Ming dynasty - Knowledge

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expensive, sophisticated tutoring of the sort that wealthy gentry families specialized in providing their talented sons. In practice, 90 percent of the population was ineligible due to lack of education, but the upper 10 percent had equal chances for moving to the top. To be successful young men had to have extensive, expensive training in classical Chinese, the use of Mandarin in spoken conversation, calligraphy, and had to master the intricate poetic requirements of the eight-legged essay. Not only did the traditional gentry dominated the system, they also learned that conservatism and resistance to new ideas was the path to success. For centuries critics had pointed out these problems, but the examination system only became more abstract and less relevant to the needs of China. The consensus of scholars is that the eight-legged essay can be blamed as a major cause of "China's cultural stagnation and economic backwardness." However Benjamin Ellman argues there were some positive features, since the essay form was capable of fostering "abstract thinking, persuasiveness, and prosodic form" and that its elaborate structure discouraged a wandering, unfocused narrative".

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Surveillance. Starting in the 1420s, eunuchs began taking over these ladies' positions until only the Bureau of Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained. Hongwu had his eunuchs organized into the Directorate of Palace Attendants, but as eunuch power at court increased, so did their administrative offices, with eventual twelve directorates, four offices, and eight bureaus. The dynasty had a vast imperial household, staffed with thousands of eunuchs, who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants. The eunuchs were divided into different directorates in charge of staff surveillance, ceremonial rites, food, utensils, documents, stables, seals, apparel, and so on. The offices were in charge of providing fuel, music, paper, and baths. The bureaus were in charge of weapons, silverwork, laundering, headgear, bronze work, textile manufacture, wineries, and gardens. At times, the most influential eunuch in the Directorate of Ceremonial acted as a

2787: 5034: 3202:(1572–82) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances; officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. Over time Wanli grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials' sight. Scholar-officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor. There were several military campaigns, which included the 5015: 5006: 4997: 4988: 3315: 4163:

merit-based) and Confucian values that dictated those who chose the profession of violence (wu) over the cultured pursuits of knowledge (wen). Although seen as less prestigious, military officers were not excluded from taking civil service examinations, and after 1478 the military even held their own examinations to test military skills. In addition to taking over the established bureaucratic structure from the Yuan period, the Ming emperors established the new post of the travelling military inspector. In the early half of the dynasty, men of noble lineage dominated the higher ranks of military office; this trend was reversed during the latter half of the dynasty as men from more humble origins eventually displaced them.

4047: 4434:. They drew upon the techniques, styles, and complexity in painting achieved by their Song and Yuan predecessors, but added techniques and styles. Well-known Ming artists could make a living simply by painting due to the high prices they demanded for their artworks and the great demand by the highly cultured community to collect precious works of art. The artist Qiu Ying was once paid 2.8 kg (100 oz) of silver to paint a long handscroll for the eightieth birthday celebration of the mother of a wealthy patron. Renowned artists often gathered an entourage of followers, some who were amateurs who painted while pursuing an official career and others who were full-time painters. 3227: 1151: 3983: 2987: 4059:

extreme cases, officials would be dismissed or punished. Only capital officials of grade 4 and above were exempt from the scrutiny of recorded evaluation, although they were expected to confess any of their faults. There were over 4,000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years. The Chief Instructor on the prefectural level was classified as equal to a second-grade county graduate. The Supervisorate of Imperial Instruction oversaw the education of the heir apparent to the throne; this office was headed by a Grand Supervisor of Instruction, who was ranked as first class of grade three.

4101: 4953: 5674: 2922: 95: 4392: 3999:(581–618). Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials (although it was frowned upon for merchants to join); in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the landholding class. However, the government did exact provincial quotas while drafting officials. This was an effort to curb monopolization of power by landholding gentry who came from the most prosperous regions, where education was the most advanced. The expansion of the 4031:", a departure from basing essays off progressing literary trends. The exams increased in difficulty as the student progressed from the local level, and appropriate titles were accordingly awarded successful applicants. Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades, each grade divided into two degrees, with ranging salaries (nominally paid in piculs of rice) according to their rank. While provincial graduates who were appointed to office were immediately assigned to low-ranking posts like the county graduates, those who passed the palace examination were awarded a 2503: 4941:, re-established in 1604. These conservatives wanted a revival of orthodox Confucian ethics. Conservatives such as Gu Xiancheng (1550–1612) argued against Wang's idea of innate moral knowledge, stating that this was simply a legitimization for unscrupulous behavior such as greedy pursuits and personal gain. These two strands of Confucian thought, hardened by Chinese scholars' notions of obligation towards their mentors, developed into pervasive factionalism among the ministers of state, who used any opportunity to impeach members of the other faction from court. 687: 4092:

These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies. Yet they should not be confused with lowly lictors, runners, and bearers; lesser functionaries were given periodic merit evaluations like officials and after nine years of service might be accepted into a low civil service rank. The one great advantage of the lesser functionaries over officials was that officials were periodically rotated and assigned to different regional posts and had to rely on the good service and cooperation of the local lesser functionaries.

4372: 110: 3814:". Hence, the Censorate was reinstalled and first staffed with investigating censors, later with censors-in-chief. By 1453, the grand coordinators were granted the title vice censor-in-chief or assistant censor-in-chief and were allowed direct access to the emperor. As in prior dynasties, the provincial administrations were monitored by a travelling inspector from the Censorate. Censors had the power to impeach officials on an irregular basis, unlike the senior officials who were to do so only in triennial evaluations of junior officials. 5510: 5159: 4072: 4892: 3084: 3950: 2676: 79: 4008: 4809: 4191: 3827: 5189: 4554: 5709:(r. 1464–87) was roughly 75 million, despite mid-Ming census figures hovering around 62 million. While prefectures across the empire in the mid-Ming period were reporting either a drop in or stagnant population size, local gazetteers reported massive amounts of incoming vagrant workers with not enough good cultivated land for them to till, so that many would become drifters, conmen, or wood-cutters that contributed to deforestation. The 5344: 3273:. He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire, and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for building the previous emperor's tombs. His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belittling his political opponents. The instability at court came right as natural calamity, pestilence, rebellion, and foreign invasion came to a peak. The 4209: 3437: 3135:(1398–1457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Holding the Zhengtong Emperor in captivity was a useless bargaining chip for the Oirats as long as another sat on his throne, so they released him back into Ming China. The former emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457 known as the "Wresting the Gate Incident". The former emperor retook the throne under the new era name 2903: 4337: 3384:. Famine, alongside tax increases, widespread military desertions, a declining relief system, and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood-control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility. The central government, starved of resources, could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Making matters worse, a widespread epidemic, the 3296: 2587:

or reject it. Hongwu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause. The Ming used the tribute they received from former Yuan vassals as proof that the Ming had taken over the Yuan's legitimacy. Tribute missions were regularly celebrated with music and dance in the Ming court.

3662: 4652: 5413: 3183: 4352:(1568–1610) used travel literature to express his desires for individualism as well as autonomy from and frustration with Confucian court politics. Yuan desired to free himself from the ethical compromises that were inseparable from the career of a scholar-official. This anti-official sentiment in Yuan's travel literature and poetry was actually following in the tradition of the Song dynasty poet and official 471: 3426: 5334:(1548–1620) in Europe. In addition to publishing his works on music, he was able to publish his findings on the calendar in 1597. A year earlier, the memorial of Xing Yunlu suggesting a calendar improvement was rejected by the Supervisor of the Astronomical Bureau due to the law banning private practice of astronomy; Xing would later serve with Xu Guangqi in reforming the calendar (Chinese: 5639: 3752: 3242:

participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials. Yongle put 75 eunuchs in charge of foreign policy; they traveled frequently to vassal states including Annam, Mongolia, the Ryukyu Islands, and Tibet and less frequently to farther-flung places like Japan and Nepal. In the later 15th century, however, eunuch envoys generally only traveled to Korea.

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Chinese thought and spurred new interest in Taoism and Buddhism. Furthermore, people began to question the validity of the social hierarchy and the idea that the scholar should be above the farmer. Wang Yangming's disciple and salt-mine worker Wang Gen gave lectures to commoners about pursuing education to improve their lives, while his follower He Xinyin (

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as continued request for Korean concubines and eunuchs, Mongol-style hereditary military institutions, Mongol-style clothing and hats, promoting archery and horseback riding, and having large numbers of Mongols serve in the Ming military. Until the late 16th century Mongols still constituted one-in-three officers serving in capital forces like the

4437: 5694:, Ho Ping-ti suggests revising the 1393 census to 65 million people, noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census. Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62 million, while the population was in fact increasing. Even the 5371:(1020–1101)—he associated all of them with the decadence of Mongol rule and had them destroyed. This was described in full length by the Divisional Director of the Ministry of Works, Xiao Xun, who also carefully preserved details on the architecture and layout of the Yuan dynasty palace. Later, European Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci and 2641:. Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make-up of the region, since formerly more than half of the population were non-Han peoples. Resentment over such massive changes in population and the resulting government presence and policies sparked more 4364:. Yet even gentry and scholar-officials were affected by the new popular romantic literature, seeking gejis as soulmates to re-enact the heroic love stories that arranged marriages often could not provide or accommodate.During the Ming Dynasty, some gentry dated well-educated gejis outside of marriage and the concubine system. 5670:. The practice is well documented in China, going back over two thousand years, and it was described as "rampant" and "practiced by almost every family" by contemporary authors. However, the dramatically skewed sex ratios, which many counties reported exceeding 2:1 by 1586, cannot likely be explained by infanticide alone. 5322:, the Ming Directorate of Astronomy failed to periodically readjust it; this was perhaps due to their lack of expertise since their offices had become hereditary in the Ming and the Statutes of the Ming prohibited private involvement in astronomy. A sixth-generation descendant of the Hongxi Emperor, the "Prince" 2941:(r. 1398–1402) after Hongwu's death in 1398. The most powerful of Hongwu's sons, Zhu Di, then the militarily mighty disagreed with this, and soon a political showdown erupted between him and his nephew Jianwen. After Jianwen arrested many of Zhu Di's associates, Zhu Di plotted a rebellion that sparked a 5063:

A variety of occupations could be chosen or inherited from a father's line of work. This would include – but was not limited to – coffin makers, ironworkers and blacksmiths, tailors, cooks and noodle-makers, retail merchants, tavern, teahouse, or winehouse managers, shoemakers, seal cutters, pawnshop

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Eunuchs gained unprecedented power over state affairs during the Ming dynasty. One of the most effective means of control was the secret service stationed in what was called the Eastern Depot at the beginning of the dynasty, later the Western Depot. This secret service was overseen by the Directorate

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Scholar-officials who entered civil service through examinations acted as executive officials to a much larger body of non-ranked personnel called lesser functionaries. They outnumbered officials by four to one; Charles Hucker estimates that they were perhaps as many as 100,000 throughout the empire.

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Although decentralization of state power within the provinces occurred in the early Ming, the trend of central government officials delegated to the provinces as virtual provincial governors began in the 1420s. By the late Ming dynasty, there were central government officials delegated to two or more

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In 1640, masses of Chinese peasants who were starving, unable to pay their taxes, and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army, began to form into huge bands of rebels. The Chinese military, caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant

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The Hongwu Emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence. However, he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority in China and other areas ruled by the Yuan. He continued policies of the Yuan dynasty such

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The number of people counted in the census of 1381 was 59,873,305; however, this number dropped significantly when the government found that some 3 million people were missing from the tax census of 1391. Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381, the need for survival

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have also been identified as Muslim by Hui scholars, though this is doubted by non-Muslim sources. Regardless, the presence of Muslims in the armies that drove the Mongols northwards caused a gradual shift in the Chinese perception of Muslims, transitioning from "foreigners" to "familiar strangers".

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Although the imperial household was staffed mostly by eunuchs and palace ladies, there was a civil service office called the Seal Office, which cooperated with eunuch agencies in maintaining imperial seals, tallies, and stamps. There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial

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over which a pointer circulated, similar to European models of the time. This sand-driven wheel clock was improved upon by Zhou Shuxue (fl. 1530–58) who added a fourth large gear wheel, changed gear ratios, and widened the orifice for collecting sand grains since he criticized the earlier model for

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and fired pots, and weaving mats and baskets. In the north traveling by horse and carriage was most common, while in the south the myriad of rivers, canals, and lakes provided cheap and easy water transport. Although the south had the characteristic of the wealthy landlord and tenant farmers, there

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to burn at ancestral sacrifices, specialized luxury goods, headgear, fine cloth, teas, and others. Smaller communities and townships too poor or scattered to support shops and artisans obtained their goods from periodic market fairs and traveling peddlers. A small township also provided a place for

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origin, was ordered to lead an expedition to the mouth of the Amur to pacify the Wild Jurchens. After the death of Yongle Emperor, the Nurgan Regional Military Commission was abolished in 1435, and the Ming court ceased to have substantial activities there, although the guards continued to exist in

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in Manchuria by the Mongols, yet it created a norm of organization that would ultimately serve as the main instrument for the relations with peoples along the northeast frontiers. By the end of the Hongwu reign, the essentials of a policy toward the Jurchens had taken shape. Most of the inhabitants

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Hongwu insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject and had been divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view the Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist

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Even with the Jiajing reforms to document migrant workers and merchants, by the late Ming era the government census still did not accurately reflect the enormous growth in population. Gazetteers across the empire noted this and made their own estimations of the overall population in the Ming, some

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reported a population of 378,167 males and 226,982 females in 1502. The government attempted to revise the census figures using estimates of the expected average number of people in each household, but this did not solve the widespread problem of tax registration. Some part of the gender imbalance

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writes that the distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city. Not only was the blurring of town and country evident, but also of socioeconomic class in the traditional

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were wary of Wang's heterodoxy, the increasing number of his disciples while he was still in office, and his overall socially rebellious message. To curb his influence, he was often sent out to deal with military affairs and rebellions far away from the capital. Yet his ideas penetrated mainstream

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The Yongle Emperor and later emperors strongly patronised Tibetan Buddhism by supporting construction, printing of sutras, ceremonies etc., to seek legitimacy among foreign audiences. Yongle tried to portray himself as a Buddhist ideal king, a cakravartin. There is evidence that this portrayal was

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of various types flourished during the Ming dynasty, especially in the economically prosperous lower Yangzi valley. Although short fiction had been popular as far back as the Tang dynasty (618–907), and the works of contemporaneous authors such as Xu Guangqi, Xu Xiake, and Song Yingxing were often

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Like scholar-officials, military generals were ranked in a hierarchic grading system and were given merit evaluations every five years (as opposed to three years for officials). However, military officers had less prestige than officials. This was due to their hereditary service (instead of solely

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Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, the Ming were not yet totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. These scattered Ming

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mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the Ming government failed to ship much-needed supplies there. In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service. The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had

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equaled an ounce of silver; by 1640 that sum could fetch half an ounce; and, by 1643 only one-third of an ounce. For peasants this meant economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and crop sales in copper. Historians have debated the validity of the theory that

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were also prominent. He frequently wrote to Mongol, Japanese, Korean, Jurchen, Tibetan, and Southwest frontier rulers offering advice on their governmental and dynastic policy, and insisted on leaders from these regions visiting the Ming capital for audiences. He resettled 100,000 Mongols into his

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River Valley and cementing his power in the south. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while a guest of Zhu, there was no one left who was remotely capable of contesting his march to the throne, and he made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the

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Wang Gen was able to give philosophical lectures to many commoners from different regions because—following the trend already apparent in the Song dynasty—communities in Ming society were becoming less isolated as the distance between market towns was shrinking. Schools, descent groups, religious

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The imperial household was staffed almost entirely by eunuchs and ladies with their own bureaus. Female servants were organized into the Bureau of Palace Attendance, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apparel, Bureau of Foodstuffs, Bureau of the Bedchamber, Bureau of Handicrafts, and Office of Staff

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against the Mongols and the Oirats, the constant threat of Oirat incursions prompted the Ming authorities to fortify the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century; nevertheless, John Fairbank notes that "it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly expressed China's siege

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notes that the Ming government census figures are dubious since fiscal obligations prompted many families to underreport the number of people in their households and many county officials to underreport the number of households in their jurisdiction. Children were often underreported, especially

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enhanced the spread of knowledge and number of potential exam candidates throughout the provinces. For young schoolchildren there were printed multiplication tables and primers for elementary vocabulary; for adult examination candidates there were mass-produced, inexpensive volumes of Confucian

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The eunuchs built their own social structure, providing and gaining support to their birth clans. Instead of fathers promoting sons, it was a matter of uncles promoting nephews. The Heishanhui Society in Peking sponsored the temple that conducted rituals for worshiping the memory of Gang Tie, a

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of the former Yuan dynasty). He grew strong in the northeast, with forces large enough (numbering hundreds of thousands) to threaten invasion of the newly founded Ming dynasty in order to restore the Mongols to power in China. The Ming decided to defeat him instead of waiting for the Mongols to

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The maximum tenure in office was nine years, but every three years officials were graded on their performance by senior officials. If they were graded as superior then they were promoted, if graded adequate then they retained their ranks, and if graded inadequate they were demoted one rank. In

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as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects. Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han groups revolted, including the

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in China, another important work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607 with the efforts of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci. Ironically, some inventions which had their origins in ancient China were reintroduced to China from Europe during the late Ming; for example, the

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Historians debate whether the examination system expanded or contracted upward social mobility. On the one hand, the exams were graded without regard to a candidate's social background, and were theoretically open to everyone. In actual practice, the successful candidates had years of a very

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in 1127, the Song court established four semi-autonomous regional command systems based on territorial and military units, with a detached service secretariat that would become the provincial administrations of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. Copied on the Yuan model, the Ming provincial

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into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to

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The Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs during the Yongle Emperor's reign (1402–1424) and afterwards managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and

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in the 1590s. Ming officials declined the offer, but granted him the title of dragon-tiger general for his gesture. Recognizing the weakness of Ming authority in Manchuria at the time, he consolidated power by co-opting or conquering surrounding territories. In 1616 he declared himself

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in the title refers to the synonyms of each name. Inoculation, although it can be traced to earlier Chinese folk medicine, was detailed in Chinese texts by the sixteenth century. Throughout the Ming dynasty, around fifty texts were published on the treatment of smallpox. In regards to

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even taught that women were the intellectual equals of men and should be given a better education; both Li and He eventually died in prison, jailed on charges of spreading "dangerous ideas". Yet these "dangerous ideas" of educating women had long been embraced by some mothers and by

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was enthroned, he continued his nephew's policy of disarming his brothers and moved their fiefs away from the militarized northern border. Although princes served no organ of state administration, the princes, consorts of the imperial princesses, and ennobled relatives did staff the

4360:(1570–1623), were the founders of the Gong'an School of letters. This highly individualistic school of poetry and prose was criticized by the Confucian establishment for its association with intense sensual lyricism, which was also apparent in Ming vernacular novels such as the 4035:('presented scholar') degree and assured a high-level position. In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations, the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24,874. Ebrey states that "there were only two to four thousand of these 5725:

guessing that it had doubled, tripled, or even grown fivefold since 1368. Fairbank estimates that the population was perhaps 160 million in the late Ming dynasty, while Brook estimates 175 million, and Ebrey states perhaps as large as 200 million. However,

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would briefly mention indigenous Chinese clockworks that featured drive wheels. However, both Ricci and Trigault were quick to point out that 16th-century European clockworks were far more advanced than the common time keeping devices in China, which they listed as

5698:(r. 1487–1505) remarked that the daily increase in subjects coincided with the daily dwindling number of registered civilians and soldiers. William Atwell states that around 1400 the population of China was perhaps 90 million people, citing Heijdra and Mote. 5690:

pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region, where Hongwu had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace. The government tried to mitigate this by creating their own conservative estimate of 60,545,812 people in 1393. In his

2945:. Under the pretext of rescuing the young Jianwen from corrupting officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with Jianwen himself, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di assumed the throne as the 4597:

fell from favor, and the early Ming emperors particularly favored Taoism, granting its practitioners many positions in the state's ritual offices. The Hongwu Emperor curtailed the cosmopolitan culture of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and the prolific Prince of Ning

4870:), gaining understanding through careful and rational investigation of things and events, Wang argued that universal concepts would appear in the minds of anyone. Therefore, he claimed that anyone—no matter their pedigree or education—could become as wise as 2169:

1368–1398), attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty: the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the

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had charge of government construction projects, hiring of artisans and laborers for temporary service, manufacturing government equipment, the maintenance of roads and canals, standardization of weights and measures, and the gathering of resources from the

2473:, Zhu's force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650,000-strong. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful 2851:

The Ming sporadically sent armed forays into Tibet during the 14th century, which the Tibetans successfully resisted. Several scholars point out that unlike the preceding Mongols, the Ming dynasty did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet. The

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and citrus were grown as basic crops. Some people in the mountainous southwest made a living by selling lumber from hard bamboo. Besides cutting down trees to sell wood, the poor also made a living by turning wood into charcoal, and by burning

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had been and that their writings were not sources of truth but merely guides that might have flaws when carefully examined. A peasant with a great deal of experience and intelligence would then be wiser than an official who had memorized the

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in 1625 also permitted Christianity to be treated as an old and established faith, rather than as a new and dangerous cult. However, there were strong disagreements about the extent to which converts could continue to perform rituals to the

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until 1683. Zhu Shugui proclaimed that he acted in the name of the deceased Yongli Emperor. The Qing eventually sent the 17 Ming princes still living in Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. In 1725, the

2349:. The value of silver rapidly increased because of a disruption in the supply of imported silver from Spanish and Portuguese sources, making it impossible for Chinese farmers to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and 3169:

mentality." Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops.

