973:
3966:
3962:
3955:
3936:
3932:
3925:
3902:
3893:
3885:
3858:
3850:
3846:
3838:
3831:
3823:
3816:
3812:
3811:
3807:
3799:
3788:
3780:
3745:
3737:
3706:
3698:
3683:
3675:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3637:
3621:
3617:
3609:
3592:
3584:
3575:
3571:, 1822, p. 112.
3550:
3546:
3540:The River Congo
3537:
3533:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3510:
3506:
3505:
3501:
3494:
3477:
3473:
3464:
3460:
3451:
3447:
3439:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3418:
3406:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3377:
3373:
3352:
3343:
3342:
3323:
3314:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3278:Zaire became a
3277:
3273:
3263:Kikongo ya leta
3260:
3256:
3251:
3204:
3106:
3100:
3060:
3054:
2941:
2935:
2925:
2871:
2865:
2833:one-party state
2817:
2811:
2788:First Congo War
2756:
2754:First Congo War
2750:
2616:, president of
2607:
2566:
2542:religious sects
2473:
2453:youth movements
2433:
2379:
2374:
2310:
2295:militia, led a
2156:
2120:
2118:
2091:2001–2019
2081:1998–2003
2071:1996–1997
2067:First Congo War
2061:1971–1997
2042:1960–1971
2032:1960–1965
2021:post–1960
2000:1940–1945
1990:1908–1960
1980:1885–1908
1965:1879–1885
1955:1876–1879
1944:1876–1960
1923:1856–1891
1913:1800–1891
1903:1625–1884
1893:1600–1887
1883:1585–1889
1879:Kingdom of Luba
1873:1390–1914
1833:
1826:
1815:
1806:
1741:
1738:
1728:
1727:
1626:Kipupu massacre
1569:Kasika massacre
1564:Lemera massacre
1554:
1549:
1547:
1510:
1487:Boga and Tchabi
1449:
1444:
1442:
1413:
1399:Pretoria Accord
1394:Bogoro massacre
1341:
1336:
1334:
1324:
1277:
1231:Shaba Invasions
1215:
1211:First Congo War
1210:
1208:
1198:
1170:
1166:Shaba Invasions
1165:
1163:
1153:
1091:Simba rebellion
1086:Kwilu rebellion
1081:Kanyarwanda War
1021:UN intervention
981:
976:
974:
945:
891:
885:
883:
828:
803:
721:
717:
691:
690:
689:
683:
666:
654:
638:
628:
607:
597:
578:
568:
555:
545:27 October 1971
542:
532:
493:Likulia Bolongo
489:
477:
447:
385:
344:
320:
302:Kikongo ya leta
287:
265:
263:
259:
256:
251:
248:
246:
244:
243:
242:
236:
219:
206:
203:
201:
184:
181:
168:
167:
166:
161:
153:
152:
147:
129:
121:
114:
113:
105:
98:
97:
89:
82:
81:
73:
66:
65:
57:
50:
48:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4904:
4894:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4832:-4.400; 15.400
4804:
4803:
4801:
4800:
4795:
4788:
4787:
4780:
4772:
4771:
4768:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4724:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4655:Child marriage
4651:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4585:
4579:
4573:
4572:
4569:
4568:
4566:
4565:
4564:
4563:
4556:Prime Minister
4553:
4552:
4551:
4541:
4536:
4535:
4534:
4529:
4519:
4518:
4517:
4515:Chief of Staff
4507:
4502:
4501:
4500:
4490:
4485:
4484:
4483:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4452:
4446:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4386:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4371:
4370:
4369:
4368:
4363:
4353:
4352:
4351:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4310:
4309:
4299:
4298:
4297:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4271:
4269:
4263:
4262:
4260: articles
4254:
4253:
4246:
4239:
4231:
4224:
4223:
4208:
4195:Callaghy, T.,
4193:
4185:
4184:
4183:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4123:
4100:
4093:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4069:
4068:
4051:
4037:
4017:
4003:
3983:
3972:. Modern Ghana
3960:
3953:
3930:
3923:
3891:
3856:
3844:
3829:
3805:
3786:
3743:
3704:
3681:
3654:
3642:
3635:
3615:
3590:
3573:
3551:James Barbot,
3544:
3542:(1977), p. 19.