3685:, the Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan dynasty, and the thirteen Ming provinces are the precursors of the modern provinces. Throughout the Song dynasty, the largest political division was the 3594:. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus. The Eight Banners under the Manchu Prince 3791:, and the Chief Military Commission and personally took charge of the Six Ministries and the regional Five Military Commissions. Thus a whole level of administration was cut out and only partially rebuilt by subsequent rulers. The 3330:

in 1516. Following the Ming Emperor's decision to ban direct trade with Japan, Portuguese traders acted as an intermediary between China and Japan by buying Chinese silks from China and selling it to Japan for silver. After some

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Governmental institutions in China conformed to a similar pattern for some two thousand years, but each dynasty installed special offices and bureaus, reflecting its own particular interests. The Ming administration utilized

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hats. Women could not use ornaments made from gold, jade, pearl or emerald. Merchants and their families were further banned from using silk. However, these laws were no longer enforced from the middle Ming period onwards.

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Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered on these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scammers who themselves made imitations and false attributions. The Jesuit

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at court. Others argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship. Others note the Ming need for Central Asian horses and the need to maintain the

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The Hongwu emperor from 1373 to 1384 staffed his bureaus with officials gathered through recommendations only. After that the scholar-officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous

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and were considered part of the imperial authority, not the ministerial one (hence being at odds with both the emperor and ministers at times). The Secretariat operated as a coordinating agency, whereas the Six

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through Spanish ports. People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. In the 1630s a string of one thousand

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was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352; he soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander. In 1356, Zhu's rebel force captured the city of

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There were many advances and new designs in gunpowder weapons during the beginning of the dynasty, but by the mid to late Ming the Chinese began to frequently employ European-style artillery and firearms. The

2490:, and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground; the city was renamed Beiping in the same year. Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or "Vastly Martial", as his 3245:

The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy. Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as

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200 million, but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples.

2772:) in Manchuria, but these were probably only nominal offices and did not necessarily imply political control. By the late Ming period, Ming's political presence in Manchuria has declined significantly. 5543:(1562–1633) took an interest in irrigation, fertilizers, famine relief, economic and textile crops, and empirical observation of the elements that gave insight into early understandings of chemistry. 5326:(1536–1611), submitted a proposal to fix the calendar in 1595, but the ultra-conservative astronomical commission rejected it. This was the same Zhu Zaiyu who discovered the system of tuning known as 5561:

sometime before the latter's death on 16 May 1375 (with a preface added by Jiao in 1412), featured many types of cutting-edge gunpowder weaponry for the time. This includes hollow, gunpowder-filled

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engaged in intensive rice cultivation and had lakes and ponds where ducks and fish could be raised. The cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and tea bushes could be found mostly south of the

3986:

Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side).

3567:—and deserted the capital without much of a fight. On 25 April 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng when the city gates were opened by rebel allies from within. During the turmoil, 3322:

During the last years of the Wanli era and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered on a sudden widespread lack of the empire's chief medium of exchange: silver.

3380:

Famines became common in northern China in the early 17th century because of unusually dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season—effects of a larger ecological event now known as the

5681:(r. 1425–35); he stated in 1428 that his populace was dwindling due to palace construction and military adventures. But the population was rising under him, a fact noted by Zhou Chen—governor of 3145:

proved to be a troubled time and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic. On 7 August 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin and his Ming troops of Mongol descent

2794:

of Guhyasamaja Akshobhyavajra; the Ming dynasty court gathered various tribute items that were native products of Tibet (such as thangkas), and in return granted gifts to Tibetan tribute-bearers.

3034:, but these missions were unprecedented in grandeur and scale. To service seven different tributary voyages, the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419, including 2629:, who was appointed Governor of Yunnan, were resettled in the region as part of a colonization effort. By the end of the 14th century, some 200,000 military colonists settled some 2,000,000 2562:

and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor, a precedent mostly followed throughout the Ming period. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the

4515:. The writing materials in a scholar's private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal. 5494:

used in gunpowder compositions—illustrating how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still-head that sent over sulfur as vapor that would solidify and

4244:, those with rudimentary education—such as women in educated families, merchants, and shop clerks—became a large potential audience for literature and performing arts that employed 5088: 4121:

of Ceremonial, hence this state organ's often totalitarian affiliation. Eunuchs had ranks that were equivalent to civil service ranks, only theirs had four grades instead of nine.

3925:

was in charge of the appointments, promotions, and demotions of military officers, the maintenance of military installations, equipment, and weapons, as well as the courier system.

3149:

out of fear of being next on his purge-list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident. Cao's rebel force managed to set fire to the western and eastern gates of the

10338: 8908:: "Inoculation had been a popular folk practice ... in all, some fifty texts on the treatment of smallpox are known to have been published in China during the Ming dynasty." 3918:

was in charge of state ceremonies, rituals, and sacrifices; it also oversaw registers for Buddhist and Daoist priesthoods and even the reception of envoys from tributary states.

9235: 2969:, the palatial residence of the emperor and his family. By 1553, the Outer City was added to the south, which brought the overall size of Beijing to 6.5 by 7 kilometres (4 by 4503:

wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy, alongside embroidered silks and wares in

4368:

culture of the Ming Dynasty reshaped the purely sexual relationship with prostitutes into a cultural relationship, and men could even become friends with like-minded gejis.

4270:, published in 1610, although incorporating earlier material, marks the trend toward independent composition and concern with psychology. In the later years of the dynasty, 4240:

technical and encyclopedic, the most striking literary development was the vernacular novel. While the gentry elite were educated enough to fully comprehend the language of

11245: 4523:

while staying in Nanjing wrote that Chinese scam artists were ingenious at making forgeries and huge profits. However, there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur;

3281:

powerful eunuch of the Yuan dynasty. The Temple became an influential base for highly placed eunuchs, and continued in a somewhat diminished role during the Qing dynasty.

4011:

Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by

4124:

Descendants of the first Ming emperor were made princes and given (typically nominal) military commands, annual stipends, and large estates. The title used was "king" (

10012: 657: 643: 629: 615: 601: 587: 562: 11877: 3198:(1572–1620). In the beginning of his reign, Wanli surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs. His Grand Secretary 2657:(1472–1529) suppressed another rebellion in the region, he advocated single, unitary administration of Chinese and indigenous ethnic groups in order to bring about 2412:(1271–1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty. Explanations for the demise of the Yuan include institutionalized ethnic discrimination against the 5355:

When the Ming founder Hongwu came upon the mechanical devices housed in the Yuan dynasty's palace at Khanbaliq—such as fountains with balls dancing on their jets,

4531:(1426–1435) bronze work could be authenticated by judging its sheen; porcelain wares from the Yongle era (1402–1424) could be judged authentic by their thickness. 3795:, at the beginning a secretarial institution that assisted the emperor with administrative paperwork, was instituted, but without employing grand counselors, or 5569:

that used a complex trigger mechanism of falling weights, pins, and a steel wheellock to ignite the train of fuses, naval mines, fin-mounted winged rockets for

4602:

even composed one encyclopedia attacking Buddhism as a foreign "mourning cult", deleterious to the state, and another encyclopedia that subsequently joined the

4493:, Chuimei Ho estimates that about 16% of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe, while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia. 2583:

territory, with many serving as guards in the capital. The emperor also strongly advertised the hospitality and role granted to Chinggisid nobles in his court.

13810: 3806:) the region; in 1421 the Yongle Emperor commissioned 26 officials to travel the empire and uphold similar investigatory and patrimonial duties. By 1430 these 2808:

in 1739—states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from

11860: 4768:—and a return by the Jesuits to presenting themselves as educated scholars in the Confucian mold restored their fortunes. However, by the end of the Ming the 4648:

of Islam and the prophet Muhammad. The Ming Emperors strongly sponsored the construction of mosques and granted generous liberties for the practice of Islam.

3127:. The Oirats held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor's younger brother assumed the throne under the era name 2824:

in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming era.

2613:, after serving the Ming in campaigns against aboriginal tribes. In 1381, the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the 2310: 9920: 5286:

system in their writing; it was not until 1865 that Catholic missionaries in China sponsored the heliocentric model as their Protestant peers did. Although

4333:

printing. The new literary field of the moral guide to business ethics was developed during the late Ming period, for the readership of the merchant class.

3911:

was in charge of gathering census data, collecting taxes, and handling state revenues, while there were two offices of currency that were subordinate to it.

11134:, A collaborative project that makes available translations (from Chinese to English) of portions of the 明史 Mingshi (Official History of the Ming Dynasty). 2961:. Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the center was the political node of the 5661:

female children, as shown by skewed population statistics throughout the Ming. Even adult women were underreported; for example, the Daming Prefecture in

5466:

encyclopedia of 1637. This includes mechanical and hydraulic powered devices for agriculture and irrigation, nautical technology such as vessel types and

13815: 3783:(202 BCE – 220 CE), the Ming administration had only one department, the Secretariat, that controlled the six ministries. Following the execution of the 2872:

sect. By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the

2318: 5085:

simple schooling, news and gossip, matchmaking, religious festivals, traveling theater groups, tax collection, and bases of famine relief distribution.

11897: 10308:——— (2000), "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525)", 3535:

thirty-six of his fellow rebels executed; Li's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang, central

9507: 2949:(r. 1402–24); his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies. 11624: 5705:

of Ming China for clues that would show consistent growth in population. Using the gazetteers, Brook estimates that the overall population under the

5129:

in Chinese history. It was illegal for commoners to wear fine silk or dress in bright red, dark green or yellow colors; nor could they wear boots or

3727: 3161: 3153:(doused by rain during the battle) and killed several leading ministers before his forces were finally cornered and he was forced to commit suicide. 5045:

associations, and other local voluntary organizations were increasing in number and allowing more contact between educated men and local villagers.

4146:, the princes did not serve any administrative function, and they partook in military affairs only during the reigns of the first two emperors. The 94: 2845: 3734:縣), overseen by a magistrate. Besides the provinces, there were also two large areas that belonged to no province, but were metropolitan areas ( 3602:; the Prince of Shun's army fled the capital on the fourth of June. On 6 June, the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young 12617: 13775: 12104: 11506: 3638:, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and executed. Despite the Ming defeat, smaller loyalist movements continued until the proclamation of the 3119:(r. 1435–49) to lead a force personally to face the Oirats after a recent Ming defeat; the emperor left the capital and put his half-brother 10416:

Schafer, Edward H. (1956), "The Development of Bathing Customs in Ancient and Medieval China and the History of the Floriate Clear Palace",

3452:

Originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power,

13760: 10564:"6 To catch a tiger The Eupression of the Yang Yinglong Miao uprising (1578–1600) as a case study in Ming military and borderlands history" 5060:), since artisans sometimes worked on farms in peak periods, and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth. 5024: 3818:

provinces as supreme commanders and viceroys, a system which reined in the power and influence of the military by the civil establishment.

3626:. One report says his death was a suicide; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food. 11165:

Chan, Hok-Lam (1988), "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-shi, and Hsuan-te reigns, 1399–1435", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

4795:

caused by Kaifeng's Ming governor devastated the community, which lost five of its twelve families, its synagogue, and most of its Torah.

4697:—who employed new western science and technology in their arguments for conversion. They were educated in Chinese language and culture at 11756: 11327: 10543:

Sperling, Elliot (2003), "The 5th Karma-pa and some aspects of the relationship between Tibet and the Early Ming", in McKay, Alex (ed.),

9215: 8109:

David M. Robinson; Dora C. Y. Ching; Chu Hung-Iam; Scarlett Jang; Joseph S. C. Lam; Julia K. Murray; Kenneth M. Swope (2008). "7 and 8".

4843: 3563:

revolts in the provinces, essentially fell apart. Unpaid and unfed, the army was defeated by Li Zicheng—now self-styled as the Prince of

3469: 3123:

in charge of affairs as temporary regent. On 8 September, Esen routed Zhengtong's army, and Zhengtong was captured—an event known as the

2786: 2314: 10359: 10198:

Perdue, Peter C. (2000), "Culture, History, and Imperial Chinese Strategy: Legacies of the Qing Conquests", in van de Ven, Hans (ed.),

8159: 5219: 5145: 5064:

owners, brothel heads, and merchant bankers engaging in a proto-banking system involving notes of exchange. Virtually every town had a

3388:, spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan, killing an unknown but large number of people. The deadliest earthquake of all time, the 2067: 2007: 5870:, whose regimes are collectively called the Southern Ming in historiography, ruled southern China until 1662. The Ming loyalist state 5799: 2333:

and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the

13795: 11909: 4000: 3936: 3893: 6984: 5122:

were on average many more owner-cultivators north of the Huai River due to harsher climate, living not far above subsistence level.

4019:

As in earlier periods, the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts, while the bulk of test material centered on the

2857: 3863:

and later appointed as top officials of agencies and Grand Preceptor, a top-ranking, non-functional civil service post, under the

13800: 11319: 5131: 2732: 2649:

revolts in 1464 to 1466, which were crushed by an army of 30,000 Ming troops (including 1,000 Mongols) joining the 160,000 local

10023: 4527:(died 1637) wrote a book printed in 1635 that told his readers how to spot fake and authentic pieces of art. He revealed that a 3522:

and forced Joseon to become a Qing tributary. Shortly after, the Koreans renounced their long-held loyalty to the Ming dynasty.

3432:

along the Great Wall, the gate where the Manchus were repeatedly repelled before being finally let through by Wu Sangui in 1644.

3233:

teacups, from the Nantoyōsō Collection in Japan; the Tianqi Emperor was heavily influenced and largely controlled by the eunuch

12055: 11962: 10161:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic

9141:

Atwell, William S. (2002), "Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the 'Great Depression' of the Mid-Fifteenth Century",

5789: 5453: 4113: 1697: 152: 3904:

was in charge of appointments, merit ratings, promotions, and demotions of officials, as well as granting of honorific titles.

13570: 12952: 11950: 11798: 11559: 11295: 11274: 11265:

Mote, Frederick W. (1988), "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465–1505", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

11255: 11221: 11193: 11174: 11122: 11070: 10959: 10940: 10921: 10898: 10850: 10806: 10779: 10752: 10733: 10669: 10650: 10631: 10575: 10552: 10533: 10492: 10473: 10454: 10406: 10387: 10353: 10207: 10188: 10102: 10083: 10064: 9979: 9892: 9873: 9825: 9802: 9783: 9764: 9685: 9666: 9647: 9626: 9588: 9569: 9550: 9527: 9449: 9428: 9400: 9272: 9249: 9131: 8118: 6133: 5769: 5726: 4959: 4027:

in the 12th century. Ming era examinations were perhaps more difficult to pass since the 1487 requirement of completing the "

3932:

was in charge of judicial and penal processes, but had no supervisory role over the Censorate or the Grand Court of Revision.

3385: 2350: 1997: 9912:

Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-Tibetan Relations Up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912: Occasional Paper 7

5874:

on Taiwan lasted until 1683, but it was not ruled by the Zhu clan and thus usually not considered part of the Southern Ming.

2957:

Yongle demoted Nanjing to a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in

13765: 12000: 11855: 7184:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 29

3929: 3908: 3889: 3877: 3772: 3651: 3441: 3050: 1570: 1560: 257: 13476: 11444: 4838:

were embraced by the court and the Chinese literati at large, although the direct line of his school was destroyed by the

11670: 11564: 10507: 5721:(r. 1521–67) finally had officials register migrants wherever they had moved or fled in order to bring in more revenues. 3953: 3023: 2748: 2600: 2039: 1201: 10841:

Wills, John E. Jr. (1998), "Relations with Maritime Europe, 1514–1662", in Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.),

5737:

noted more than half the population fell ill that year and that 90% of the local populace in one area was dead by 1642.

5581:

before igniting a swarm of smaller rockets issuing forth from the end of the missile (shaped like a dragon's head), and

5033: 13622: 12622: 11967: 2220:

in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian

1191: 511: 9990: 12266: 11499: 11384: 9607: 6855: 5222:, the Ming dynasty perhaps saw fewer advancements in science and technology compared to the pace of discovery in the 5014: 5005: 4996: 4987: 3760: 2104: 1868: 10279:——— (1999), "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461", 5424:

The Chinese were intrigued with European technology, but so were visiting Europeans of Chinese technology. In 1584,

3634:. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last Southern Ming emperor, 12135: 11159: 10143:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics

10057:

Development Centre Studies The World Economy Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics

5958:, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912. 5100:

Farming villagers in the north spent their days harvesting crops like wheat and millet, while farmers south of the

5068:

where female and male prostitutes could be had. Male catamites fetched a higher price than female concubines since

4415: 3922: 3885: 3698:

bureaucracy contained three commissions: one civil, one military, and one for surveillance. Below the level of the

3665:

Administrative Divisions and Military Protectorates of the Ming dynasty in 1427; note that the exact nature of the

11103: 4348:

In contrast to Xu Xiake, who focused on technical aspects in his travel literature, the Chinese poet and official

3314: 13248: 11690: 11401: 10910:"5 From Woman's Fertility to Masculine Authority: The Story of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings in Western Hunan" 10594: 9959: 9539:

Euclid in China: The Genesis of the First Translation of Euclid's Elements in 1607 & Its Reception Up to 1723

4046: 3519: 3504:(modern Shenyang), which had been made their capital in 1625. Hong Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title 3046: 2466: 1622: 12410: 11599: 3269:(r. 1620–1627) and had his political rivals tortured to death, mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the 13790: 13785: 13780: 13770: 11650: 10724:

Wang, Gungwu (1998), "Ming Foreign Relations: Southeast Asia", in Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.),

10047: 9241: 5774: 2060: 2012: 1038: 830: 9970:

Langlois, John D. Jr. (1988), "The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

6994: 4752:: Ricci had been very accommodating and an attempt by his successors to backtrack from this policy led to the 3038:

measuring 112 to 134 m (367 to 440 ft) in length and 45 to 54 m (148 to 177 ft) in width.

13686: 12182: 11904: 8160:"The Ming Court as Patron of the Chinese Islamic Architecture: The Case Study of the Daxuexi Mosque in Xi'an" 4631:, there were still several prominent Muslim figures early on, including the Yongle Emperor's powerful eunuch 4628: 4624: 4620: 4540: 3776: 3686: 3639: 2034: 1960: 1895: 1107: 899: 78: 24: 10891:

The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy

10545:

The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy

10134:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

9600:

Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule

9460: 5626:

had a primitive toothbrush of a twig frayed at the end, but the Chinese were the first to invent the modern

4457:

The period was also renowned for ceramics and porcelains. The major production center for porcelain was the

3485:. In 1618 he openly renounced the Ming overlordship and effectively declared war against the Ming with the " 13820: 13681: 13565: 12162: 11940: 11808: 11778: 11492: 11466: 9695:

Hargett, James M. (1985), "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)",

5942:, Zhu Zhilian, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the 5814: 5794: 5600: 5271: 5080:

became much more common than in earlier periods. Urban shops and retailers sold a variety of goods such as

4966: 4788: 4698: 3405: 2699:

dynasties, the vast majority of the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a product of the Ming dynasty.

2388: 1970: 502: 160: 109: 3226: 2570:

drawn from his own palace guard. Some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule.

84: 13805: 13755: 13691: 12728: 12172: 12157: 11892: 11524: 10520: 6845: 5752: 5747: 5227: 5226:. In fact, key advances in Chinese science in the late Ming were spurred by contact with Europe. In 1626 5153: 4749: 4690: 4384: 4249: 4039:

at any given time, on the order of one out of 10,000 adult males." This was in comparison to the 100,000

3482: 3031: 2514:

Hongwu made an immediate effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km (30 mi) long

2382: 2022: 1779: 1160: 11420: 5441: 3982: 2986: 11983: 11705: 11604: 10217:

Peterson, Willard J. (1986). "Calendar Reform Prior to the Arrival of Missionaries at the Ming Court".

5784: 5149: 4450: 4376: 3719: 3673:

Described as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history" by

3572: 3306:(1494–1552); excessive luxury and decadence marked the late Ming period, spurred by the enormous state 2911: 2237: 2179: 2027: 1017: 11741: 10117:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth

9657:

Geiss, James (1988), "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

3332: 3258:

increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes.

3131:(r. 1449–57); the Oirats were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor's confidant and defense minister 2353:, the dynasty collapsed in 1644 as Li Zicheng's rebel forces entered Beijing. Li then established the 2345:'s initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture was produced by the 13649: 12797: 12361: 12152: 11988: 11914: 11685: 11675: 10485:

The Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China: Connecting Money, Markets, and Institutions

9921:"Prince Chu Tsai-Yü's Life and Work: A Re-Evaluation of His Contribution to Equal Temperament Theory" 9724:

Hartwell, Robert M. (1982), "Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750–1550",

5951: 5779: 4773: 4548: 4470: 4139: 3630:

remnants in southern China after 1644 were collectively designated by 19th-century historians as the

3478: 3416: 2670: 2575: 2053: 1990: 1955: 1528: 1224: 1134: 580: 9461:"Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China" 4278:

innovated with vernacular short fiction. Theater scripts were equally imaginative. The most famous,

4100: 1734: 13607: 13582: 13432: 13091: 13086: 12215: 12094: 11993: 11680: 11594: 10169: 10152:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2: Agriculture

9754: 9282:

Chen, Gilbert (2 July 2016). "Castration and Connection: Kinship Organization among Ming Eunuchs".

9264: 4753: 4478: 4446: 3666: 3352: 3142: 3136: 2877: 2781: 2248: 1724: 1373: 366: 238: 12177: 11341:

Wade, Geoff (2008), "Engaging the South: Ming China and Southeast Asia in the Fifteenth Century",

10468:. Routledge studies – China in transition. Vol. 13 (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. 5433: 4693:

also disappeared. During the later Ming a new wave of Christian missionaries arrived—particularly

4319:. The first reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing was in 1582; by 1638 the 3339:

as their permanent trade base in China. Their role in providing silver was gradually surpassed by

2453:

crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to

13674: 13555: 13096: 13049: 12992: 12691: 12635: 12383: 12125: 12034: 11700: 11554: 11333:

Swope, Kenneth M. "Manifesting Awe: Grand Strategy and Imperial Leadership in the Ming Dynasty."

9995: 5759: 5460:(1587–1666) documented a wide array of technologies, metallurgic and industrial processes in his 5295: 5275: 4645: 4289: 4185: 3389: 3150: 2962: 2596: 1950: 8905: 4760:

and forced the others out of public life for six years. A series of spectacular failures by the

4458: 3759:, the official imperial household of the Ming and Qing dynasties from 1420 until 1924, when the 3194:

There were many problems—fiscal or other—facing Ming China that started during the reign of the

3053:, from the initial invasion in 1406 until the Ming withdrawal in 1427 as a result of protracted 2747:, were at peace with China. In 1409, under the Yongle Emperor, the Ming Dynasty established the 13696: 13597: 13592: 13280: 13228: 13148: 13081: 12985: 12970: 12863: 12630: 12584: 12425: 12312: 12062: 12010: 11818: 11710: 10700: 9208: 5804: 5673: 5444:

also mentioned this a year later—noting even the designs of them on Chinese silken robes—while

4617: 4466: 2558:

executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that Hongwu abolished the

2171: 2002: 1980: 1965: 1451: 1170: 450: 11323: 10909: 10860:

Wong, H.C. (1963), "China's Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch'ing",

10563: 6847:

A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592-1598

2921: 326: 13750: 13627: 13587: 13400: 13275: 12339: 12329: 12288: 12259: 12167: 12145: 12130: 11771: 11751: 11629: 11589: 11579: 10568:

New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations

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who were as literate and skillful in calligraphy, painting, and poetry as their male guests.

4694: 4570: 4544: 4177: 3992: 3901: 3873: 3318:

An imperial throne carpet with double dragon and seed pearl motif, Ming dynasty, 16th century

3203: 3035: 2711: 2462: 2229: 1975: 1392: 228: 20: 13515: 8177: 5638: 4741: 4391: 2247:

The rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the

13720: 13550: 13520: 13395: 13326: 13297: 13216: 12550: 12388: 12378: 12198: 11766: 11665: 11544: 10120: 4922: 4921:) challenged the elevation and emphasis of the family in Chinese society. His contemporary 4745: 4727: 4312: 3599: 3146: 3096: 3078: 2515: 2426: 2217: 2213: 2017: 1230: 13500: 9170:——— (2005). "Another Look at Silver Imports into China, ca. 1635–1644". 8108: 4783:

During his mission, Ricci was also contacted in Beijing by one of the approximately 5,000

3464:

to create a new Manchu ethnic identity. He offered to lead his armies to support Ming and

3014:(1371–1433) as the admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for international 2860:

initiated in 1578, an alliance which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Manchu

2502: 8: 13412: 13292: 13258: 13160: 12980: 12975: 12787: 12506: 12442: 12317: 12302: 12048: 11887: 11830: 11783: 11715: 11569: 6671:

Sen, Tansen (2016). "The impact of Zheng He's expeditions on Indian Ocean interactions".

5926: 5884: 5871: 5764: 5730: 5279: 4710: 4681:

The advent of the Ming was initially devastating to Christianity: in his first year, the

4260: 4156: 3674: 3611: 3461: 3420: 3373: 3356: 3323: 2680: 2260: 2221: 1182: 507: 171: 13128: 13118: 11619: 11430: 10124: 5717:

emperors lessened the penalties against those who had fled their home region, while the

5384:, and "other instruments ... with wheels rotated by sand as if by water" (Chinese: 3598:(1612–1650) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at 3054: 2906:

The territorial zenith of the Ming dynasty in 1415 under the reign of the Yongle Emperor

2726:

general of the Northern Yuan dynasty, won hegemony over the Mongol tribes in Manchuria (

2192:, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed when his teenage successor, the 13525: 13505: 13488: 13439: 13304: 13113: 13064: 12997: 12915: 12856: 12851: 12846: 12802: 12772: 12664: 12562: 12430: 12405: 11660: 11614: 11574: 11358: 11049: 11041: 10994: 10986: 10914:

Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China

10877: 10785: 10611: 10433: 10325: 10296: 10246: 9951: 9943: 9898: 9852: 9814: 9741: 9712: 9499: 9483: 9418: 9377: 9369: 9328: 9299: 9195: 9187: 9158: 6064: 5729:

that started in Shanxi Province in 1633, ravaged the densely populated areas along the

5405: 5401: 5319: 4911: 4832: 4792: 4326: 4308: 4280: 4245: 4220: 4028: 3796: 3784: 3707: 3348: 3327: 3290: 3247: 3211: 3112: 3042: 2559: 2457:. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, 2290: 2236:

as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. Hongwu and Yongle emperors had also

2116: 1985: 1165: 1074: 1066: 866: 858: 193: 181: 11793: 11315: 11139: 10825: 10679: 3514:("Revering Virtue") era, and changed the ethnic name of his people from "Jurchen" to " 1093: 885: 13634: 13530: 13466: 13461: 13390: 13287: 13002: 12930: 12925: 12767: 12696: 12679: 12674: 12669: 12469: 12420: 11872: 11609: 11549: 11380: 11291: 11270: 11251: 11217: 11189: 11170: 11118: 11066: 11053: 10998: 10955: 10936: 10917: 10894: 10881: 10846: 10802: 10775: 10748: 10729: 10665: 10646: 10627: 10571: 10548: 10529: 10488: 10469: 10450: 10402: 10383: 10349: 10329: 10203: 10184: 10098: 10079: 10060: 9975: 9955: 9888: 9869: 9821: 9798: 9779: 9760: 9681: 9662: 9643: 9637: 9622: 9603: 9584: 9565: 9546: 9542: 9523: 9503: 9491: 9445: 9439: 9424: 9396: 9381: 9303: 9268: 9261:

A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring & the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785

9245: 9199: 9127: 8114: 6851: 6688: 6129: 5931: 5649:(1598–1652), showing a lady holding an oval fan while enjoying the beauty of the plum 5574: 5445: 5327: 5243: 5118: 4850:

in 1402. The Ming scholar most influential upon subsequent generations, however, was

4765: 4761: 4714: 4371: 4300: 4241: 3915: 3881: 3856: 3811: 3792: 3694: 3568: 3457: 3277:(r. 1627–44) had Wei dismissed from court, which led to Wei's suicide shortly after. 3274: 3116: 3019: 2937:

specified his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor, and he assumed the throne as the

2727: 1913: 1481: 1461: 1236: 793: 785: 312: 250: 176: 11436: 10889:

Wylie, Turrell V. (2003), "Lama Tribute in the Ming Dynasty", in McKay, Alex (ed.),

9124:

Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu

5509: 3254:, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the 2764:

Manchuria. Throughout its existence, the Ming established a total of 384 guards (衛,

2738:

The early Ming court could not, and did not, aspire to the control imposed upon the

2710:

by the Ming dynasty in 1368, Manchuria remained under control of the Mongols of the

686: 13483: 13270: 13265: 13221: 13208: 13138: 13106: 13101: 12965: 12960: 12942: 12903: 12836: 12819: 12760: 12750: 12745: 12686: 12642: 12612: 12572: 12555: 12538: 12501: 12252: 12041: 11850: 11813: 11803: 11788: 11761: 11746: 11584: 11415: 11350: 11232:

A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, in the Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries

11186:

Confucianism and Autocracy: Professional Elites in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty

11033: 10978: 10869: 10767: 10603: 10425: 10317: 10288: 10267: 10258:

Robinson, David M. (1995). "Notes on Eunuchs in Hebei During the Mid-Ming Period".

10226: 9935: 9844: 9733: 9704: 9581:

Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character

9475: 9361: 9320: 9291: 9179: 9150: 8167: 6680: 5955: 5888: 5706: 5425: 5372: 5307: 5158: 4854:(1472–1529), whose teachings were attacked in his own time for their similarity to 4825: 4674: 4636: 4616:

was also well-established throughout China, with a history said to have begun with

4594: 4224: 4147: 4071: 3802:

The Hongwu Emperor sent his heir apparent to Shaanxi in 1391 to "tour and soothe" (

3699: 3678: 3506: 3486: 3270: 3207: 3015: 2942: 2813: 2491: 2434: 2286: 2278: 2197: 2188: 2087: 1592: 1150: 1142: 945: 922: 720: 697: 650: 186: 166: 50: 9295: 9209:"China, Europe and the Great Divergence: a Study in National Accounting, 980–1850" 5420:

by Yu Wenhui, Latinized as Emmanuel Pereira, dated the year of Ricci's death, 1610

5254:

model of the solar system was rejected by the Catholic missionaries in China, but

4891: 4511:. The houses of the rich were also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery 2255:

ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while

2204:

in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it

13701: 13669: 13542: 13510: 13493: 13449: 13444: 13422: 13417: 13375: 13368: 13343: 13203: 13198: 13039: 12920: 12814: 12809: 12777: 12602: 12592: 12486: 12479: 12474: 12459: 12415: 12297: 12283: 12232: 12084: 12027: 11945: 11720: 11695: 11448: 11374: 11285: 11112: 10789: 10515: 10238: 5823: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5695: 5495: 5392: 5259: 5255: 5046: 4938: 4769: 4574: 4569:

The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the various forms of

3949: 3847: 3835: 3682: 3603: 3540: 3393: 3128: 3083: 2938: 2885: 2836: 2800: 2735:, which concluded with the surrender of Naghachu and Ming conquest of Manchuria. 2614: 2520: 2322: 2298: 2193: 2186:

his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the

2178:

were the largest in the world. He also took great care breaking the power of the

996: 771: 13123: 10506:, translated with preface by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun, University Park: 9352:

Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve".

4054:

tomb of Pan Yongzheng, a Ming dynasty official who lived during the 16th century

2856:(r. 1572–1620) attempted to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations in the wake of a 2675: 13644: 13639: 13602: 13577: 13560: 13471: 13456: 13427: 13385: 13233: 13193: 13188: 13143: 13069: 13029: 13019: 13009: 12824: 12703: 12597: 12464: 12346: 12208: 12203: 12079: 11370: 10589: 10585: 10271: 10230: 10112: 10013:"The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims" 6369: 5853:

in Nanjing in 1364. The regime is known in historiography as the "Western Wu" (

5678: 5578: 5462: 5396:—describe the 'five-wheeled sand clock', a mechanism pioneered by Zhan Xiyuan ( 5360: 5247: 5180: 5126: 5077: 5038: 4839: 4732: 4682: 4661: 4613: 4496: 4486: 4442: 4321: 4232: 4228: 4151: 4076: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3839: 3756: 3615: 3381: 3368: 3340: 3266: 3230: 3157: 3088: 2999: 2966: 2946: 2934: 2926: 2897: 2760: 2739: 2688: 2507: 2454: 2346: 2330: 2321:

trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of

2209: 2201: 2159: 1494: 1411: 980: 755: 288: 276: 233: 208: 100: 11235: 11131: 11024:

Zhang, Wenxian (2008). "The Yellow Register Archives of Imperial Ming China".

10969:

Yuan, Zheng (1994), "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment",

6684: 5656:

debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty. The historian

4808: 4007: 3571:, the last Ming emperor, accompanied only by a eunuch servant, hanged himself 2256: 13744: 13725: 13612: 13407: 13380: 13353: 13331: 13309: 13076: 13059: 13044: 12888: 12841: 12829: 12755: 12647: 12521: 12516: 12491: 12373: 12089: 11882: 11825: 11354: 11305:

Owen, Stephen (1997), "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties", in Owen, Stephen (ed.),

11267:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

11167:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

10843:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2

10726:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2

9972:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

9659:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

6692: 5947: 5829: 5657: 5646: 5623: 5605: 5457: 5381: 5267: 5251: 5223: 5175: 4880: 4851: 4813: 4670: 4427: 4380: 4357: 4356:(1037–1101). Yuan Hongdao and his two brothers, Yuan Zongdao (1560–1600) and 4271: 4236: 4109: 3771:

Departing from the main central administrative system generally known as the

3631: 3579: 3515: 3360: 3262: 3255: 3234: 3199: 3195: 3187: 2853: 2744: 2654: 2567: 2541: 2458: 2438: 2358: 2342: 2338: 2326: 2152: 1284: 1251: 622: 379: 300: 13153: 13133: 11080:

Zhou, Shao Quan (1990). "明代服饰探论" [On the Costumes of Ming Dynasty].

10607: 10250: 9835:

Hucker, Charles O. (1958), "Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty",

9339: 9324: 6070: 5609:

is a medical text with 1,892 entries, each entry with its own name called a

5456:(1739–1801) in the writings of his travel diary in China. The encyclopedist 3062: 3058: 2881: 2532:, which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old 13617: 13358: 13348: 13314: 13243: 13165: 12955: 12937: 12898: 12893: 12873: 12868: 12740: 12733: 12723: 12718: 12713: 12607: 12545: 12526: 12511: 12447: 11865: 11476: 11459: 11310: 10525: 9914:, Canberra: The Australian National University, Centre of Oriental Studies. 9902: 9495: 8172: 5939: 5935: 5867: 5619: 5596: 5417: 5331: 5311: 5291: 5263: 5171: 5105: 4900: 4829: 4784: 4777: 4776:

in Rome that would eventually lead to a full ban of Christianity under the

4706: 4603: 4590: 4578: 4520: 4504: 4411: 4349: 4330: 4275: 4266: 4254: 4190: 4150:

was justified in part as upholding the rights of the princes, but once the

4043:('government students'), the lowest tier of graduates, by the 16th century. 3843: 3831: 3826: 3623: 3591: 3564: 3497: 3474: 3445: 3429: 3344: 2861: 2805: 2707: 2684: 2658: 2621:-loyalist Mongol and Hui Muslim troops holding out in Yunnan province. The 2618: 2548: 2525: 2450: 2421: 2409: 2366: 2362: 2354: 2325:

silver. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose paper

2294: 2233: 2148: 2140: 2124: 1859: 1835: 1809: 1753: 1712: 1650: 1364: 1354: 1331: 1083: 952: 875: 727: 636: 594: 567: 218: 11924: 10590:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 10321: 9183: 8298: 8296: 5266:(1612–1659) in 1627, Adam Schall von Bell's treatise in 1640, and finally 4508: 13336: 13321: 13170: 12883: 12792: 12782: 12708: 12356: 12351: 12120: 11655: 5809: 5667: 5662: 5582: 5570: 5549: 5519: 5471: 5449: 5437: 5377: 5201: 4847: 4686: 4666: 4512: 4482: 4285: 4181: 4143: 4135: 3996: 3780: 3635: 3364: 3124: 3108: 3074: 3027: 2828: 2696: 2692: 2642: 2430: 2416:

that stirred resentment and rebellion, overtaxation of areas hard-hit by

2413: 2252: 2183: 2128: 1766: 1637: 1471: 1439: 1426: 1260: 493: 485: 11362: 11169:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 182–384, 11045: 10845:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 333–375, 10728:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 301–332, 9974:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 107–181, 9661:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 403–439, 9340: 9191: 5188: 4553: 4481:

by the late 16th century. Individual potters also became known, such as

2309:, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth of 13363: 13180: 13054: 13014: 12947: 12099: 11955: 11441: 11037: 11016: 10615: 10300: 9856: 9745: 9487: 9373: 9332: 9162: 8911: 8715: 8293: 7877: 5943: 5918: 5850: 5627: 5592: 5586: 5562: 5540: 5499: 5467: 5101: 5081: 4718: 4316: 4020: 3622:

province, Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645, thus ending the

3583: 3552: 3531: 3511: 3493: 3351:(r. 1621–1665) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from 3165: 3099:

of Bengal (r. 1410–12) to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China (r. 1402–24)

2991: 2865: 2832: 2817: 2752: 2646: 2622: 2555: 2470: 2334: 2241: 2144: 2136: 2127:. The Ming dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the 1518: 1307: 1010: 809: 802: 608: 11484: 10990: 10771: 10466:

Negotiating ethnicity in China: citizenship as a response to the state

10437: 9947: 9716: 8271: 8269: 8267: 5685:—in his 1432 report to the throne about widespread itinerant commerce. 5343: 3787:

Hu Weiyong in 1380, the Hongwu Emperor abolished the Secretariat, the

2131:, the majority ethnic group in China. Although the primary capital of 13253: 13024: 12908: 12878: 12659: 12533: 12324: 12140: 11241: 6728: 6726: 5849:

Prior to proclaiming himself emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself

5819: 5702: 5566: 5558: 5528: 5503: 5356: 5323: 5231: 5109: 5072:

with a teenage boy was seen as a mark of elite status, regardless of

5069: 4934: 4927: 4896: 4871: 4816:(1472–1529), considered the most influential Confucian thinker since 4558: 4500: 4419: 4399: 4395: 4365: 4201: 4112:'s royal carriage being pulled by elephants and escorted by cavalry ( 3788: 3587: 3215: 2723: 2533: 2479: 2446:, which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty. 2417: 2370: 2282: 1031: 823: 11140:

The Ming-Qing conflict, 1619–1683: A historiography and source guide

10699:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).

10292: 9848: 9756:

Amid the Clouds and Mist: China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200–1700

9737: 9479: 9365: 9154: 7400: 6126:

The price of collapse: the Little Ice Age and the fall of Ming China

5262:'s ideas slowly trickled into China starting with the Polish Jesuit 5204:

along the bottom. Sailing directions and distances are marked using

4208: 3436: 3111:

launched an invasion into Ming China in July 1449. The chief eunuch

2902: 2617:

following the successful effort by Hui Muslim Ming armies to defeat

2524:

states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new

12654: 12437: 12395: 12334: 11110: 11008: 10982: 10873: 10429: 9939: 9708: 8308: 8281: 8264: 7841: 6586: 5734: 5653: 5479: 5348: 5287: 5193: 5167: 4970: 4736: 4656: 4632: 4599: 4586: 4524: 4431: 4423: 4341: 4336: 4296: 4196: 4051: 4012: 3607: 3501: 3303: 3295: 3120: 3011: 2719: 2715: 2579: 2563: 2306: 2225: 2200:, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the 1052: 966: 844: 741: 223: 10447:

Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800

10401:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 8–9. 10022:. The 59th George E. Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. Archived from 9417:

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),

8501: 7637: 6723: 6640: 6249: 6093: 4858:. Building upon Zhu Xi's concept of the "extension of knowledge" ( 3656: 2259:

constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the

12567: 12496: 12452: 12307: 10504:

T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century

8691: 5922: 5682: 5554: 5524: 5397: 5368: 5364: 5283: 5065: 4974: 4904: 4875: 4689:

missions among the Yuan heterodox and illegal. The centuries-old

4640: 4462: 4080: 3944: 3859:

to assist the emperor, handling paperwork under the reign of the

3661: 3619: 3548: 3544: 3453: 3307: 3251: 3132: 3092: 2995: 2958: 2791: 2756: 2704: 2650: 2638: 2626: 2606: 2487: 2486:) in 1368. The last Yuan emperor fled north to the upper capital 2483: 2474: 2443: 2405: 2205: 2175: 2132: 2120: 1661: 1512: 1506: 1090: 882: 352: 339: 134: 126: 12368: 10933:

The Jews of Kaifeng, China : history, culture, and religion

9311:

Crawford, Robert B. (1961). "Eunuch Power in the Ming Dynasty".

5938:

bestowed the hereditary title of marquis on a descendant of the

5412: 4764:—including missing an eclipse easily computed by Xu Guangqi and 4651: 4402:

of painting, contributing greatly to Chinese artistic tradition.

3310:

of incoming silver and by private transactions involving silver.