3531:
3499:
3492:
3471:
3458:
3445:
3416:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3371:
3306:
3271:
3267:Kongo language
3253:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3203:
3200:
3172:
3171:
3165:
3159:
3153:
3147:
3102:Main article:
3099:
3096:
3056:Main article:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3039:
3038:
3031:
3030:
3023:
3022:
3015:
3014:
3007:
3006:
2999:
2998:
2996:Kasaï–Oriental
2991:
2990:
2983:
2982:
2975:
2974:
2967:
2966:
2960:
2924:
2921:
2867:Main article:
2864:
2861:
2810:
2807:
2752:Main article:
2749:
2746:
2742:Kengo wa Dondo
2606:
2603:
2565:
2562:
2472:
2469:
2432:
2429:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2309:
2306:
2175:Central Africa
2158:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2147:
2140:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2115:
2114:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2059:
2044:
2043:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2006:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1862:pre–1876
1859:
1847:
1846:
1838:
1837:
1828:
1827:
1820:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1772:Dongo conflict
1769:
1768:
1767:
1757:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1730:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1693:Masambo attack
1690:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1546:
1545:
1538:
1531:
1523:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1446:Ituri conflict
1441:
1440:
1433:
1426:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1180:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1155:
1154:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1069:Kindu atrocity
1066:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1010:
1009:
999:
991:
986:
983:
982:
973:
972:
965:
958:
950:
944:
943:
938:
937:
936:
931:
921:
920:
919:
909:
903:
902:
896:
893:
892:
882:
881:
874:
867:
859:
851:
850:
845:
841:
840:
837:
836:
833:
832:
825:
816:
813:
812:
807:
795:
794:
789:
779:
778:
773:
767:
766:
761:
755:
754:
749:
745:
744:
741:
735:
734:
715:
711:
710:
700:
696:
695:
686:
684:(1990 formula)
676:
675:
667:
664:
661:
660:
657:
647:
646:
643:
642:
639:
636:
633:
632:
629:
626:
623:
622:
619:
618:
612:
611:
608:
605:
602:
601:
598:
595:
592:
591:
587:
586:
583:
582:
579:
576:
573:
572:
569:
563:
560:
559:
558:15 August 1974
556:
550:
547:
546:
543:
540:
537:
536:
533:
527:
524:
523:
520:
519:
514:
513:Historical era
510:
509:
504:
500:
499:
496:
495:
490:
487:
484:
483:
481:Mpinga Kasenda
478:
475:
472:
471:
468:
467:
464:
462:Prime Minister
458:
457:
454:
453:
448:
445:
442:
441:
438:
437:
434:
428:
427:
403:
397:
396:
393:
387:
386:
384:
383:
372:
366:
360:
354:
352:Roman Catholic
347:
345:
342:
338:
337:
328:
322:
321:
292:
290:
284:
283:
278:
274:
273:
266:-4.317; 15.317
237:
234:
230:
229:
221:
220:
204:
187:
186:
170:
169:
162:
155:
154:
148:
141:
140:
139:
136:
135:
131:
130:
49:
46:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4903:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4846:
4839:
4836:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4774:
4773:
4769:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4721:
4717:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4705:Social issues
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4652:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4640:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4574:
4562:
4559:
4558:
4557:
4554:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4523:
4520:
4516:
4513:
4512:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4499:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4400:Deforestation
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4358:
4357:
4356:Kivu conflict
4354:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4303:
4300:
4296:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4275:Early history
4273:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4259:
4252:
4247:
4245:
4240:
4238:
4233:
4232:
4229:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4205:0-231-05720-2
4202:
4198:
4194:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4170:
4158:
4152:
4144:
4143:public domain
4134:
4130:
4126:
4124:0-8444-0795-X
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4107:
4101:
4096:
4090:
4086:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4065:
4061:
4055:
4040:
4038:9780299101107
4034:
4030:
4029:
4021:
4006:
4004:9780810863255
4000:
3996:
3995:
3987:
3971:
3964:
3956:
3954:0-86543-023-3
3950:
3946:
3945:
3940:
3934:
3926:
3920:
3916:
3915:HarperCollins
3912:
3911:
3906:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3889:, p. 50.
3888:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3861:
3853:
3852:Abbott (2014)
3848:
3841:
3840:Abbott (2014)
3836:
3834:
3822:
3815:
3809:
3803:, p. 53.
3802:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3784:, p. 52.
3783:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3748:
3741:, p. 51.
3740:
3735:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3702:, p. 49.
3701:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3688:
3686:
3679:, p. 48.
3678:
3673:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3652:, p. 45.
3651:
3646:
3638:
3636:9780810863255
3632:
3628:
3627:
3619:
3613:, p. 44.
3612:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3588:, p. 46.
3587:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3548:
3541:
3535:
3516:
3509:
3503:
3495:
3493:9780810310469
3489:
3485:
3484:
3475:
3468:
3462:
3455:
3449:
3438:
3431:
3430:
3423:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3404:
3400:
3386:
3381:
3375:
3367:
3346:
3338:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3275:
3268:
3264:
3258:
3254:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3235:Olympic Games
3232:
3228:
3223:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3170:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3095:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3081:
3076:
3073:
3064:
3059:
3045:
3041:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3017:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3008:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2997:
2993:
2992:
2989:
2985:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2940:
2934:
2930:
2920:
2917:
2916:Bank of Zaire
2912:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2870:
2860:
2858:
2853:
2851:
2850:Supreme Court
2845:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2830:
2821:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2602:
2598:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2574:
2572:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2505:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2488:civil society
2481:
2477:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
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2298:
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2282:
2277:
2275:
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2267:
2263:
2259:
2258:Belgian Congo
2254:
2253:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2229:
2226:known as the
2225:
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2207:
2202:
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2022:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2007:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1987:
1986:Belgian Congo
1984:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1962:
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1958:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1948:
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1856:Early history
1853:
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1681:1st Kitshanga
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1661:Kagogo ambush
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
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1610:
1609:Uvira clashes
1607:
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1597:
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1561:
1557:
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1551:Kivu conflict
1544:
1539:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1525:
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1521:
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1279:
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1234:
1232:
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1221:
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1179:
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1050:
1046:
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1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1033:Niemba ambush
1031:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1019:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1000:
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939:
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930:
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924:Belgian Congo
922:
918:
915:
914:
913:
910:
908:
905:
904:
901:
898:
897:
894:
889:
886:Conflicts in
880:
875:
873:
868:
866:
861:
860:
857:
849:
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844:Today part of
842:
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800:
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780:
777:
774:
772:
768:
765:
762:
760:
759:ISO 3166 code
756:
753:
750:
746:
742:
740:
736:
732:
728:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
701:
697:
687:
681:
677:
674:$ 4.5 billion
668:
662:
658:
652:
648:
644:
640:
634:
630:
624:
620:
617:
613:
609:
603:
599:
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588:
584:
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570:
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561:
557:
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548:
544:
538:
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521:
518:
515:
511:
508:
505:
501:
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494:
491:
485:
482:
479:
473:
469:
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463:
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455:
452:
449:
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439:
435:
433:
429:
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423:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
402:
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394:
392:
388:
381:
377:
373:
371:
367:
365:
361:
359:
355:
353:
349:
348:
346:
339:
336:
335:section below
334:
333:Ethnic groups
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
285:
282:
279:
275:
270:
241:
238:
231:
227:
222:
199:
198:
192:
188:
179:
175:
171:
165:
159:
151:
145:
137:
132:
125:
118:
109:
102:
93:
86:
77:
70:
61:
54:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4808:
4695:Prostitution
4670:Demographics
4594:Central Bank
4493:Human rights
4461:Constitution
4395:Conservation
4328:
4307:World War II
4211:
4196:
4189:
4180:Zaïre portal
4105:
4083:
4054:
4042:. Retrieved
4027:
4020:
4008:. Retrieved
3993:
3986:
3974:. Retrieved
3963:
3943:
3933:
3908:
3847:
3821:the original
3808:
3645:
3625:
3618:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3547:
3539:
3534:
3522:. Retrieved
3502:
3481:
3474:
3466:
3461:
3453:
3448:
3428:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3374:
3309:
3301:
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3283:
3279:
3274:
3262:
3257:
3242:
3230:
3224:
3217:
3211:
3205:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3173:
3138:
3129:
3125:
3122:Kongo Empire
3113:
3111:
3107:
3084:
3077:
3069:
2942:
2913:
2909:
2891:
2872:
2854:
2852:of Justice.