3182: 3018:. Among the kingdoms visited by Zheng He, Yongle proclaimed the 12400: 12275: 10799:

The Ming Prince and Daoism: Institutional Patronage of an Elite

10346:

Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)

9991:"Potosí: the mountain of silver that was the first global city" 9520:

A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China

9075: 8597: 8595: 8111:

Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)

7757: 6888: 6580: 6472: 5514: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5197: 5114: 5073: 4835: 4817: 4722: 4582: 4562: 4528: 4485:, who became famous in the early 17th century for his style of 4474: 4407: 4353: 4024: 3595: 3465: 3104: 3007: 2840: 2634: 2266: 213: 11214:

Ming China, 1368–1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire

9237:

The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China

8763: 6774: 6762: 6699: 6237: 4087:, by an anonymous court painter of the Xuande period (1425–35) 3867:(r. 1424–25). The Grand Secretariat drew its members from the 3539:

province by 1635. By the 1640s, an ex-soldier and rival to Li—

3425: 13034: 12005: 10764:

Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics

9678:

The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet and the Dalai Lama

9392:

China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects

8679: 7301: 7125: 5400:

1360–80) which featured the scoop wheel of Su Song's earlier

5278:

in the 19th century. Catholic Jesuits in China would promote

4757: 4702: 3556: 3536: 3336: 2869: 2809: 2610: 2302: 2271: 1112: 1098: 904: 890: 524: 19:"Ming" and "Ming Dynasty" redirect here. For other uses, see 11247:

1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline

10097:. Berkeley: University of California press. p. xxxiii. 8985: 8983: 8592: 8558: 8556: 8554: 8552: 8127: 7865: 7733: 7361: 6508: 5994: 5992: 4383:(1598–1652); small leaf album paintings like this one first 3369:

shipping silver mined in the Spanish Latin American colonies

3006:

Beginning in 1405, the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored

11919: 10044:

Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China

8847: 8823: 8667: 8643: 8580: 8525: 8489: 8477: 8390: 8388: 8192: 6285: 6261: 6227: 6225: 6147: 6145: 5475: 5359:, dragon-headed devices that spouted mists of perfume, and 4213: 4084: 3850:" that indicates he was a civil official of the first rank. 3764: 3284: 2873: 2274:

instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves.

2096: 519: 12244: 11269:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, pp. 343–402, 10824: 10566:. In Aung-Thwin, Michael Arthur; Hall, Kenneth R. (eds.). 10380:

In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia

8955: 8953: 8917: 8400: 6460: 6381: 3377:

silver shortages caused the downfall of the Ming dynasty.

2804:—the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled by the 11156:

The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties

10241:(1987). "Chin P'ing Mei: Inversion of Self-cultivation". 8995: 8980: 8799: 8775: 8739: 8549: 8412: 8075: 8051: 8000: 7961: 7949: 7889: 7661: 7649: 7586: 7325: 7113: 7077: 6750: 6424: 5989: 5967:

For the argument that they increased social mobility see

5163: 4855: 4295:

Informal essay and travel writing was another highlight.

3751: 2119:, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the 2093: 1071: 1057: 1043: 863: 849: 835: 11343:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

10762:

Wang, Yuan-kang (2011). "The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)".

9759:(illustrated ed.). Harvard University Asia Center. 9065: 9063: 8940: 8938: 8385: 8375: 8373: 8371: 8139: 8041: 8039: 7990: 7988: 7901: 7853: 7805: 7793: 7781: 7709: 7615: 7613: 7598: 7576: 7574: 7572: 7559: 7557: 7555: 7553: 7540: 7538: 7511: 7475: 7451: 7390: 7388: 7349: 7277: 7258: 7256: 7241: 7231: 7229: 7199: 7089: 7024: 6972: 6924: 6864: 6604: 6520: 6222: 6210: 6198: 6169: 6157: 6142: 2831:

over Tibet. Some believe it was a relationship of loose

2536:

of 653. Hongwu organized a military system known as the

2196:, attempted to curtail his uncles' power, prompting the 1022: 814: 10826:"Who invented the toothbrush and when was it invented?" 10243:

The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel: Ssu Ta Ch'i-shu

9048: 9024: 9014: 9012: 9010: 8970: 8968: 8950: 8871: 8859: 8835: 8811: 8787: 8751: 8703: 8655: 8631: 8619: 8607: 8568: 8537: 8513: 8443: 8441: 8439: 8240: 7913: 7417: 7415: 7187: 7166: 7154: 7144: 7142: 7140: 7101: 7043: 7041: 7039: 7012: 6948: 6912: 6900: 6827: 6825: 6711: 6616: 6592: 6556: 6544: 6496: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6345: 6297: 6273: 6188: 6186: 6184: 5921:, Prince of Ningjing and Zhu Honghuan, who stayed with 5174:, with the right illustration displaying men working a 4933:

The liberal views of Wang Yangming were opposed by the

3821: 11307:

An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911

11095: 10622: 8727: 8465: 8424: 8216: 7925: 7745: 7216: 7214: 6876: 6738: 6673:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

6568: 6016: 5891:, is usually not considered part of the Southern Ming. 4717:

throughout East Asia, and whose work with the convert

2293:

of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing

9564:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 9099: 9087: 9060: 9036: 8935: 8453: 8368: 8356: 8344: 8332: 8320: 8228: 8204: 8063: 8036: 8024: 8012: 7985: 7973: 7937: 7829: 7769: 7721: 7697: 7685: 7673: 7625: 7610: 7569: 7550: 7535: 7523: 7499: 7487: 7463: 7439: 7427: 7385: 7289: 7253: 7226: 6960: 6484: 6052: 5310:

was in need of reform. Although the Ming had adopted

5027:(蘇州片清明上河圖), depicting urban life of the Ming dynasty. 4705:

after its founding in 1579. The most influential was

3518:". In 1636, Banner Armies defeated Joseon during the 3335:

gained consent from the Ming court in 1557 to settle

2952: 2105: 1001: 985: 971: 957: 790: 776: 760: 746: 732: 10348:, Harvard University Asia Center, pp. 365–421, 9621:. Berkeley; London: University of California Press. 9420:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

9007: 8965: 8923: 8436: 7817: 7412: 7373: 7137: 7053: 7036: 7000: 6936: 6822: 6810: 6798: 6786: 6664: 6652: 6628: 6532: 6448: 6405: 6333: 6321: 6181: 5486:, manufacturing processes such as for roasting iron 5318:

calendar of 1281, which was just as accurate as the

2827:

Modern scholars debate whether the Ming dynasty had

1878: 1800: 1680: 1613: 1543: 1417: 11379:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 10399:

Ming China and its Allies: Imperial Rule in Eurasia

10339:"The Ming court and the legacy of the Yuan Mongols" 9416: 8314: 8302: 8287: 8275: 7883: 7643: 7211: 6732: 6646: 6436: 6357: 6099: 6004: 3068: 2518:, as well as new palaces and government halls. The 2090: 11437:Ming dynasty art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art 11205:Background Factors in the Rise of the Ming Dynasty 9813: 7337: 6309: 5282:theory at court, yet at the same time embrace the 5092:Weeding out the field, illustrated on Fan Kuang's 2429:in 1351. The Red Turbans were affiliated with the 10171:The Southwestern Frontier During the Ming Dynasty 4095: 3896:—were direct administrative organs of the state: 2812:and conferring new princely titles on leaders of 13742: 11158:(History of Imperial China) (Harvard UP, 2010). 10698: 7065: 6679:(3). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 609–636. 6128:. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press. 6034: 3559:with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan. 3525: 3396:'s reign, killing approximately 830,000 people. 2357:, but it was defeated shortly afterwards by the 11104:Ming History: An Introductory Guide to Research 10202:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 252–287, 9559: 9081: 7847: 6780: 6705: 6255: 6243: 5901: 5470:gear for pearl divers, the annual processes of 4803: 4288:(1550–1616), with its first performance at the 3726:州) under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the 3657:Province, prefecture, sub-prefecture and county 11290:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 3945:Bureaus and offices for the imperial household 3190:(r. 1572–1620) in state ceremonial court dress 2891: 2497: 2369:, with the help of the defecting Ming general 13811:States and territories disestablished in 1644 12260: 12105:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 11500: 11442:Highlights from the British Museum exhibition 11376:The Great Wall of China: From History to Myth 10949: 10820:, New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corporation. 10701:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 9866:The Mandate of Heaven and The Great Ming Code 9776:Studies on the Population of China: 1368–1953 9697:Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 8889: 7313: 5385: 5335: 5209: 5055: 4916: 4865: 4859: 4673:devoted an entire section of his book to the 4635:. The Hongwu Emperor's generals Chang Yuqun, 4125: 4004:classics and successful examination answers. 3543:(1606–1647)—had created a firm rebel base in 3177: 3049:to expand China's borders. This included the 2839:(r. 1521–67) persecuted Buddhism in favor of 2664: 2061: 927: 702: 402:6,500,000 km (2,500,000 sq mi) 57: 42: 13717:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 11132:The Ming History English Translation Project 10662:Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle 9680:, Berkeley: University of California Press, 9560:Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006), 9345:Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary 8092: 8090: 6071:Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary 5666:may be attributed to the practice of female 5498:—and the use of gunpowder weapons such as a 5452:(1608–1674) in one of his famous poems, and 5025:Along the River During the Qingming Festival 4610:successful in persuading foreign audiences. 4311:, with information on everything from local 2691:were combined into a unified wall under the 11431:Notable Ming dynasty painters and galleries 11005: 10912:. In Faure, David; Ho, Ts'ui-p'ing (eds.). 10678: 10664:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 7172: 6399: 6105: 6083: 6081: 6079: 6040: 4844:extermination of the ten degrees of kinship 4677:in the making of porcelain items like this. 4159:, which supervised the imperial genealogy. 3741: 3618:, and finally along the northern border of 3347:challenged them for control of this trade. 2399: 99:Ming China in 1415 during the reign of the 16:Imperial dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 13816:States and territories established in 1368 12267: 12253: 11507: 11493: 11060: 10935:. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Publishing House. 9536: 9441:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 9351: 9206: 9121: 8562: 7307: 7268: 6375: 6216: 6058: 5630:in 1498, although it used stiff pig hair. 5340:) in 1629 according to Western standards. 5220:science and technology in the Song dynasty 5146:History of science and technology in China 4565:deity, from the Ming dynasty, 16th century 3606:ruler of China. After being forced out of 3147:staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor 2068: 2054: 685: 108: 93: 10747:, Beijing: China Intercontinental Press, 10742: 10584: 10547:, New York: Routledge, pp. 473–482, 10073: 9675: 9635: 9619:ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age 9444:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 8171: 8087: 7331: 6610: 6574: 6550: 6466: 6430: 6402:, Geography I, III; Western Territory III 6387: 6175: 6151: 6046: 6028: 5139: 4252:into mature form in this period, such as 3810:assignments became institutionalized as " 3777:which was instituted by various dynasties 2994:located 50 km (31 mi) north of 2590: 2341:permitted a more accommodating attitude. 2270:laws intended to protect the coasts from 10626:. University of Washington Press. 2012. 10542: 10444: 10418:Journal of the American Oriental Society 10396: 10377: 10336: 10307: 10278: 10257: 10216: 10095:Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900 10054: 9969: 9816:The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History 9723: 9310: 9122:Andrew, Anita N.; Rapp, John A. (2000), 8895: 8543: 8133: 7871: 7367: 7319: 6978: 6768: 6756: 6744: 6622: 6514: 6478: 6303: 6291: 6279: 6267: 6111: 6076: 6022: 5900:For the lower population estimate, see ( 5672: 5637: 5508: 5448:(1512–1594) featured them in his atlas, 5411: 5342: 5230:wrote the first Chinese treatise on the 5187: 5157: 5087: 5032: 4890: 4886: 4807: 4721:led to the first Chinese translation of 4711:Map of the Myriad Countries of the World 4650: 4552: 4465:province, most famous in the period for 4436: 4390: 4370: 4340:Painting of a peddler selling birds, by 4335: 4248:. Literati scholars edited or developed 4207: 4189: 4099: 4070: 4045: 4006: 3981: 3948: 3825: 3750: 3660: 3435: 3424: 3313: 3294: 3285:Economic breakdown and natural disasters 3225: 3181: 3095:as a tributary gift in the name of King 3082: 3022:to be its protectorate. The Chinese had 2985: 2920: 2901: 2816:. However, Turrell V. Wylie states that 2785: 2674: 2501: 13541: 11514: 11369: 11117:. New York: Columbia University Press. 11114:Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 11065:. China: China Intercontinental Press. 10950:Yaniv, Zohara; Bachrach, Uriel (2005). 10828:. The Library of Congress. 4 April 2007 10743:Wang, Jiawei; Nyima, Gyaincain (1997), 10680:"Tsunami among world's worst disasters" 10415: 10158: 10149: 10140: 10131: 10111: 9918: 9811: 9797:. New York: Columbia University Press. 9795:The Ladder of Success in Imperial China 9778:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 9694: 8901: 8877: 8865: 8853: 8841: 8829: 8817: 8805: 8793: 8781: 8769: 8757: 8721: 8709: 8673: 8661: 8649: 8637: 8625: 8613: 8601: 8586: 8574: 8531: 8519: 8495: 8483: 8430: 8198: 7931: 7919: 6587:The Ming Biographical Dictionary (1976) 6393: 5917:The last Ming princes to hold out were 5603:—belonged to the late Ming period. His 5434:mounting masts and sails onto carriages 5037:A Ming dynasty red "seal paste box" in 4944: 4477:catered to European tastes by creating 4469:, but also producing other styles. The 4066: 3746: 3265:(1568–1627) dominated the court of the 2775: 2633:(350,000 acres) of land in what is now 13743: 12056:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty 10745:The Historical Status of China's Tibet 10514: 10245:. Princeton University Press: 55–182. 10197: 10174:(PhD thesis). University of Minnesota. 10092: 10041: 10010: 9909: 9882: 9834: 9752: 9597: 9388: 9221:from the original on 13 September 2014 9169: 9140: 9042: 9001: 8883: 8459: 8394: 8379: 8210: 8157: 8145: 8045: 7859: 7835: 7823: 7799: 7787: 7775: 7739: 7715: 7631: 7619: 7604: 7592: 7580: 7563: 7544: 7529: 7517: 7505: 7493: 7481: 7469: 7457: 7445: 7433: 7394: 7379: 7295: 7283: 7262: 7247: 7235: 7205: 7193: 7160: 7148: 7119: 7107: 7047: 7018: 6954: 6942: 6894: 6831: 6816: 6804: 6634: 6598: 6562: 6502: 6490: 6454: 6327: 6204: 5887:on the island of Taiwan, ruled by the 5790:Military conquests of the Ming dynasty 5454:Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest 5162:The puddling process of smelting iron 4375:Painting of flowers, a butterfly, and 4171: 4166: 3995:that was initially established by the 3410: 2884:(1582–1655) in 1642, establishing the 2733:a military campaign to attack Naghachu 1073: 865: 792: 12248: 11488: 11061:Zhang, Yuxin; Xiang, Hongjia (2002). 11023: 10888: 10840: 10815: 10561: 10237: 10178: 10076:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan 9863: 9656: 9616: 9517: 9513:from the original on 10 October 2022. 9458: 9437: 9258: 9233: 9105: 9093: 9069: 9054: 9030: 9018: 8989: 8974: 8959: 8944: 8929: 8447: 8418: 8406: 8362: 8350: 8338: 8326: 8246: 8234: 8081: 8069: 8057: 8030: 8018: 8006: 7994: 7979: 7967: 7955: 7943: 7907: 7895: 7763: 7751: 7727: 7703: 7691: 7679: 7667: 7655: 7421: 7406: 7220: 7095: 7083: 7059: 7030: 7006: 6930: 6870: 6843: 6792: 6658: 6538: 6526: 6442: 6418: 6339: 6231: 6192: 6163: 6123: 6087: 6010: 5905: 5770:List of tributaries of Imperial China 5595:(1518–1593)—one of the most renowned 5347:A 24-point compass chart employed by 5330:, a discovery made simultaneously by 5125:Early Ming dynasty saw the strictest 2864:(1644–1912) in their support for the 13776:14th-century establishments in China 11283: 11111:Goodrich, Luther Carrington (1976). 11079: 10968: 10859: 10796: 10761: 10723: 10659: 10640: 10501: 10167: 9988: 9423:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 9281: 9126:, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 8745: 8733: 8697: 8685: 8507: 8471: 8222: 8096: 7811: 7355: 7178: 7071: 6990: 6966: 6918: 6906: 6717: 6363: 6351: 5701:Historians are now turning to local 5478:, metallurgic processes such as the 4963:The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing 4883:but not experienced the real world. 4083:with his eunuchs, a game similar to 3977: 3822:Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries 3773:Three Departments and Six Ministries 3738:京) attached to Nanjing and Beijing. 3652:List of emperors of the Ming dynasty 3555:, while Li's center of power was in 3442:Drum Tower and Bell Tower of Beijing 3218:, during the Wanli Emperor's reign. 2965:, and at the center of this was the 2653:. After the scholar and philosopher 691:"Ming dynasty" in Chinese characters 13761:Former countries in Chinese history 11096:Reference works and primary sources 11026:Libraries & the Cultural Record 10916:(illustrated ed.). UBC Press. 10907: 10508:Pennsylvania State University Press 10463: 9578: 8315:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8303:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8288:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8276:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8252: 8158:Hagras, Hamada (20 December 2019). 8151: 7884:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 7644:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 7343: 6882: 6844:Swope, Kenneth M. (29 April 2013). 6733:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 6670: 6647:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 6315: 6100:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 5490:in converting sulphide to oxide in 5432:the peculiar Chinese innovation of 5294:(1231–1316) had laid the basis for 5246:acquired the telescope of the late 4445:mark and period (1426–35) imperial 3399: 3045:to spread Chinese culture. He also 2749:Nurgan Regional Military Commission 2601:Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty 2281:—though restricted to islands near 2135:fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by 13: 11188:, University of California Press, 11147: 11090: 11006:Zhang Tingyu; et al. (1739). 10930: 10482: 10281:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9868:. University of Washington Press. 9837:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9792: 9773: 9726:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9522:. University of California Press. 8258: 7131: 5998: 5968: 5950:. He was posthumously promoted to 5692:Studies on the Population of China 5428:(1527–1598) featured in his atlas 4385:became popular in the Song dynasty 4001:printing industry since Song times 3575:right outside the Forbidden City. 3483:previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty 3221: 3030:(202 BCE – 220 CE) and engaged in 2953:New capital and foreign engagement 2835:that was largely cut off when the 2554:In 1380 Hongwu had the Chancellor 58: 14: 13832: 11395: 10705:Journal of World-Systems Research 9639:The Dynasties of China: A History 8113:. Harvard East Asian Monographs. 5946:, and was also inducted into the 5531:before the latter's death in 1375 5502:ignited by use of a rip-cord and 5076:being repugnant to sexual norms. 4142:dynasties—these estates were not 2469:. Known for its ambitious use of 2139:(who established the short-lived 13796:1640s disestablishments in China 10624:The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu 10078:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 9642:, New York: Carroll & Graf, 9438:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), 9214:. Economic History Association. 8102: 6850:. University of Oklahoma Press. 6035:Turchin, Adams & Hall (2006) 5961: 5911: 5013: 5004: 4995: 4986: 4951: 4895:A Ming dynasty print drawing of 4416:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty 4134:) but—unlike the princes in the 4050:Processional figurines from the 3590:(1612–1678) opened the gates at 3573:on a tree in the imperial garden 3551:, with the establishment of the 3069:Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols 3061:, the founder of the Vietnamese 2916: 2158:The Ming dynasty's founder, the 2086: 1149: 655: 641: 627: 613: 599: 585: 560: 470: 469: 77: 11691:Japanese missions to Ming China 11007: 10816:White, William Charles (1966), 10643:The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty 10595:International Studies Quarterly 10344:, in Robinson, David M. (ed.), 9887:. University of Hawai'i Press. 9820:. University of Chicago Press. 9598:Farmer, Edward L., ed. (1995). 8724:, pp. 634, 649–50, 668–69. 6837: 6117: 5894: 5877: 5535:Focusing on agriculture in his 4756:, which exiled four Jesuits to 3520:Second Manchu invasion of Korea 2722:, a former Yuan official and a 2467:largest naval battle in history 2387:For a chronological guide, see 2164: 1113: 1099: 1072: 1058: 1044: 1023: 905: 891: 864: 850: 836: 815: 13801:1644 disestablishments in Asia 11565:Campaign against the Uriankhai 11337:79.3 (2015). pp. 597–634. 11234:(U of California Press, 1996) 10971:History of Education Quarterly 10660:——— (2001). 10641:Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996). 10445:Shepherd, John Robert (1993). 10397:——— (2020). 10382:. Cambridge University Press. 10378:——— (2019). 10337:——— (2008), 10159:——— (1987), 10150:——— (1984), 10141:——— (1971), 10132:——— (1965), 10119:, Cambridge University Press, 10048:University of Washington Press 9793:——— (1962). 9518:——— (2000). 9242:University of California Press 9114: 8918:The Library of Congress (2007) 5860: 5843: 5390:). Chinese records—namely the 4973:, depicting the urban life of 4629:sharply curtailed this support 4148:rebellion of the Prince of Yan 4096:Eunuchs, princes, and generals 3714:府) operating under a prefect ( 3610:by the Qing, chased along the 3586:after the Ming border general 3300:Spring morning in a Han palace 3214:in southwestern China and the 2731:attack. In 1387 the Ming sent 2420:, and massive flooding of the 2008:Science and technology history 1002: 986: 972: 958: 928: 791: 777: 761: 747: 733: 703: 1: 11625:Campaigns against the Mongols 10766:. Columbia University Press. 10449:. Stanford University Press. 10163:, Cambridge University Press. 10154:, Cambridge University Press. 10145:, Cambridge University Press. 10136:, Cambridge University Press. 9676:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1997), 9537:Engelfriet, Peter M. (1998), 9296:10.1080/0147037X.2016.1179552 9082:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 7848:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6781:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6706:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6256:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6244:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 5978: 5633: 5357:self-operating tiger automata 4824:During the Ming dynasty, the 4798: 4685:declared the eighty-year-old 4541:Islam during the Ming dynasty 4497:Carved designs in lacquerware 3645: 3526:Rebellion, invasion, collapse 2743:of Manchuria, except for the 2605:Hui Muslim troops settled in 1378: 1337: 1313: 1290: 1266: 1207: 25:Ming Dynasty (disambiguation) 12163:Covered jar with carp design 11779:Transition from Ming to Qing 11467:Dynasties in Chinese history 11421:Resources in other libraries 11216:, Rowman & Littlefield, 11143:, Online Indiana University. 10952:Handbook of Medicinal Plants 10074:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). 10042:Lipman, Jonathan N. (1998), 9883:Kinney, Anne Behnke (1995). 9617:Frank, Andre Gunder (1998). 9468:The Journal of Asian Studies 9354:The Journal of Asian Studies 9207:Broadberry, Stephen (2014). 9143:The Journal of Asian Studies 8700:, pp. 171–72, 189, 196. 5983: 5904::128); for the higher, see ( 5822:(for further information on 5815:Transition from Ming to Qing 4804:Wang Yangming's Confucianism 4731:in 1607. The discovery of a 4623:and strong official support 4459:imperial kilns at Jingdezhen 4114:full panoramic painting here 3972: 3406:Transition from Ming to Qing 3328:established trade with China 2578:, and other peoples such as 2389:Timeline of the Ming dynasty 7: 13766:1368 establishments in Asia 12274: 12158:Ming presentation porcelain 11757:Japanese invasions of Korea 11335:Journal of Military History 11284:Mote, Frederick W. (2003). 10521:The Search For Modern China 10483:So, Billy Kee Long (2012). 9989:Lane, Kris (30 July 2019). 9812:Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). 9459:Elman, Benjamin A. (1991). 8890:Yaniv & Bachrach (2005) 5902:Fairbank & Goldman 2006 5753:Taxation in premodern China 5748:Economy of the Ming dynasty 5740: 5228:Johann Adam Schall von Bell 5154:List of Chinese discoveries 4789:their long history in China 4691:Church of the East in China 4534: 3470:Japanese invasions of Korea 3462:unified other Jurchen clans 3367:towards China, in favor of 3162:five major offensives north 3051:brief occupation of Vietnam 2892:Reign of the Yongle Emperor 2876:region, culminating in the 2703:After the overthrow of the 2540:, which was similar to the 2498:Reign of the Hongwu Emperor 2394: 2383:History of the Ming dynasty 2279:expansion of European trade 296:• 1572–1620 (longest) 10: 13837: 12020:Compilations and Documents 11651:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 10818:The Chinese Jews, Volume 1 10562:Swope, Kenneth M. (2011). 10524:(2nd ed.), New York: 10272:10.1179/014703795788763645 10231:10.1179/014703786788764194 10200:Warfare in Chinese History 10168:Ness, John Philip (1998). 10059:. Paris: OECD Publishing. 10011:Leslie, Donald D. (1998). 9919:Kuttner, Fritz A. (1975), 9885:Chinese Views of Childhood 9636:Gascoigne, Bamber (2003), 9395:. Richmond: Curzon Press. 9259:Chang, Michael G. (2007), 7134:, p. 4, 17–18, 32–34. 5785:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia 5775:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 5733:; a gazetteer in northern 5192:Map of the known world by 5150:List of Chinese inventions 5143: 4538: 4451:Metropolitan Museum of Art 4175: 3649: 3414: 3403: 3390:Shaanxi earthquake of 1556 3288: 3178:Reign of the Wanli Emperor 3172: 3072: 2912:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia 2909: 2895: 2779: 2668: 2665:Campaign in the North-East 2594: 2386: 2380: 2376: 2238:expanded the empire's rule 18: 13710: 13662: 13179: 12583: 12282: 12224: 12191: 12153:Chinese lacquerware table 12113: 12072: 12019: 11976: 11933: 11915:Embroidered Uniform Guard 11843: 11729: 11676:Prince of Anhua rebellion 11638: 11532: 11523: 11473: 11464: 11456: 11416:Resources in your library 11212:Dardess, John W. (2012), 11203:Dardess, John W. (1968), 11184:Dardess, John W. (1983), 11015:(in Chinese) – via 10797:Wang, Richard G. (2012). 10310:Journal of Social History 10020:www.islamicpopulation.com 6685:10.1017/s0041977x16001038 5952:Marquis of Extended Grace 5883:The Ming loyalist regime 5854: 5800:Ming emperors family tree 5780:Manchuria under Ming rule 5386: 5336: 5218:After the flourishing of 5210: 5056: 4917: 4866: 4860: 4774:Chinese Rites controversy 4644:The Hongwu Emperor wrote 4549:Chinese Rites Controversy 4491:The Ceramic Trade in Asia 4471:Dehua porcelain factories 4406:Famous painters included 4126: 3965:dictator over the state. 3578:Seizing opportunity, the 3496:renamed his dynasty the " 3417:Manchuria under Ming rule 3386:Great Plague of 1633–1644 2998:; the site was chosen by 2671:Manchuria under Ming rule 2576:Embroidered Uniform Guard 2277:By the 16th century, the 2151:—collectively called the 2147:ruled by remnants of the 2117:imperial dynasty of China 1882: 1804: 1684: 1617: 1547: 1421: 1124: 1106: 1089: 1082: 1065: 1051: 1037: 1030: 1016: 1009: 995: 979: 965: 951: 944: 939: 935: 921: 916: 898: 881: 874: 857: 843: 829: 822: 808: 801: 784: 770: 754: 740: 726: 719: 714: 710: 696: 684: 680: 675: 539: 478: 463: 449: 445: 435: 425: 415: 411: 406: 398: 393: 389: 376: 363: 349: 336: 332: 322: 318: 306: 294: 282: 272:• 1368–1398 (first) 270: 266: 256: 246: 202: 146: 119: 107: 92: 74: 69: 43: 34: 12216:Great Ming Treasure Note 12095:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum 11878:Administrative divisions 11681:Prince of Ning rebellion 11355:10.1163/156852008X354643 11287:Imperial China, 900–1800 11084:(in Chinese) (6): 34–40. 