2846:
2826:
2792:
2784:Banyamulenge
2757:
2730:
2719:
2707:embezzlement
2699:
2692:
2688:
2677:
2675:guerrillas.
2654:
2646:Western Bloc
2627:
2599:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2575:
2567:
2546:
2527:
2508:
2500:
2485:
2461:
2449:trade unions
2438:
2434:
2421:
2414:
2409:
2406:authenticité
2403:
2380:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2311:
2278:
2252:Authenticité
2247:
2242:
2239:nationalized
2235:constitution
2228:Congo Crisis
2209:totalitarian
2203:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2054: /
2047:
2028:Congo Crisis
2020:
2015:Independence
2013:
1996:World War II
1943:
1938:Colonization
1936:
1919:Yeke Kingdom
1899:Kuba Kingdom
1861:
1854:
1386:
1349:
1298:
1280:
1223:
1132:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1110:
1103:
1097:Dragon Rouge
1096:
1062:
1055:Camp Massart
1048:
1026:
978:Congo Crisis
907:Colonization
899:
792:Succeeded by
791:
786:
771:Internet TLD
748:Calling code
665:• Total
637:• 1997
627:• 1971
596:• Total
422:totalitarian
415:presidential
374:10% Others (
330:
313:
305:
297:
190:
182:
174:Motto:
173:
40:
4830: /
4589:Agriculture
4074:Works cited
3118:river Congo
2893:Nationalism
2879:Congo River
2772:Interahamwe
2766:). Rwandan
2650:Safari Club
2640:, into the
2595:communalism
2554:Luba people
2504:co-optation
2320:Congo River
1832:History of
1492:Plaine Savo
1372:Six-Day War
1299:Thunderbolt
1111:White Giant
1104:Dragon Noir
1002:South Kasai
929:during WWII
787:Preceded by
571:18 May 1997
530:Coup d'état
503:Legislature
364:Kimbanguism
264: /
197:La Zaïroise
4845:Categories
4660:Corruption
4522:Parliament
4488:Government
4405:Ecoregions
4295:Atrocities
3395:References
3157:Lubumbashi
3091:World Bank
3044:South Kivu
3028:North Kivu
2937:See also:
2901:capitalism
2897:Revolution
2683:papal trip
2521:, and the
2399:first time
2383:as in 1960
2330:Portuguese
2270:corruption
2232:centralist
2185:, and the
2126:DRC Portal
2110:See also:
1975:Atrocities
1310:Kinsangani
1305:Lubumbashi
1224:Background
1043:Jadotville
917:Atrocities
900:Background
641:46,498,539
631:18,400,000
616:Population
401:Government
391:Demonym(s)
358:Protestant
124:Luba-Lulua
4690:Languages
4675:Education
4629:Transport
4599:Companies
4544:President
4471:Elections
4420:Volcanoes
4410:Mountains
4378:Geography
3180:Christian
3151:Kisangani
3036:Orientale
2972:Bas-Congo
2905:communism
2578:chiefdoms
2534:Kisangani
2381:In 1965,
2308:Etymology
2214:, run by
2206:one-party
1063:Grandslam
1027:Rum Punch
739:Drives on
714:Time zone
655:(nominal)
432:President
412:one-party
341:Religion
134:1971–1997
4793:Category
4743:Football
4700:Religion
4510:Military
4444:Politics
4425:Wildlife
4133:30666705
4010:29 April
3976:30 March
3941:(1986).
3515:Archived
3437:Archived
3378:French:
3302:de facto
3284:de facto
3227:IOC code
3225:Zaire's
3206:Zaire's
3145:Kinshasa
3012:Kinshasa
2980:Équateur
2964:Bandundu
2945:Kinshasa
2887:Mobutism
2883:Kinshasa
2869:Mobutism
2863:Mobutism
2705:massive
2702:Cold War
2673:Katangan
2638:Shaba II
2614:Idi Amin
2571:Kinshasa
2266:cronyism
2262:Cold War
2218:and his
2199:Cold War
1823:a series
1821:Part of
1631:Kangbayi
1502:Response
1183:Shaba II
1007:Invasion
888:DR Congo
722:+1 to +2
699:Currency
517:Cold War
420:under a
418:republic
409:Mobutist
318:Tshiluba
240:Kinshasa
18:Zairians
4818:15°24′E
4777:Outline
4733:Cuisine
4720:Culture
4643:Society
4624:Tourism
4577:Economy
4267:History
4044:11 July
3524:23 July
3298:de jure
3280:de jure
3184:abacost
3176:Western
3169:Kalemie
3134:African
3098:Culture
3052:Economy
3020:Maniema
2700:As the
2681:made a
2665:Belgian
2634:Shaba I
2622:Shaba I
2590:Salongo
2558:Lingala
2538:Vatican
2372:History
2334:Kikongo
2302:Morocco
2224:Belgium
2183:Algeria
2052:Shaba I
1656:Maimoya
1651:Bulongo
1621:Virunga
1506:UN 1484
1472:Marabho
1462:Artemis
1404:MONUSCO
1178:Shaba I
997:Katanga
564:•
551:•
528:•
406:Unitary
395:Zairian
310:Swahili
294:Lingala
252:15°19′E
233:Capital
191:Anthem:
108:Swahili
92:Lingala
4815:4°24′S
4798:Portal
4728:Cinema
4680:Health
4614:Mining
4604:Energy
4527:Senate
4415:Rivers
4390:Cities
4218:
4203:
4131:
4121:
4091:
4035:
4001:
3951:
3921:
3633:
3490:
3163:Likasi
2669:French
2630:Angola
2618:Uganda
2455:, and
2377:Mobutu
2195:Africa
1825:on the
1646:Mwenda
1641:Tingwe
1636:Lisasa
1477:Ndjala
1457:Bogoro
1049:UNOKAT
682:
653:
466:
436:
376:Baluba
343:(1986)
314:·
312:
306:·
304:
298:·
296:
281:French
249:4°19′S
193:
164:Emblem
120:
104:
88:
76:Kituba
72:
60:French
56:
4851:Zaire
4784:Index
4753:Music
4748:Media
4710:Women
4665:Crime
4344:2000s
3824:(PDF)
3817:(PDF)
3565:Zaire
3561:Zahir
3518:(PDF)
3511:(PDF)
3440:(PDF)
3433:(PDF)
3249:Notes
3210:was "
3130:Nzadi
3126:Zaire
3114:Congo
3072:zaïre
3004:Shaba
2881:from
2831:as a
2550:Kasai
2511:press
2366:Zaire
2362:Zahir
2358:Congo
2354:Zaire
2350:Congo
2345:nzadi
2339:nzere
2336:word
2325:Zaire
2315:Zaïre
2179:Sudan
2163:Zaire
2112:Years
2048:Zaire
1739:Other
1616:Oicha
1125:South
743:right
703:Zaïre
688:0.294
380:Bantu
370:Islam
316:
308:
300:
4738:Flag
4561:List
4549:List
4498:LGBT
4216:ISBN
4201:ISBN
4157:link
4129:OCLC
4119:ISBN
4089:ISBN
4046:2020
4033:ISBN
4012:2016
3999:ISBN
3978:2015
3949:ISBN
3919:ISBN
3631:ISBN
3526:2021
3488:ISBN
3229:was
3070:The
3042:11.
3034:10.
2931:and
2903:and
2799:AFDL
2768:Hutu
2667:and
2655:The
2636:and
2532:and
2293:AFDL
2272:and
2181:and
752:+243
729:and
610:3.32
590:Area
368:10%
362:10%
356:20%
350:50%
331:See
150:Flag
4062:".
3563:or
3363:ɪər
3334:ɪər
3288:MPR
3243:COD
3231:ZAI
3222:".
3219:.cd
3213:.zr
3178:or
3080:IMF
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3018:8.
3010:7.
3002:6.
2994:5.
2986:4.
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2962:1.
2889:".
2776:RPF
2389:(a
2364:or
2342:or
2328:in
2193:in
1281:War
776:.zr
731:CAT
727:WAT
719:UTC
707:ZRN
692:low
680:HDI
651:GDP
4847::
4153:}}
4149:{{
4135:.
4127:.
4117:.
4113:,
3913:.
3894:^
3859:^
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3707:^
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3357:ɑː
3347::
3345:US
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3328:aɪ
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3316:UK
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2805:.
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2652:.
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2459:.
2451:,
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