10055:Maddison, Angus (2006). 9753:Herman, John E. (2007). 9389:Dillon, Michael (1999). 9265:Harvard University Press 9172:Journal of World History 8688:, pp. 7–30, 84–103. 7766:, p. 380, 394, 392. 6897:, p. 164, 165, 281. 6376:Zhang & Xiang (2002) 6217:Andrew & Rapp (2000) 6001:, pp. 8–9, 22, 259. 5836: 5306:By the 16th century the 4791:to Europe. However, the 4787:and introduced them and 4754:Nanjing Incident of 1616 4499:and designs glazed onto 4479:Chinese export porcelain 4467:blue and white porcelain 4398:(1427–1509) founded the 3937:Ministry of Public Works 3842:. The decoration of two 3834:, an official under the 3742:Institutions and bureaus 3530:A peasant soldier named 3448:and rebuilt in the Ming. 3024:sent diplomatic missions 2768:) and 24 battalions (所, 2400:Revolt and rebel rivalry 2249:Emperor Yingzong of Ming 2182:and unrelated magnates, 308:• 1627–1644 (last) 12035:The Hundred-word Eulogy 11701:Great Rites Controversy 11555:Ming conquest of Yunnan 10893:, New York: Routledge, 10608:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 10502:Song, Yingxing (1966), 9864:Jiang, Yonglin (2011). 9325:10.1163/156853262X00057 9234:Brook, Timothy (1998), 6551:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6481:, pp. 474–75, 478. 6467:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6431:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6388:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6124:Brook, Timothy (2023). 5760:1642 Yellow River flood 5430:Theatrum Orbis Terrarum 5409:clogging up too often. 5351:during his explorations 5200:at the upper right and 4621:during the Tang dynasty 4290:Pavilion of Prince Teng 4186:Musicians in Ming China 3693:路). However, after the 3492:In 1636, Nurhaci's son 3097:Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah 2858:Mongol-Tibetan alliance 2790:A 17th-century Tibetan 2597:Ming conquest of Yunnan 2455:establish a new dynasty 2216:and the primacy of the 12073:Palaces and Mausoleums 12063:Ming Veritable Records 11711:Luso-Chinese agreement 11433:at China Online Museum 11250:, New Haven: Yale UP, 11207:, Columbia University. 11101:Farmer, Edward L. ed. 10645:. Albany: SUNY Press. 10093:Naquin, Susan (2000). 9910:Kolmaš, Josef (1967), 9579:Fan, C. Simon (2016). 8772:, pp. 205, 339ff. 8173:10.36816/shedet.006.08 6771:, pp. 79, 101–08. 5805:Ming official headwear 5686: 5650: 5532: 5421: 5352: 5240:Far Seeing Optic Glass 5215: 5185: 5140:Science and technology 5097: 5041: 4907: 4821: 4678: 4646:a 100 character praise 4566: 4454: 4403: 4388: 4345: 4303:author, published his 4217: 4205: 4117: 4106:The Emperor's Approach 4088: 4055: 4016: 3987: 3957: 3851: 3768: 3670: 3449: 3433: 3392:, occurred during the 3319: 3311: 3238: 3191: 3100: 3032:private overseas trade 3003: 2930: 2907: 2814:Tibetan Buddhist sects 2795: 2700: 2661:of the local peoples. 2591:South-Western frontier 2511: 2329:had suffered repeated 2301:and highly productive 2230:voyages of exploration 2155:—survived until 1662. 355:designated as capital 338:• Established in 114:Ming China around 1580 13791:17th century in China 13786:16th century in China 13781:15th century in China 13771:14th century in China 13687:Medieval great powers 12168:Yongning Temple Stele 11905:Imperial Commissioner 11630:Reign of Ren and Xuan 11590:Ming treasure voyages 11580:Dao Ganmeng rebellion 10908:Xie, Xiaohui (2013). 10322:10.1353/jsh.2000.0035 9184:10.1353/jwh.2006.0013 7742:, pp. 15–17, 26. 7409:, p. 15, footnote 42. 5925:'s Ming loyalists in 5676: 5654:Sinologist historians 5641: 5563:exploding cannonballs 5512: 5474:and weaving with the 5415: 5346: 5191: 5161: 5144:Further information: 5108:; even further south 5091: 5036: 5023:Suzhou Imitation" of 4894: 4887:Conservative reaction 4811: 4715:traditional geography 4654: 4571:Chinese folk religion 4556: 4545:Jesuit China missions 4440: 4394: 4374: 4339: 4216:from the Ming dynasty 4211: 4193: 4178:Ming dynasty painting 4176:Further information: 4103: 4074: 4049: 4010: 3985: 3952: 3902:Ministry of Personnel 3829: 3754: 3664: 3439: 3428: 3317: 3298: 3289:Further information: 3229: 3185: 3086: 2989: 2924: 2910:Further information: 2905: 2789: 2712:Northern Yuan dynasty 2687:walls of the ancient 2678: 2625:troops under General 2505: 2463:Battle of Lake Poyang 2228:, led seven enormous 2218:imperial examinations 1873:(mainland, 1912–1949) 229:Chinese folk religion 147:Common languages 21:Ming (disambiguation) 13697:European colonialism 13682:Ancient great powers 11767:Sino-Dutch conflicts 11666:Rebellion of Cao Qin 11595:Ming–Turpan conflict 11545:Red Turban Rebellion 11447:20 June 2020 at the 11063:Testimony of History 10954:. Psychology Press. 10183:, Richmond: Curzon, 10181:China's Tibet Policy 10179:Norbu, Dawa (2001), 9965:on 26 February 2020. 9774:Ho, Ping-ti (1959), 9562:China: A New History 9341:"Definition of Ming" 8748:, pp. 237, 190. 8604:, pp. 133, 508. 8510:, p. 31, footnote 1. 8409:, pp. 229, 232. 7086:, pp. 206, 208. 6517:, pp. 139, 161. 5940:Ming imperial family 5868:Ming imperial family 5406:stationary dial face 5363:in the tradition of 5196:: India at the top, 4945:Urban and rural life 4627:. Although the Ming 4325:switched from using 4250:major Chinese novels 4212:Decorated back of a 4067:Lesser functionaries 3767:from the Inner Court 3747:Institutional trends 3667:Ming–Tibet relations 3481:in reference to the 3477:and established the 3079:Rebellion of Cao Qin 3026:over land since the 2943:three-year civil war 2782:Ming–Tibet relations 2776:Relations with Tibet 2751:on the banks of the 2149:Ming imperial family 13821:Confucian dynasties 13692:Modern great powers 12114:Society and Culture 12049:Yongle Encyclopedia 11888:Imperial Clan Court 11831:Kingdom of Tungning 11784:Jurchen unification 11716:Jiajing wokou raids 11605:Battle of Palembang 11570:Battle of Buir Lake 10516:Spence, Jonathan D. 10464:Shi, Zhiyu (2002). 10125:1959scc3.book.....N 10029:on 17 December 2010 8992:, pp. 28, 267. 8856:, pp. 498–502. 8832:, pp. 203–205. 8676:, pp. 274–276. 8652:, pp. 510–511. 8589:, pp. 166–167. 8534:, pp. 255–257. 8498:, pp. 444–447. 8486:, pp. 444–445. 8421:, pp. 232–223. 8305:, pp. 281–282. 8201:, pp. 171–172. 8136:, pp. 203–207. 8084:, pp. 225–226. 8060:, pp. 224–225. 8009:, pp. 229–231. 7970:, pp. 318–319. 7958:, pp. 215–217. 7898:, pp. 202–203. 7886:, pp. 104–105. 7874:, pp. 116–117. 7850:, pp. 109–112. 7670:, pp. 198–202. 7658:, pp. 145–146. 7370:, pp. 397–398. 7358:, pp. 193–194. 7098:, pp. 349–353. 7033:, pp. 343–349. 6933:, pp. 194–195. 6720:, pp. 317–327. 6529:, pp. 417–418. 6294:, pp. 144–146. 6270:, pp. 365–399. 6258:, pp. 129–130. 6234:, pp. 192–193. 6166:, pp. 190–191. 5885:Kingdom of Tungning 5872:Kingdom of Tungning 5765:Kingdom of Tungning 5442:Gonzales de Mendoza 5214:) or compass route. 5082:special paper money 5052:Shì nóng gōng shāng 4912:scholar-bureaucrats 4762:Chinese astronomers 4639:, Ding Dexing, and 4618:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas 4307:in 404,000 written 4261:Journey to the West 4172:Literature and arts 4167:Society and culture 4157:Imperial Clan Court 3930:Ministry of Justice 3909:Ministry of Revenue 3846:on his chest is a " 3675:Edwin O. Reischauer 3468:armies against the 3421:Jurchen unification 3411:Rise of the Manchus 3333:initial hostilities 3091:envoy presenting a 2681:Great Wall of China 2516:wall around Nanjing 2222:scholar-bureaucrats 2212:, and restored the 13806:Medieval East Asia 13756:Dynasties of China 11963:Military conquests 11809:Peasant rebellions 11686:Capture of Malacca 11661:Defense of Beijing 11575:Lin Kuan rebellion 11038:10.1353/lac.0.0016 10686:. 30 December 2004 10588:(September 1997). 8180:on 18 October 2020 7910:, pp. 55–182. 7814:, p. 602–606. 7595:, pp. 11, 25. 7208:, pp. 24, 28. 7122:, p. 467–489. 6921:, p. 119-120. 6909:, p. 139–140. 6885:, p. 118–120. 6873:, p. 122–125. 6354:, p. 101–144. 6090:, pp. 148–175 5687: 5651: 5643:Appreciating Plums 5628:bristle toothbrush 5601:in Chinese history 5575:multistage rockets 5533: 5422: 5402:astronomical clock 5353: 5320:Gregorian calendar 5216: 5186: 5184:encyclopedia, 1637 5098: 5050:four occupations ( 5042: 4908: 4899:on his way to the 4822: 4699:St. Paul's College 4679: 4567: 4455: 4404: 4389: 4346: 4344:(計盛), 15th century 4281:The Peony Pavilion 4246:Vernacular Chinese 4218: 4206: 4118: 4089: 4056: 4029:eight-legged essay 4017: 3993:examination system 3988: 3958: 3852: 3812:grand coordinators 3769: 3671: 3450: 3434: 3349:Philip IV of Spain 3320: 3312: 3291:The General Crisis 3239: 3212:Chiefdom of Bozhou 3192: 3101: 3043:woodblock printing 3016:tributary missions 3004: 2931: 2908: 2796: 2701: 2512: 2291:Columbian exchange 2208:, constructed the 2111:), officially the 1888: 1698:Five Dynasties and 1690: 1625:Southern dynasties 1553: 1452:Chu–Han Contention 1444:(206 BCE – 220 CE) 378:• End of the 13736: 13735: 13658: 13657: 13623:Polish–Lithuanian 12798:Gurjara-Pratihara 12242: 12241: 11951:Gunpowder weapons 11910:Grand coordinator 11873:Grand Secretariat 11839: 11838: 11733:(1572–1683) 11642:(1435–1572) 11610:Battle of Kherlen 11560:Ming–Mong Mao War 11550:Wu Mian rebellion 11536:(1368–1435) 11483: 11482: 11474:Succeeded by 11402:Library resources 11297:978-0-674-01212-7 11276:978-0-521-24332-2 11257:978-0-300-02518-7 11230:Dardess, John W. 11223:978-1-4422-0491-1 11195:978-0-520-04733-4 11176:978-0-521-24332-2 11124:978-0-231-03833-1 11072:978-7-80113-885-9 10961:978-1-56022-995-7 10942:978-0-88125-791-5 10923:978-0-7748-2371-5 10900:978-0-415-30843-4 10852:978-0-521-24333-9 10808:978-0-19-976768-7 10790:10.7312/wang15140 10781:978-0-231-15140-5 10772:10.7312/wang15140 10754:978-7-80113-304-5 10735:978-0-521-24333-9 10671:978-0-295-80022-6 10652:978-0-7914-2687-6 10633:978-0-295-80400-2 10577:978-1-136-81964-3 10554:978-0-415-30843-4 10535:978-0-393-97351-8 10494:978-0-415-50896-4 10475:978-0-415-28372-4 10456:978-0-8047-2066-3 10408:978-1-108-48922-5 10389:978-1-10-868279-4 10355:978-0-674-02823-4 10209:978-90-04-11774-7 10190:978-0-7007-0474-3 10104:978-0-520-21991-5 10085:978-0-230-61424-6 10066:978-92-64-02262-1 9981:978-0-521-24332-2 9894:978-0-8248-1681-0 9875:978-0-295-80166-7 9827:978-0-226-35168-1 9804:978-0-231-89496-8 9785:978-0-674-85245-7 9766:978-0-674-02591-2 9687:978-0-520-21951-9 9668:978-0-521-24332-2 9649:978-0-7867-1219-9 9628:978-0-520-21129-2 9590:978-1-317-24183-6 9571:978-0-674-01828-0 9552:978-90-04-10944-5 9543:Koninklijke Brill 9529:978-0-520-92147-4 9451:978-0-521-66991-7 9430:978-0-618-13384-0 9402:978-0-7007-1026-3 9274:978-0-674-02454-0 9251:978-0-520-22154-3 9133:978-0-8476-9580-5 9057:, pp. 94–96. 9033:, pp. 27–28. 9004:, p. 200–01. 8962:, pp. 97–99. 8808:, pp. 24–25. 8784:, pp. 65–66. 8736:, pp. 36–36. 8563:Engelfriet (1998) 8397:, pp. 12–13. 8249:, pp. 31–38. 8225:, pp. 30–32. 8120:978-0-674-02823-4 7862:, pp. 19–20. 7802:, pp. 24–25. 7790:, pp. 18–19. 7718:, pp. 11–14. 7607:, pp. 25–26. 7520:, pp. 33–35. 7484:, pp. 31–32. 7460:, pp. 29–30. 7310:, p. 824–25. 7308:Dennerline (1985) 7286:, pp. 32–33. 7250:, pp. 21–22. 7163:, pp. 22–24. 7110:, pp. 20–21. 7021:, pp. 19–20. 6957:, pp. 17–18. 6759:, pp. 84–85. 6601:, pp. 34–35. 6565:, pp. 30–31. 6505:, pp. 28–29. 6469:, pp. 39–40. 6390:, pp. 39–41. 6207:, p. xxxiii. 6135:978-0-691-25040-3 6114:, p. 115–148 6059:Broadberry (2014) 5932:Yongzheng Emperor 5624:ancient Egyptians 5539:, the agronomist 5537:Nongzheng Quanshu 5504:steel flint wheel 5446:Gerardus Mercator 5361:mechanical clocks 5328:equal temperament 5250:(1576–1630). The 5244:Chongzhen Emperor 4828:doctrines of the 4766:Sabatino de Ursis 4675:ceramics industry 4414:, as well as the 4301:travel literature 4284:, was written by 4242:Classical Chinese 3978:Scholar-officials 3956:, 14–17th century 3916:Ministry of Rites 3857:Grand Secretaries 3793:Grand Secretariat 3761:Republic of China 3718:知府), followed by 3640:Republic of China 3479:Later Jin dynasty 3458:Jianzhou Jurchens 3444:was built in the 3275:Chongzhen Emperor 3117:Zhengtong Emperor 3055:guerrilla warfare 3047:used the military 3020:Kingdom of Cochin 2878:conquest of Tibet 2728:Liaoyang province 2078: 2077: 2035:Transport history 1961:Education history 1933: 1932: 1928: 1927: 1914:Republic of China 1896:People's Republic 1869:Republic of China 1848: 1847: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1791: 1677: 1676: 1610: 1609: 1605: 1604: 1541: 1540: 1374:Spring and Autumn 1237:Liao civilization 1128: 1127: 1120: 1119: 1039:Yale Romanization 946:Standard Mandarin 912: 911: 831:Yale Romanization 721:Standard Mandarin 671: 670: 667: 666: 663: 662: 573: 572: 465:• Per capita 313:Chongzhen Emperor 284:• 1402–1424 251:Absolute monarchy 239:Roman Catholicism 161:Chinese languages 13828: 13539: 13538: 13204:Austro-Hungarian 12904:Chagatai Khanate 12269: 12262: 12255: 12246: 12245: 12042:Huang-Ming Zuxun 11814:Jiashen Incident 11804:She-An Rebellion 11789:Seven Grievances 11762:Donglin movement 11747:Bozhou rebellion 11734: 11643: 11620:Lam Sơn uprising 11600:Ming–Đại Ngu War 11585:Jingnan campaign 11537: 11530: 11529: 11509: 11502: 11495: 11486: 11485: 11457:Preceded by 11454: 11453: 11390: 11366: 11324:pp. 807–832 11316:pp. 723–743 11314: 11301: 11280: 11261: 11227: 11208: 11199: 11180: 11154:Brook, Timothy. 11128: 11085: 11076: 11057: 11020: 11014: 11002: 10965: 10946: 10931:Xu, Xin (2003). 10927: 10904: 10885: 10856: 10837: 10835: 10833: 10821: 10812: 10793: 10758: 10739: 10720: 10718: 10716: 10695: 10693: 10691: 10675: 10656: 10637: 10619: 10581: 10558: 10539: 10511: 10498: 10479: 10460: 10441: 10412: 10393: 10374: 10372: 10370: 10364: 10358:, archived from 10343: 10333: 10304: 10275: 10254: 10239:Plaks, Andrew. H 10234: 10213: 10194: 10175: 10164: 10155: 10146: 10137: 10128: 10108: 10089: 10070: 10051: 10038: 10036: 10034: 10028: 10017: 10007: 10005: 10003: 9985: 9966: 9964: 9958:, archived from 9925: 9915: 9906: 9879: 9860: 9831: 9819: 9808: 9789: 9770: 9749: 9720: 9691: 9672: 9653: 9632: 9613: 9594: 9575: 9556: 9533: 9514: 9512: 9465: 9455: 9434: 9413: 9411: 9409: 9385: 9348: 9336: 9307: 9278: 9255: 9230: 9228: 9226: 9220: 9213: 9203: 9166: 9137: 9109: 9103: 9097: 9091: 9085: 9079: 9073: 9067: 9058: 9052: 9046: 9040: 9034: 9028: 9022: 9016: 9005: 8999: 8993: 8987: 8978: 8972: 8963: 8957: 8948: 8942: 8933: 8927: 8921: 8915: 8909: 8899: 8893: 8887: 8881: 8875: 8869: 8863: 8857: 8851: 8845: 8839: 8833: 8827: 8821: 8815: 8809: 8803: 8797: 8791: 8785: 8779: 8773: 8767: 8761: 8755: 8749: 8743: 8737: 8731: 8725: 8719: 8713: 8707: 8701: 8695: 8689: 8683: 8677: 8671: 8665: 8659: 8653: 8647: 8641: 8635: 8629: 8623: 8617: 8611: 8605: 8599: 8590: 8584: 8578: 8572: 8566: 8560: 8547: 8541: 8535: 8529: 8523: 8517: 8511: 8505: 8499: 8493: 8487: 8481: 8475: 8474:, p. 34–40. 8469: 8463: 8457: 8451: 8445: 8434: 8428: 8422: 8416: 8410: 8404: 8398: 8392: 8383: 8377: 8366: 8360: 8354: 8348: 8342: 8336: 8330: 8324: 8318: 8312: 8306: 8300: 8291: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8262: 8256: 8250: 8244: 8238: 8232: 8226: 8220: 8214: 8208: 8202: 8196: 8190: 8189: 8187: 8185: 8176:. Archived from 8175: 8155: 8149: 8148:, p. 38-39. 8143: 8137: 8131: 8125: 8124: 8106: 8100: 8094: 8085: 8079: 8073: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8049: 8043: 8034: 8028: 8022: 8016: 8010: 8004: 7998: 7992: 7983: 7977: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7887: 7881: 7875: 7869: 7863: 7857: 7851: 7845: 7839: 7833: 7827: 7821: 7815: 7809: 7803: 7797: 7791: 7785: 7779: 7773: 7767: 7761: 7755: 7749: 7743: 7737: 7731: 7725: 7719: 7713: 7707: 7701: 7695: 7689: 7683: 7677: 7671: 7665: 7659: 7653: 7647: 7641: 7635: 7629: 7623: 7617: 7608: 7602: 7596: 7590: 7584: 7578: 7567: 7561: 7548: 7542: 7533: 7527: 7521: 7515: 7509: 7503: 7497: 7491: 7485: 7479: 7473: 7467: 7461: 7455: 7449: 7443: 7437: 7431: 7425: 7419: 7410: 7404: 7398: 7392: 7383: 7377: 7371: 7365: 7359: 7353: 7347: 7341: 7335: 7332:Manthorpe (2008) 7329: 7323: 7322:, p. 469–70 7317: 7311: 7305: 7299: 7293: 7287: 7281: 7275: 7272: 7266: 7260: 7251: 7245: 7239: 7233: 7224: 7218: 7209: 7203: 7197: 7196:, p. 27-28. 7191: 7185: 7182: 7176: 7170: 7164: 7158: 7152: 7146: 7135: 7129: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7075: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7045: 7034: 7028: 7022: 7016: 7010: 7004: 6998: 6988: 6982: 6976: 6970: 6969:, p. 27–47. 6964: 6958: 6952: 6946: 6940: 6934: 6928: 6922: 6916: 6910: 6904: 6898: 6892: 6886: 6880: 6874: 6868: 6862: 6861: 6841: 6835: 6829: 6820: 6814: 6808: 6802: 6796: 6790: 6784: 6778: 6772: 6766: 6760: 6754: 6748: 6742: 6736: 6730: 6721: 6715: 6709: 6703: 6697: 6696: 6668: 6662: 6656: 6650: 6644: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6620: 6614: 6611:Goldstein (1997) 6608: 6602: 6596: 6590: 6584: 6578: 6575:Goldstein (1997) 6572: 6566: 6560: 6554: 6548: 6542: 6536: 6530: 6524: 6518: 6512: 6506: 6500: 6494: 6488: 6482: 6476: 6470: 6464: 6458: 6452: 6446: 6440: 6434: 6433:, pp. 1–40. 6428: 6422: 6416: 6403: 6397: 6391: 6385: 6379: 6373: 6367: 6361: 6355: 6349: 6343: 6337: 6331: 6325: 6319: 6313: 6307: 6301: 6295: 6289: 6283: 6277: 6271: 6265: 6259: 6253: 6247: 6241: 6235: 6229: 6220: 6214: 6208: 6202: 6196: 6190: 6179: 6176:Gascoigne (2003) 6173: 6167: 6161: 6155: 6152:Gascoigne (2003) 6149: 6140: 6139: 6121: 6115: 6109: 6103: 6097: 6091: 6085: 6074: 6068: 6062: 6056: 6050: 6047:Taagepera (1997) 6044: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6020: 6014: 6008: 6002: 5996: 5972: 5965: 5959: 5956:Qianlong Emperor 5915: 5909: 5898: 5892: 5881: 5875: 5866:Remnants of the 5864: 5858: 5856: 5847: 5727:a great epidemic 5707:Chenghua Emperor 5426:Abraham Ortelius 5389: 5388: 5373:Nicolas Trigault 5339: 5338: 5308:Chinese calendar 5290:(1031–1095) and 5213: 5212: 5059: 5058: 5017: 5008: 4999: 4990: 4955: 4920: 4919: 4869: 4868: 4863: 4862: 4669:, 17th century; 4129: 4128: 3695:Jurchen invasion 3679:John K. Fairbank 3487:Seven Grievances 3456:, leader of the 3400:Fall of the Ming 3250:, Wang Zhi, and 3208:Bozhou rebellion 2982: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2925:Portrait of the 2506:Portrait of the 2437:secret society. 2272:Japanese pirates 2251:during the 1449 2198:Jingnan campaign 2189:Huang-Ming Zuxun 2174:'s dockyards in 2168: 2166: 2108: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2070: 2063: 2056: 1998:Military history 1956:Economic history 1944:Related articles 1921: 1903: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1879: 1874: 1841: 1828: 1815: 1802: 1801: 1785: 1772: 1759: 1740: 1730: 1718: 1705: 1687: 1686: 1682: 1681: 1666: 1656: 1643: 1630: 1615: 1614: 1598: 1593:Sixteen Kingdoms 1576: 1566: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1534: 1500: 1487: 1477: 1467: 1466:(202 BCE – 9 CE) 1457: 1445: 1432: 1419: 1418: 1397: 1389: 1387: 1383: 1380: 1370: 1360: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1292: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1268: 1218: 1216: 1212: 1209: 1153: 1143:History of China 1130: 1129: 1116: 1115: 1102: 1101: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1061: 1060: 1047: 1046: 1026: 1025: 1005: 1004: 991: 990: 989: 975: 974: 961: 960: 937: 936: 931: 930: 908: 907: 894: 893: 870: 869: 868: 853: 852: 839: 838: 818: 817: 797: 796: 795: 780: 779: 766: 765: 764: 750: 749: 736: 735: 712: 711: 706: 705: 689: 673: 672: 659: 658: 651:Portuguese Macau 645: 644: 631: 630: 617: 616: 603: 602: 589: 588: 577: 576: 564: 563: 557: 556: 541: 540: 528: 515: 490: 473: 472: 456: 163: 139: 131: 112: 97: 81: 61: 54: 46: 45: 32: 31: 13836: 13835: 13831: 13830: 13829: 13827: 13826: 13825: 13741: 13740: 13737: 13732: 13721:American Empire 13706: 13702:African empires 13654: 13537: 13229:Central African 13175: 12993:Romano-Germanic 12579: 12313:Middle Assyrian 12286: 12278: 12273: 12243: 12238: 12233:History of Ming 12220: 12187: 12109: 12085:Chaotian Palace 12068: 12028:History of Yuan 12015: 11972: 11929: 11835: 11735: 11732: 11725: 11721:Single whip law 11696:Ningbo incident 11671:Miao rebellions 11644: 11641: 11634: 11538: 11535: 11519: 11513: 11479: 11470: 11462: 11449:Wayback Machine 11427: 11426: 11425: 11410: 11409: 11405: 11398: 11393: 11387: 11371:Waldron, Arthur 11340: 11304: 11298: 11277: 11264: 11258: 11240: 11224: 11211: 11202: 11196: 11183: 11177: 11164: 11150: 11148:General studies 11125: 11098: 11093: 11091:Further reading 11088: 11073: 11010:History of Ming 10962: 10943: 10924: 10901: 10853: 10831: 10829: 10809: 10782: 10755: 10736: 10714: 10712: 10689: 10687: 10672: 10653: 10634: 10586:Taagepera, Rein 10578: 10555: 10536: 10495: 10476: 10457: 10409: 10390: 10368: 10366: 10365:on 11 June 2016 10362: 10356: 10341: 10293:10.2307/2652684 10210: 10191: 10113:Needham, Joseph 10105: 10086: 10067: 10032: 10030: 10026: 10015: 10001: 9999: 9982: 9962: 9928:Ethnomusicology 9923: 9895: 9876: 9849:10.2307/2718619 9828: 9805: 9786: 9767: 9738:10.2307/2718941 9688: 9669: 9650: 9629: 9610: 9591: 9572: 9553: 9530: 9510: 9480:10.2307/2057472 9463: 9452: 9431: 9407: 9405: 9403: 9366:10.2307/2056469 9275: 9252: 9224: 9222: 9218: 9211: 9155:10.2307/2700190 9134: 9117: 9112: 9104: 9100: 9092: 9088: 9080: 9076: 9068: 9061: 9053: 9049: 9041: 9037: 9029: 9025: 9017: 9008: 9000: 8996: 8988: 8981: 8973: 8966: 8958: 8951: 8943: 8936: 8928: 8924: 8916: 8912: 8900: 8896: 8888: 8884: 8876: 8872: 8864: 8860: 8852: 8848: 8840: 8836: 8828: 8824: 8816: 8812: 8804: 8800: 8792: 8788: 8780: 8776: 8768: 8764: 8756: 8752: 8744: 8740: 8732: 8728: 8720: 8716: 8708: 8704: 8696: 8692: 8684: 8680: 8672: 8668: 8660: 8656: 8648: 8644: 8636: 8632: 8624: 8620: 8612: 8608: 8600: 8593: 8585: 8581: 8573: 8569: 8561: 8550: 8544:Peterson (1986) 8542: 8538: 8530: 8526: 8518: 8514: 8506: 8502: 8494: 8490: 8482: 8478: 8470: 8466: 8458: 8454: 8446: 8437: 8429: 8425: 8417: 8413: 8405: 8401: 8393: 8386: 8378: 8369: 8361: 8357: 8349: 8345: 8337: 8333: 8325: 8321: 8313: 8309: 8301: 8294: 8286: 8282: 8274: 8265: 8257: 8253: 8245: 8241: 8233: 8229: 8221: 8217: 8209: 8205: 8197: 8193: 8183: 8181: 8156: 8152: 8144: 8140: 8134:Robinson (2020) 8132: 8128: 8121: 8107: 8103: 8095: 8088: 8080: 8076: 8068: 8064: 8056: 8052: 8044: 8037: 8029: 8025: 8017: 8013: 8005: 8001: 7993: 7986: 7978: 7974: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7930: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7906: 7902: 7894: 7890: 7882: 7878: 7872:Robinson (1999) 7870: 7866: 7858: 7854: 7846: 7842: 7834: 7830: 7822: 7818: 7810: 7806: 7798: 7794: 7786: 7782: 7774: 7770: 7762: 7758: 7754:, p. 7–28. 7750: 7746: 7738: 7734: 7726: 7722: 7714: 7710: 7702: 7698: 7690: 7686: 7678: 7674: 7666: 7662: 7654: 7650: 7642: 7638: 7630: 7626: 7618: 7611: 7603: 7599: 7591: 7587: 7579: 7570: 7562: 7551: 7543: 7536: 7528: 7524: 7516: 7512: 7504: 7500: 7492: 7488: 7480: 7476: 7468: 7464: 7456: 7452: 7444: 7440: 7432: 7428: 7420: 7413: 7405: 7401: 7393: 7386: 7378: 7374: 7368:Hartwell (1982) 7366: 7362: 7354: 7350: 7342: 7338: 7330: 7326: 7320:Shepherd (1993) 7318: 7314: 7306: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7282: 7278: 7273: 7269: 7261: 7254: 7246: 7242: 7234: 7227: 7219: 7212: 7204: 7200: 7192: 7188: 7183: 7179: 7173:BBC News (2004) 7171: 7167: 7159: 7155: 7147: 7138: 7130: 7126: 7118: 7114: 7106: 7102: 7094: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7070: 7066: 7058: 7054: 7046: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7017: 7013: 7005: 7001: 6989: 6985: 6981:, p. 1–16. 6979:Robinson (1995) 6977: 6973: 6965: 6961: 6953: 6949: 6941: 6937: 6929: 6925: 6917: 6913: 6905: 6901: 6893: 6889: 6881: 6877: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6842: 6838: 6830: 6823: 6815: 6811: 6803: 6799: 6791: 6787: 6779: 6775: 6769:Robinson (1999) 6767: 6763: 6757:Robinson (1999) 6755: 6751: 6745:Robinson (1999) 6743: 6739: 6731: 6724: 6716: 6712: 6704: 6700: 6669: 6665: 6657: 6653: 6645: 6641: 6633: 6629: 6623:Robinson (2000) 6621: 6617: 6613:, pp. 6–9. 6609: 6605: 6597: 6593: 6585: 6581: 6573: 6569: 6561: 6557: 6549: 6545: 6537: 6533: 6525: 6521: 6515:Langlois (1988) 6513: 6509: 6501: 6497: 6489: 6485: 6479:Sperling (2003) 6477: 6473: 6465: 6461: 6453: 6449: 6441: 6437: 6429: 6425: 6417: 6406: 6400:History of Ming 6398: 6394: 6386: 6382: 6374: 6370: 6362: 6358: 6350: 6346: 6338: 6334: 6326: 6322: 6314: 6310: 6304:Robinson (2019) 6302: 6298: 6292:Robinson (2019) 6290: 6286: 6282:, pp. 8–9. 6280:Robinson (2020) 6278: 6274: 6268:Robinson (2008) 6266: 6262: 6254: 6250: 6242: 6238: 6230: 6223: 6215: 6211: 6203: 6199: 6191: 6182: 6174: 6170: 6162: 6158: 6150: 6143: 6136: 6122: 6118: 6112:Crawford (1961) 6110: 6106: 6098: 6094: 6086: 6077: 6069: 6065: 6057: 6053: 6045: 6041: 6033: 6029: 6023:Maddison (2006) 6021: 6017: 6009: 6005: 5997: 5990: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5975: 5966: 5962: 5954:in 1750 by the 5916: 5912: 5899: 5895: 5882: 5878: 5865: 5861: 5848: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5824:rural economics 5743: 5719:Jiajing Emperor 5696:Hongzhi Emperor 5636: 5599:and physicians 5597:pharmacologists 5585:that had up to 5579:booster rockets 5260:Galileo Galilei 5256:Johannes Kepler 5242:); in 1634 the 5156: 5142: 5117:shells to make 5047:Jonathan Spence 5031: 5030: 5029: 5028: 5020: 5019: 5018: 5010: 5009: 5001: 5000: 4992: 4991: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4961: 4956: 4947: 4939:Donglin Academy 4889: 4806: 4801: 4625:during the Yuan 4575:Three Teachings 4557:Chinese glazed 4551: 4537: 4487:white porcelain 4327:woodblock print 4299:(1587–1641), a 4188: 4174: 4169: 4098: 4069: 3980: 3975: 3947: 3923:Ministry of War 3836:Hongzhi Emperor 3824: 3749: 3744: 3683:Albert M. Craig 3659: 3654: 3648: 3604:Shunzhi Emperor 3541:Zhang Xianzhong 3528: 3510:, declared the 3423: 3413: 3408: 3402: 3394:Jiajing Emperor 3293: 3287: 3271:Donglin Society 3224: 3222:Role of eunuchs 3180: 3175: 3115:encouraged the 3081: 3073:Main articles: 3071: 2979: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2955: 2939:Jianwen Emperor 2919: 2914: 2900: 2894: 2886:Khoshut Khanate 2846:tea-horse trade 2837:Jiajing Emperor 2784: 2778: 2683:: Although the 2673: 2667: 2615:Kingdom of Dali 2603: 2595:Main articles: 2593: 2566:, a network of 2521:History of Ming 2500: 2465:, arguably the 2402: 2397: 2392: 2385: 2379: 2299:Sichuan cuisine 2194:Jianwen Emperor 2163: 2106: 2089: 2085: 2074: 2045: 2044: 2040:Women's history 1946: 1945: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1917: 1906: 1901: 1897: 1877: 1872: 1863: 1862: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1831: 1826: 1818: 1813: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1775: 1770: 1762: 1757: 1749: 1743: 1738: 1728: 1716: 1708: 1703: 1699: 1679: 1678: 1673: 1664: 1654: 1646: 1641: 1633: 1628: 1624: 1612: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1588: 1585: 1579: 1574: 1564: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1524: 1498: 1490: 1485: 1475: 1465: 1455: 1443: 1435: 1430: 1415: 1414: 1403: 1402: 1395: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1368: 1358: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1327: 1320: 1316: 1311: 1298: 1046 BCE 1297: 1293: 1288: 1280: 1274: 1600 BCE 1273: 1269: 1264: 1255: 1254: 1243: 1242: 1215: 2000 BCE 1214: 1210: 1205: 1197: 1186: 1185: 997:Tongyong Pinyin 987: 772:Tongyong Pinyin 762: 692: 656: 642: 628: 614: 600: 586: 561: 535: 532: 531: 522: 508:strings of coin 505: 488: 466: 454: 438: 428: 418: 382: 369: 367:Fall of Beijing 359:28 October 1420 356: 345:23 January 1368 342: 309: 297: 285: 273: 158: 142: 137: 129: 115: 103: 88: 87: 82: 65: 64: 48: 37: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13834: 13824: 13823: 13818: 13813: 13808: 13803: 13798: 13793: 13788: 13783: 13778: 13773: 13768: 13763: 13758: 13753: 13734: 13733: 13731: 13730: 13729: 13728: 13723: 13714: 13712: 13708: 13707: 13705: 13704: 13699: 13694: 13689: 13684: 13679: 13678: 13677: 13666: 13664: 13660: 13659: 13656: 13655: 13653: 13652: 13647: 13642: 13637: 13632: 13631: 13630: 13620: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13574: 13573: 13568: 13558: 13553: 13547: 13545: 13536: 13535: 13534: 13533: 13528: 13523: 13518: 13513: 13503: 13498: 13497: 13496: 13486: 13481: 13480: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13459: 13454: 13453: 13452: 13447: 13437: 13436: 13435: 13430: 13425: 13420: 13415: 13405: 13404: 13403: 13398: 13388: 13383: 13378: 13373: 13372: 13371: 13366: 13361: 13356: 13351: 13341: 13340: 13339: 13334: 13324: 13319: 13318: 13317: 13312: 13302: 13301: 13300: 13295: 13285: 13284: 13283: 13278: 13268: 13263: 13262: 13261: 13256: 13251: 13246: 13241: 13231: 13226: 13225: 13224: 13219: 13211: 13206: 13201: 13196: 13191: 13185: 13183: 13177: 13176: 13174: 13173: 13168: 13163: 13158: 13157: 13156: 13151: 13146: 13141: 13136: 13131: 13126: 13116: 13111: 13110: 13109: 13104: 13099: 13094: 13089: 13084: 13074: 13073: 13072: 13067: 13062: 13057: 13047: 13042: 13037: 13032: 13027: 13022: 13017: 13012: 13007: 13006: 13005: 13000: 12990: 12989: 12988: 12983: 12978: 12973: 12968: 12963: 12950: 12945: 12940: 12935: 12934: 12933: 12928: 12923: 12913: 12912: 12911: 12906: 12901: 12896: 12886: 12881: 12876: 12871: 12866: 12861: 12860: 12859: 12854: 12849: 12844: 12834: 12833: 12832: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12807: 12806: 12805: 12800: 12795: 12785: 12780: 12775: 12770: 12765: 12764: 12763: 12758: 12753: 12743: 12738: 12737: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12721: 12716: 12711: 12701: 12700: 12699: 12694: 12684: 12683: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12667: 12657: 12652: 12651: 12650: 12640: 12639: 12638: 12633: 12625: 12620: 12615: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12595: 12589: 12587: 12585:Post-classical 12581: 12580: 12578: 12577: 12576: 12575: 12565: 12560: 12559: 12558: 12553: 12543: 12542: 12541: 12531: 12530: 12529: 12524: 12519: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12494: 12489: 12484: 12483: 12482: 12477: 12472: 12467: 12457: 12456: 12455: 12450: 12440: 12435: 12434: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12418: 12413: 12403: 12398: 12393: 12392: 12391: 12386: 12384:Middle Kingdom 12381: 12371: 12366: 12365: 12364: 12359: 12354: 12344: 12343: 12342: 12340:Neo-Babylonian 12337: 12332: 12330:Old Babylonian 12322: 12321: 12320: 12315: 12305: 12300: 12294: 12292: 12280: 12279: 12272: 12271: 12264: 12257: 12249: 12240: 12239: 12237: 12236: 12228: 12226: 12222: 12221: 12219: 12218: 12213: 12212: 12211: 12209:Yongle Tongbao 12206: 12204:Hongwu Tongbao 12195: 12193: 12189: 12188: 12186: 12185: 12180: 12175: 12170: 12165: 12160: 12155: 12150: 12149: 12148: 12143: 12138: 12128: 12123: 12117: 12115: 12111: 12110: 12108: 12107: 12102: 12097: 12092: 12087: 12082: 12080:Forbidden City 12076: 12074: 12070: 12069: 12067: 12066: 12059: 12052: 12045: 12038: 12031: 12023: 12021: 12017: 12016: 12014: 12013: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11997: 11996: 11991: 11980: 11978: 11974: 11973: 11971: 11970: 11968:Nine Garrisons 11965: 11960: 11959: 11958: 11948: 11943: 11937: 11935: 11931: 11930: 11928: 11927: 11922: 11917: 11912: 11907: 11902: 11901: 11900: 11890: 11885: 11880: 11875: 11870: 11869: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11847: 11845: 11841: 11840: 11837: 11836: 11834: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11822: 11821: 11816: 11811: 11806: 11801: 11796: 11791: 11786: 11776: 11775: 11774: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11752:Ordos campaign 11749: 11744: 11738: 11736: 11731: 11727: 11726: 11724: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11658: 11653: 11647: 11645: 11640: 11636: 11635: 11633: 11632: 11627: 11622: 11617: 11615:Ming–Kotte War 11612: 11607: 11602: 11597: 11592: 11587: 11582: 11577: 11572: 11567: 11562: 11557: 11552: 11547: 11541: 11539: 11534: 11527: 11521: 11520: 11512: 11511: 11504: 11497: 11489: 11481: 11480: 11475: 11472: 11463: 11458: 11452: 11451: 11439: 11434: 11424: 11423: 11418: 11412: 11411: 11400: 11399: 11397: 11396:External links 11394: 11392: 11391: 11385: 11367: 11349:(4): 578–638, 11338: 11331: 11302: 11296: 11281: 11275: 11262: 11256: 11238: 11228: 11222: 11209: 11200: 11194: 11181: 11175: 11162: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11145: 11144: 11135: 11129: 11123: 11108: 11097: 11094: 11092: 11089: 11087: 11086: 11077: 11071: 11058: 11032:(2): 148–175. 11021: 11003: 10983:10.2307/369121 10977:(2): 193–213, 10966: 10960: 10947: 10941: 10928: 10922: 10905: 10899: 10886: 10874:10.1086/349663 10857: 10851: 10838: 10822: 10813: 10807: 10794: 10780: 10759: 10753: 10740: 10734: 10721: 10696: 10676: 10670: 10657: 10651: 10638: 10632: 10620: 10602:(3): 475–504. 10582: 10576: 10559: 10553: 10540: 10534: 10512: 10499: 10493: 10480: 10474: 10461: 10455: 10442: 10430:10.2307/595074 10413: 10407: 10394: 10388: 10375: 10354: 10334: 10316:(3): 527–563, 10305: 10276: 10255: 10235: 10214: 10208: 10195: 10189: 10176: 10165: 10156: 10147: 10138: 10129: 10109: 10103: 10090: 10084: 10071: 10065: 10052: 10039: 10008: 9986: 9980: 9967: 9940:10.2307/850355 9934:(2): 163–206, 9916: 9907: 9893: 9880: 9874: 9861: 9832: 9826: 9809: 9803: 9790: 9784: 9771: 9765: 9750: 9732:(2): 365–442, 9721: 9709:10.2307/495194 9703:(1/2): 67–93, 9692: 9686: 9673: 9667: 9654: 9648: 9633: 9627: 9614: 9608: 9595: 9589: 9576: 9570: 9557: 9551: 9534: 9528: 9515: 9456: 9450: 9435: 9429: 9414: 9401: 9386: 9360:(4): 824–825. 9349: 9337: 9319:(3): 115–148. 9308: 9279: 9273: 9256: 9250: 9231: 9204: 9178:(4): 467–489. 9167: 9138: 9132: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9110: 9108:, p. 163. 9098: 9096:, p. 195. 9086: 9084:, p. 128. 9074: 9072:, p. 162. 9059: 9047: 9035: 9023: 9006: 8994: 8979: 8964: 8949: 8947:, p. 267. 8934: 8922: 8910: 8902:Hopkins (2002) 8894: 8882: 8880:, p. 229. 8878:Needham (1987) 8870: 8868:, p. 508. 8866:Needham (1987) 8858: 8854:Needham (1987) 8846: 8844:, p. 205. 8842:Needham (1987) 8834: 8830:Needham (1987) 8822: 8820:, p. 264. 8818:Needham (1987) 8810: 8806:Needham (1987) 8798: 8796:, p. 372. 8794:Needham (1987) 8786: 8782:Needham (1984) 8774: 8770:Needham (1987) 8762: 8760:, p. 126. 8758:Needham (1987) 8750: 8738: 8726: 8722:Needham (1971) 8714: 8712:, p. 668. 8710:Needham (1971) 8702: 8690: 8678: 8674:Needham (1965) 8666: 8664:, p. 276. 8662:Needham (1965) 8654: 8650:Needham (1965) 8642: 8640:, p. 511. 8638:Needham (1965) 8630: 8628:, p. 509. 8626:Needham (1965) 8618: 8616:, p. 438. 8614:Needham (1965) 8606: 8602:Needham (1965) 8591: 8587:Kuttner (1975) 8579: 8577:, p. 166. 8575:Kuttner (1975) 8567: 8548: 8536: 8532:Needham (1965) 8524: 8522:, p. 110. 8520:Needham (1959) 8512: 8500: 8496:Needham (1959) 8488: 8484:Needham (1959) 8476: 8464: 8452: 8435: 8431:Schafer (1956) 8423: 8411: 8399: 8384: 8367: 8365:, p. 206. 8355: 8353:, p. 213. 8343: 8341:, p. 230. 8331: 8329:, p. 158. 8319: 8317:, p. 283. 8307: 8292: 8290:, p. 281. 8280: 8278:, p. 282. 8263: 8251: 8239: 8237:, p. 212. 8227: 8215: 8203: 8199:Needham (1965) 8191: 8166:(6): 134–158. 8150: 8138: 8126: 8119: 8101: 8086: 8074: 8072:, p. 225. 8062: 8050: 8035: 8033:, p. 206. 8023: 8021:, p. 201. 8011: 7999: 7997:, p. 318. 7984: 7982:, p. 319. 7972: 7960: 7948: 7946:, p. xxi. 7936: 7932:Hargett (1985) 7924: 7922:, p. 524. 7920:Needham (1959) 7912: 7900: 7888: 7876: 7864: 7852: 7840: 7828: 7816: 7804: 7792: 7780: 7768: 7756: 7744: 7732: 7730:, p. 199. 7720: 7708: 7706:, p. xxv. 7696: 7694:, p. 198. 7684: 7682:, p. 200. 7672: 7660: 7648: 7636: 7624: 7609: 7597: 7585: 7568: 7549: 7534: 7522: 7510: 7498: 7486: 7474: 7462: 7450: 7438: 7426: 7411: 7399: 7384: 7372: 7360: 7348: 7336: 7334:, p. 108. 7324: 7312: 7300: 7288: 7276: 7267: 7252: 7240: 7225: 7210: 7198: 7186: 7177: 7165: 7153: 7136: 7124: 7112: 7100: 7088: 7076: 7064: 7062:, p. 205. 7052: 7035: 7023: 7011: 7009:, p. 124. 6999: 6983: 6971: 6959: 6947: 6935: 6923: 6911: 6899: 6887: 6875: 6863: 6856: 6836: 6821: 6809: 6797: 6795:, p. 208. 6785: 6783:, p. 139. 6773: 6761: 6749: 6737: 6735:, p. 273. 6722: 6710: 6708:, p. 137. 6698: 6663: 6661:, p. 194. 6651: 6649:, p. 272. 6639: 6627: 6625:, p. 527. 6615: 6603: 6591: 6579: 6567: 6555: 6543: 6541:, p. 227. 6531: 6519: 6507: 6495: 6493:, p. 273. 6483: 6471: 6459: 6447: 6435: 6423: 6421:, p. 470. 6404: 6392: 6380: 6368: 6366:, p. 159. 6356: 6344: 6342:, p. 197. 6332: 6320: 6318:, p. 133. 6308: 6306:, p. 248. 6296: 6284: 6272: 6260: 6248: 6246:, p. 130. 6236: 6221: 6209: 6197: 6195:, p. 191. 6180: 6178:, p. 151. 6168: 6156: 6154:, p. 150. 6141: 6134: 6116: 6104: 6102:, p. 271. 6092: 6075: 6063: 6051: 6039: 6027: 6025:, p. 238. 6015: 6013:, p. 109. 6003: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5960: 5910: 5893: 5889:House of Zheng 5876: 5859: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5827: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5756: 5755: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5679:Xuande Emperor 5635: 5632: 5553:, compiled by 5523:, compiled by 5482:technique and 5463:Tiangong Kaiwu 5382:incense clocks 5367:(683–727) and 5248:Johann Schreck 5181:Tiangong Kaiwu 5141: 5138: 5127:sumptuary laws 5078:Public bathing 5039:carved lacquer 5022: 5021: 5012: 5011: 5003: 5002: 4994: 4993: 4985: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4958: 4957: 4950: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4888: 4885: 4840:Yongle Emperor 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4772:had begun the 4683:Hongwu Emperor 4662:Blanc-de-Chine 4536: 4533: 4489:sculpture. In 4447:blue and white 4377:rock sculpture 4322:Peking Gazette 4305:Travel Diaries 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4152:Yongle Emperor 4097: 4094: 4077:Xuande Emperor 4068: 4065: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3941: 3933: 3926: 3919: 3912: 3905: 3869:Hanlin Academy 3865:Hongxi Emperor 3861:Yongle Emperor 3840:Nanjing Museum 3830:A portrait of 3823: 3820: 3757:Forbidden City 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3720:subprefectures 3658: 3655: 3647: 3644: 3527: 3524: 3412: 3409: 3404:Main article: 3401: 3398: 3382:Little Ice Age 3324:The Portuguese 3286: 3283: 3267:Tianqi Emperor 3223: 3220: 3204:Ordos campaign 3179: 3176: 3174: 3171: 3158:Yongle Emperor 3139:(r. 1457–64). 3070: 3067: 3036:treasure ships 2967:Forbidden City 2954: 2951: 2947:Yongle Emperor 2935:Hongwu Emperor 2927:Yongle Emperor 2918: 2915: 2898:Yongle Emperor 2896:Main article: 2893: 2890: 2780:Main article: 2777: 2774: 2759:, a eunuch of 2689:Warring States 2669:Main article: 2666: 2663: 2592: 2589: 2528:law code, the 2508:Hongwu Emperor 2499: 2496: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2381:Main article: 2378: 2375: 2365:armies of the 2347:Little Ice Age 2337:introduced by 2331:hyperinflation 2323:South American 2224:. One eunuch, 2210:Forbidden City 2202:Yongle Emperor 2160:Hongwu Emperor 2076: 2075: 2073: 2072: 2065: 2058: 2050: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2031: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1994: 1993: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1971:Jewish history 1968: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1947: 1943: 1942: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1931: 1930: 1926: 1925: 1923: 1922: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1904: 1902:(1949–present) 1891: 1889: 1883: 1876: 1875: 1864: 1858: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1846: 1845: 1843: 1842: 1830: 1829: 1817: 1816: 1805: 1795: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1787: 1786: 1776: 1773: 1763: 1760: 1750: 1746: 1744: 1742: 1741: 1731: 1720: 1719: 1707: 1706: 1693: 1691: 1685: 1675: 1674: 1672: 1671: 1670: 1669: 1668: 1667: 1645: 1644: 1632: 1631: 1618: 1608: 1607: 1603: 1602: 1600: 1599: 1589: 1586: 1582: 1580: 1578: 1577: 1567: 1556: 1554: 1548: 1539: 1538: 1536: 1535: 1523: 1522: 1502: 1501: 1495:Three Kingdoms 1489: 1488: 1478: 1468: 1458: 1447: 1446: 1434: 1433: 1422: 1416: 1410: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1398: 1393:Warring States 1390: 1386: 476 BCE 1361: 1359:(1046–771 BCE) 1350: 1349: 1345: 256 BCE 1326: 1325: 1303: 1302: 1279: 1278: 1256: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1220: 1219: 1196: 1195: 1187: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1173: 1171:Historiography 1168: 1163: 1155: 1154: 1146: 1145: 1139: 1138: 1126: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1110: 1104: 1103: 1096: 1087: 1086: 1080: 1079: 1069: 1063: 1062: 1055: 1049: 1048: 1041: 1035: 1034: 1032:Yue: Cantonese 1028: 1027: 1020: 1014: 1013: 1007: 1006: 999: 993: 992: 983: 977: 976: 969: 963: 962: 955: 949: 948: 942: 941: 940:Transcriptions 933: 932: 925: 919: 918: 914: 913: 910: 909: 902: 896: 895: 888: 879: 878: 872: 871: 861: 855: 854: 847: 841: 840: 833: 827: 826: 824:Yue: Cantonese 820: 819: 812: 806: 805: 799: 798: 788: 782: 781: 774: 768: 767: 758: 752: 751: 744: 738: 737: 730: 724: 723: 717: 716: 715:Transcriptions 708: 707: 700: 694: 693: 690: 682: 681: 678: 677: 669: 668: 665: 664: 661: 660: 653: 647: 646: 639: 633: 632: 625: 619: 618: 611: 605: 604: 597: 591: 590: 583: 574: 571: 570: 565: 553: 552: 547: 537: 536: 534: 533: 530: 529: 527:and by weight) 516: 498: 497: 491: 482: 480: 476: 475: 467: 464: 461: 460: 457: 447: 446: 443: 442: 439: 436: 433: 432: 429: 426: 423: 422: 419: 416: 413: 412: 409: 408: 404: 403: 400: 396: 395: 391: 390: 387: 386: 383: 377: 374: 373: 370: 364: 361: 360: 357: 350: 347: 346: 343: 337: 334: 333: 330: 329: 324: 323:Historical era 320: 319: 316: 315: 310: 307: 304: 303: 298: 295: 292: 291: 289:Yongle Emperor 286: 283: 280: 279: 277:Hongwu Emperor 274: 271: 268: 267: 264: 263: 260: 254: 253: 248: 244: 243: 242: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 209:Heaven worship 204: 200: 199: 198: 197: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 156: 148: 144: 143: 141: 140: 132: 123: 121: 117: 116: 113: 105: 104: 101:Yongle Emperor 98: 90: 89: 83: 76: 75: 72: 71: 67: 66: 63: 62: 55: 39: 38: 35: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13833: 13822: 13819: 13817: 13814: 13812: 13809: 13807: 13804: 13802: 13799: 13797: 13794: 13792: 13789: 13787: 13784: 13782: 13779: 13777: 13774: 13772: 13769: 13767: 13764: 13762: 13759: 13757: 13754: 13752: 13749: 13748: 13746: 13739: 13727: 13726:Soviet empire 13724: 13722: 13719: 13718: 13716: 13715: 13713: 13711:Miscellaneous 13709: 13703: 13700: 13698: 13695: 13693: 13690: 13688: 13685: 13683: 13680: 13676: 13673: 13672: 13671: 13668: 13667: 13665: 13661: 13651: 13648: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13629: 13626: 13625: 13624: 13621: 13619: 13616: 13614: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13572: 13569: 13567: 13564: 13563: 13562: 13559: 13557: 13554: 13552: 13549: 13548: 13546: 13544: 13540: 13532: 13529: 13527: 13524: 13522: 13519: 13517: 13514: 13512: 13509: 13508: 13507: 13504: 13502: 13499: 13495: 13492: 13491: 13490: 13487: 13485: 13482: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13464: 13463: 13460: 13458: 13455: 13451: 13448: 13446: 13443: 13442: 13441: 13438: 13434: 13431: 13429: 13426: 13424: 13421: 13419: 13416: 13414: 13411: 13410: 13409: 13406: 13402: 13399: 13397: 13394: 13393: 13392: 13389: 13387: 13384: 13382: 13379: 13377: 13374: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13362: 13360: 13357: 13355: 13352: 13350: 13347: 13346: 13345: 13342: 13338: 13335: 13333: 13330: 13329: 13328: 13325: 13323: 13320: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13310:German Empire 13308: 13307: 13306: 13303: 13299: 13296: 13294: 13291: 13290: 13289: 13286: 13282: 13279: 13277: 13274: 13273: 13272: 13269: 13267: 13264: 13260: 13257: 13255: 13252: 13250: 13247: 13245: 13242: 13240: 13237: 13236: 13235: 13232: 13230: 13227: 13223: 13220: 13218: 13215: 13214: 13212: 13210: 13207: 13205: 13202: 13200: 13197: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13186: 13184: 13182: 13178: 13172: 13169: 13167: 13164: 13162: 13159: 13155: 13152: 13150: 13147: 13145: 13142: 13140: 13137: 13135: 13132: 13130: 13127: 13125: 13122: 13121: 13120: 13117: 13115: 13112: 13108: 13105: 13103: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13079: 13078: 13075: 13071: 13068: 13066: 13063: 13061: 13058: 13056: 13053: 13052: 13051: 13050:Turco-Persian 13048: 13046: 13043: 13041: 13038: 13036: 13033: 13031: 13028: 13026: 13023: 13021: 13018: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12995: 12994: 12991: 12987: 12984: 12982: 12979: 12977: 12974: 12972: 12969: 12967: 12964: 12962: 12959: 12958: 12957: 12954: 12951: 12949: 12946: 12944: 12941: 12939: 12936: 12932: 12929: 12927: 12924: 12922: 12919: 12918: 12917: 12914: 12910: 12907: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12895: 12892: 12891: 12890: 12887: 12885: 12882: 12880: 12877: 12875: 12872: 12870: 12867: 12865: 12862: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12843: 12840: 12839: 12838: 12835: 12831: 12828: 12826: 12823: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12813: 12812: 12811: 12808: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12796: 12794: 12791: 12790: 12789: 12786: 12784: 12781: 12779: 12776: 12774: 12771: 12769: 12766: 12762: 12759: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12748: 12747: 12744: 12742: 12739: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12706: 12705: 12702: 12698: 12695: 12693: 12690: 12689: 12688: 12685: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12662: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12649: 12646: 12645: 12644: 12641: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12629: 12628: 12626: 12624: 12621: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12594: 12591: 12590: 12588: 12586: 12582: 12574: 12571: 12570: 12569: 12566: 12564: 12561: 12557: 12554: 12552: 12549: 12548: 12547: 12544: 12540: 12537: 12536: 12535: 12532: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12499: 12498: 12495: 12493: 12490: 12488: 12485: 12481: 12478: 12476: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12462: 12461: 12458: 12454: 12451: 12449: 12446: 12445: 12444: 12441: 12439: 12436: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12408: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12390: 12387: 12385: 12382: 12380: 12377: 12376: 12375: 12372: 12370: 12367: 12363: 12360: 12358: 12355: 12353: 12350: 12349: 12348: 12345: 12341: 12338: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12327: 12326: 12323: 12319: 12316: 12314: 12311: 12310: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12299: 12296: 12295: 12293: 12290: 12285: 12281: 12277: 12270: 12265: 12263: 12258: 12256: 12251: 12250: 12247: 12235: 12234: 12230: 12229: 12227: 12223: 12217: 12214: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12201: 12200: 12197: 12196: 12194: 12190: 12184: 12181: 12179: 12176: 12174: 12171: 12169: 12166: 12164: 12161: 12159: 12156: 12154: 12151: 12147: 12144: 12142: 12139: 12137: 12134: 12133: 12132: 12129: 12127: 12124: 12122: 12119: 12118: 12116: 12112: 12106: 12103: 12101: 12098: 12096: 12093: 12091: 12090:Ming Xiaoling 12088: 12086: 12083: 12081: 12078: 12077: 12075: 12071: 12065: 12064: 12060: 12058: 12057: 12053: 12051: 12050: 12046: 12044: 12043: 12039: 12037: 12036: 12032: 12030: 12029: 12025: 12024: 12022: 12018: 12012: 12009: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11995: 11992: 11990: 11987: 11986: 11985: 11982: 11981: 11979: 11975: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11957: 11954: 11953: 11952: 11949: 11947: 11944: 11942: 11939: 11938: 11936: 11932: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11911: 11908: 11906: 11903: 11899: 11898:Vassal prince 11896: 11895: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11883:Eastern Depot 11881: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11853: 11852: 11849: 11848: 11846: 11842: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11826:Southern Ming 11824: 11820: 11817: 11815: 11812: 11810: 11807: 11805: 11802: 11800: 11797: 11795: 11792: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11782: 11781: 11780: 11777: 11773: 11770: 11769: 11768: 11765: 11763: 11760: 11758: 11755: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11743: 11740: 11739: 11737: 11728: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11657: 11654: 11652: 11649: 11648: 11646: 11637: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11606: 11603: 11601: 11598: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11542: 11540: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11522: 11517: 11510: 11505: 11503: 11498: 11496: 11491: 11490: 11487: 11478: 11469: 11468: 11461: 11455: 11450: 11446: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11435: 11432: 11429: 11428: 11422: 11419: 11417: 11414: 11413: 11408: 11403: 11388: 11386:0-521-36518-X 11382: 11378: 11377: 11372: 11368: 11364: 11360: 11356: 11352: 11348: 11344: 11339: 11336: 11332: 11329: 11325: 11321: 11317: 11312: 11308: 11303: 11299: 11293: 11289: 11288: 11282: 11278: 11272: 11268: 11263: 11259: 11253: 11249: 11248: 11243: 11239: 11237: 11233: 11229: 11225: 11219: 11215: 11210: 11206: 11201: 11197: 11191: 11187: 11182: 11178: 11172: 11168: 11163: 11161: 11157: 11153: 11152: 11142: 11141: 11137:Lynn Struve, 11136: 11133: 11130: 11126: 11120: 11116: 11115: 11109: 11106: 11105: 11100: 11099: 11083: 11078: 11074: 11068: 11064: 11059: 11055: 11051: 11047: 11043: 11039: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11022: 11018: 11013: 11011: 11004: 11000: 10996: 10992: 10988: 10984: 10980: 10976: 10972: 10967: 10963: 10957: 10953: 10948: 10944: 10938: 10934: 10929: 10925: 10919: 10915: 10911: 10906: 10902: 10896: 10892: 10887: 10883: 10879: 10875: 10871: 10867: 10863: 10858: 10854: 10848: 10844: 10839: 10827: 10823: 10819: 10814: 10810: 10804: 10800: 10795: 10791: 10787: 10783: 10777: 10773: 10769: 10765: 10760: 10756: 10750: 10746: 10741: 10737: 10731: 10727: 10722: 10710: 10706: 10702: 10697: 10685: 10681: 10677: 10673: 10667: 10663: 10658: 10654: 10648: 10644: 10639: 10635: 10629: 10625: 10621: 10617: 10613: 10609: 10605: 10601: 10597: 10596: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10579: 10573: 10570:. Routledge. 10569: 10565: 10560: 10556: 10550: 10546: 10541: 10537: 10531: 10527: 10523: 10522: 10517: 10513: 10509: 10505: 10500: 10496: 10490: 10487:. Routledge. 10486: 10481: 10477: 10471: 10467: 10462: 10458: 10452: 10448: 10443: 10439: 10435: 10431: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10414: 10410: 10404: 10400: 10395: 10391: 10385: 10381: 10376: 10361: 10357: 10351: 10347: 10340: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10315: 10311: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10294: 10290: 10287:(1): 79–123, 10286: 10282: 10277: 10273: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10256: 10252: 10248: 10244: 10240: 10236: 10232: 10228: 10224: 10220: 10215: 10211: 10205: 10201: 10196: 10192: 10186: 10182: 10177: 10173: 10172: 10166: 10162: 10157: 10153: 10148: 10144: 10139: 10135: 10130: 10126: 10122: 10118: 10114: 10110: 10106: 10100: 10096: 10091: 10087: 10081: 10077: 10072: 10068: 10062: 10058: 10053: 10049: 10045: 10040: 10025: 10021: 10014: 10009: 9998: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9983: 9977: 9973: 9968: 9961: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9937: 9933: 9929: 9922: 9917: 9913: 9908: 9904: 9900: 9896: 9890: 9886: 9881: 9877: 9871: 9867: 9862: 9858: 9854: 9850: 9846: 9842: 9838: 9833: 9829: 9823: 9818: 9817: 9810: 9806: 9800: 9796: 9791: 9787: 9781: 9777: 9772: 9768: 9762: 9758: 9757: 9751: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9735: 9731: 9727: 9722: 9718: 9714: 9710: 9706: 9702: 9698: 9693: 9689: 9683: 9679: 9674: 9670: 9664: 9660: 9655: 9651: 9645: 9641: 9640: 9634: 9630: 9624: 9620: 9615: 9611: 9609:90-04-10391-0 9605: 9601: 9596: 9592: 9586: 9583:. Routledge. 9582: 9577: 9573: 9567: 9563: 9558: 9554: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9535: 9531: 9525: 9521: 9516: 9509: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9462: 9457: 9453: 9447: 9443: 9442: 9436: 9432: 9426: 9422: 9421: 9415: 9404: 9398: 9394: 9393: 9387: 9383: 9379: 9375: 9371: 9367: 9363: 9359: 9355: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9309: 9305: 9301: 9297: 9293: 9290:(74): 27–47. 9289: 9285: 9280: 9276: 9270: 9266: 9263:, Cambridge: 9262: 9257: 9253: 9247: 9243: 9239: 9238: 9232: 9217: 9210: 9205: 9201: 9197: 9193: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9177: 9173: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9152: 9149:(1): 83–113, 9148: 9144: 9139: 9135: 9129: 9125: 9120: 9119: 9107: 9102: 9095: 9090: 9083: 9078: 9071: 9066: 9064: 9056: 9051: 9045:, p. 86. 9044: 9043:Atwell (2002) 9039: 9032: 9027: 9021:, p. 28. 9020: 9015: 9013: 9011: 9003: 9002:Kinney (1995) 8998: 8991: 8986: 8984: 8977:, p. 97. 8976: 8971: 8969: 8961: 8956: 8954: 8946: 8941: 8939: 8932:, p. 27. 8931: 8926: 8919: 8914: 8907: 8903: 8898: 8891: 8886: 8879: 8874: 8867: 8862: 8855: 8850: 8843: 8838: 8831: 8826: 8819: 8814: 8807: 8802: 8795: 8790: 8783: 8778: 8771: 8766: 8759: 8754: 8747: 8742: 8735: 8730: 8723: 8718: 8711: 8706: 8699: 8694: 8687: 8682: 8675: 8670: 8663: 8658: 8651: 8646: 8639: 8634: 8627: 8622: 8615: 8610: 8603: 8598: 8596: 8588: 8583: 8576: 8571: 8565:, p. 78. 8564: 8559: 8557: 8555: 8553: 8546:, p. 47. 8545: 8540: 8533: 8528: 8521: 8516: 8509: 8504: 8497: 8492: 8485: 8480: 8473: 8468: 8462:, p. 14. 8461: 8460:Spence (1999) 8456: 8450:, p. 95. 8449: 8444: 8442: 8440: 8433:, p. 57. 8432: 8427: 8420: 8415: 8408: 8403: 8396: 8395:Spence (1999) 8391: 8389: 8382:, p. 13. 8381: 8380:Spence (1999) 8376: 8374: 8372: 8364: 8359: 8352: 8347: 8340: 8335: 8328: 8323: 8316: 8311: 8304: 8299: 8297: 8289: 8284: 8277: 8272: 8270: 8268: 8261:, p. 47. 8260: 8255: 8248: 8243: 8236: 8231: 8224: 8219: 8213:, p. 15. 8212: 8211:Leslie (1998) 8207: 8200: 8195: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8165: 8161: 8154: 8147: 8146:Lipman (1998) 8142: 8135: 8130: 8122: 8116: 8112: 8105: 8098: 8093: 8091: 8083: 8078: 8071: 8066: 8059: 8054: 8048:, p. 10. 8047: 8046:Spence (1999) 8042: 8040: 8032: 8027: 8020: 8015: 8008: 8003: 7996: 7991: 7989: 7981: 7976: 7969: 7964: 7957: 7952: 7945: 7940: 7934:, p. 69. 7933: 7928: 7921: 7916: 7909: 7904: 7897: 7892: 7885: 7880: 7873: 7868: 7861: 7860:Hucker (1958) 7856: 7849: 7844: 7838:, p. 19. 7837: 7836:Hucker (1958) 7832: 7825: 7824:Hucker (1958) 7820: 7813: 7808: 7801: 7800:Hucker (1958) 7796: 7789: 7788:Hucker (1958) 7784: 7778:, p. 18. 7777: 7776:Hucker (1958) 7772: 7765: 7760: 7753: 7748: 7741: 7740:Hucker (1958) 7736: 7729: 7724: 7717: 7716:Hucker (1958) 7712: 7705: 7700: 7693: 7688: 7681: 7676: 7669: 7664: 7657: 7652: 7646:, p. 96. 7645: 7640: 7634:, p. 12. 7633: 7632:Hucker (1958) 7628: 7622:, p. 26. 7621: 7620:Hucker (1958) 7616: 7614: 7606: 7605:Hucker (1958) 7601: 7594: 7593:Hucker (1958) 7589: 7583:, p. 25. 7582: 7581:Hucker (1958) 7577: 7575: 7573: 7566:, p. 24. 7565: 7564:Hucker (1958) 7560: 7558: 7556: 7554: 7547:, p. 36. 7546: 7545:Hucker (1958) 7541: 7539: 7532:, p. 35. 7531: 7530:Hucker (1958) 7526: 7519: 7518:Hucker (1958) 7514: 7508:, p. 33. 7507: 7506:Hucker (1958) 7502: 7496:, p. 32. 7495: 7494:Hucker (1958) 7490: 7483: 7482:Hucker (1958) 7478: 7472:, p. 30. 7471: 7470:Hucker (1958) 7466: 7459: 7458:Hucker (1958) 7454: 7448:, p. 23. 7447: 7446:Hucker (1958) 7442: 7436:, p. 16. 7435: 7434:Hucker (1958) 7430: 7424:, p. 16. 7423: 7418: 7416: 7408: 7403: 7397:, p. 28. 7396: 7395:Hucker (1958) 7391: 7389: 7381: 7380:Hucker (1958) 7376: 7369: 7364: 7357: 7352: 7346:, p. 97. 7345: 7340: 7333: 7328: 7321: 7316: 7309: 7304: 7298:, p. 33. 7297: 7296:Spence (1999) 7292: 7285: 7284:Spence (1999) 7280: 7271: 7265:, p. 22. 7264: 7263:Spence (1999) 7259: 7257: 7249: 7248:Spence (1999) 7244: 7238:, p. 31. 7237: 7236:Spence (1999) 7232: 7230: 7223:, p. 92. 7222: 7217: 7215: 7207: 7206:Spence (1999) 7202: 7195: 7194:Spence (1999) 7190: 7181: 7174: 7169: 7162: 7161:Spence (1999) 7157: 7151:, p. 21. 7150: 7149:Spence (1999) 7145: 7143: 7141: 7133: 7128: 7121: 7120:Atwell (2005) 7116: 7109: 7108:Spence (1999) 7104: 7097: 7092: 7085: 7080: 7073: 7068: 7061: 7056: 7050:, p. 20. 7049: 7048:Spence (1999) 7044: 7042: 7040: 7032: 7027: 7020: 7019:Spence (1999) 7015: 7008: 7003: 6996: 6992: 6987: 6980: 6975: 6968: 6963: 6956: 6955:Spence (1999) 6951: 6945:, p. 11. 6944: 6943:Hucker (1958) 6939: 6932: 6927: 6920: 6915: 6908: 6903: 6896: 6895:Herman (2007) 6891: 6884: 6879: 6872: 6867: 6859: 6857:9780806185026 6853: 6849: 6848: 6840: 6834:, p. 17. 6833: 6832:Spence (1999) 6828: 6826: 6819:, p. 16. 6818: 6817:Spence (1999) 6813: 6807:, p. 31. 6806: 6805:Hucker (1958) 6801: 6794: 6789: 6782: 6777: 6770: 6765: 6758: 6753: 6747:, p. 83. 6746: 6741: 6734: 6729: 6727: 6719: 6714: 6707: 6702: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6667: 6660: 6655: 6648: 6643: 6637:, p. 84. 6636: 6635:Atwell (2002) 6631: 6624: 6619: 6612: 6607: 6600: 6599:Kolmaš (1967) 6595: 6588: 6583: 6576: 6571: 6564: 6563:Kolmaš (1967) 6559: 6553:, p. 38. 6552: 6547: 6540: 6535: 6528: 6523: 6516: 6511: 6504: 6503:Kolmaš (1967) 6499: 6492: 6491:Perdue (2000) 6487: 6480: 6475: 6468: 6463: 6457:, p. 32. 6456: 6455:Kolmaš (1967) 6451: 6445:, p. 52. 6444: 6439: 6432: 6427: 6420: 6415: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6401: 6396: 6389: 6384: 6377: 6372: 6365: 6360: 6353: 6348: 6341: 6336: 6330:, p. 34. 6329: 6328:Dillon (1999) 6324: 6317: 6312: 6305: 6300: 6293: 6288: 6281: 6276: 6269: 6264: 6257: 6252: 6245: 6240: 6233: 6228: 6226: 6219:, p. 25. 6218: 6213: 6206: 6205:Naquin (2000) 6201: 6194: 6189: 6187: 6185: 6177: 6172: 6165: 6160: 6153: 6148: 6146: 6137: 6131: 6127: 6120: 6113: 6108: 6101: 6096: 6089: 6084: 6082: 6080: 6072: 6067: 6060: 6055: 6049:, p. 500 6048: 6043: 6037:, p. 222 6036: 6031: 6024: 6019: 6012: 6007: 6000: 5995: 5993: 5988: 5970: 5964: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5948:Eight Banners 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5907: 5903: 5897: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5873: 5869: 5863: 5852: 5846: 5842: 5831: 5830:Zheng Zhilong 5828: 5825: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5795:Ming ceramics 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5754: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5738: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5699: 5697: 5693: 5684: 5680: 5675: 5671: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5658:Timothy Brook 5655: 5648: 5647:Chen Hongshou 5644: 5640: 5631: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5607: 5606:Bencao Gangmu 5602: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5577:propelled by 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5551: 5544: 5542: 5538: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5464: 5459: 5458:Song Yingxing 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5438:Chinese ships 5435: 5431: 5427: 5419: 5414: 5410: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5394: 5383: 5379: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5350: 5345: 5341: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5304: 5302: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5268:Joseph Edkins 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5224:Western world 5221: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5190: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5176:blast furnace 5173: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5137: 5134: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5120: 5116: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5095: 5094:Bianmintuzuan 5090: 5086: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5061: 5053: 5048: 5040: 5035: 5026: 5016: 5007: 4998: 4989: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4965:-handscroll ( 4964: 4960: 4954: 4942: 4940: 4936: 4931: 4929: 4924: 4913: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4884: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4857: 4856:Chan Buddhism 4853: 4852:Wang Yangming 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4831: 4827: 4826:Neo-Confucian 4819: 4815: 4814:Wang Yangming 4810: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4781: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4729: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4676: 4672: 4671:Song Yingxing 4668: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4647: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4596: 4595:Tibetan lamas 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4532: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4516: 4514: 4510: 4507:, ivory, and 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4441:Ming dynasty 4439: 4435: 4433: 4429: 4428:Wen Zhengming 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4382: 4381:Chen Hongshou 4378: 4373: 4369: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4358:Yuan Zhongdao 4355: 4351: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4323: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4272:Feng Menglong 4269: 4268: 4263: 4262: 4257: 4256: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4238: 4237:Chinese opera 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4210: 4203: 4199: 4198: 4192: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4164: 4160: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4122: 4115: 4111: 4110:Wanli Emperor 4107: 4102: 4093: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4073: 4064: 4060: 4053: 4048: 4044: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3984: 3970: 3966: 3964: 3955: 3951: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3924: 3920: 3917: 3913: 3910: 3906: 3903: 3899: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3838:, now in the 3837: 3833: 3828: 3819: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3753: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3668: 3663: 3653: 3643: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3632:Southern Ming 3627: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3580:Eight Banners 3576: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3523: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3508: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3447: 3443: 3438: 3431: 3427: 3422: 3418: 3407: 3397: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3343:, while even 3342: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3316: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3282: 3278: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3263:Wei Zhongxian 3259: 3257: 3256:Wanli Emperor 3253: 3249: 3243: 3236: 3235:Wei Zhongxian 3232: 3228: 3219: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3200:Zhang Juzheng 3197: 3196:Wanli Emperor 3189: 3188:Wanli Emperor 3184: 3170: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3152: 3151:Imperial City 3148: 3144: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3066: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2968: 2964: 2963:Imperial City 2960: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2928: 2923: 2917:Rise to power 2913: 2904: 2899: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2854:Wanli Emperor 2849: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2802: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2761:Haixi Jurchen 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2745:Wild Jurchens 2741: 2736: 2734: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2662: 2660: 2656: 2655:Wang Yangming 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2602: 2598: 2588: 2584: 2581: 2577: 2571: 2569: 2568:secret police 2565: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2544: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2522: 2517: 2509: 2504: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2482:(present-day 2481: 2478:Yuan capital 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2459:Chen Youliang 2456: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2440: 2439:Zhu Yuanzhang 2436: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2390: 2384: 2374: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2343:Zhang Juzheng 2340: 2339:Wang Yangming 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2295:chili peppers 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2275: 2273: 2269: 2268: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2180:court eunuchs 2177: 2173: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2153:Southern Ming 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2109: 2101: 2083: 2071: 2066: 2064: 2059: 2057: 2052: 2051: 2049: 2048: 2041: 2038: 2036: 2033: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2010: 2009: 2006: 2004: 2003:Naval history 2001: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1986:Music history 1984: 1982: 1981:Media history 1979: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1967: 1966:Legal history 1964: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1954: 1952: 1949: 1948: 1940: 1939: 1920:1949–present) 1916: 1915: 1911: 1910: 1908: 1900: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1871: 1870: 1866: 1865: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1838: 1837: 1833: 1832: 1825: 1824: 1820: 1819: 1812: 1811: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1782: 1781: 1777: 1774: 1769: 1768: 1764: 1761: 1756: 1755: 1751: 1748: 1747: 1745: 1737: 1736: 1735:Southern Song 1732: 1727: 1726: 1725:Northern Song 1722: 1721: 1715: 1714: 1710: 1709: 1702: 1701: 1695: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1683: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1648: 1647: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1634: 1627: 1626: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1595: 1594: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1583: 1581: 1573: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1562: 1558: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1546: 1531: 1530: 1526: 1525: 1521: 1520: 1515: 1514: 1509: 1508: 1504: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1492: 1491: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1463: 1459: 1456:(206–202 BCE) 1454: 1453: 1449: 1448: 1442: 1441: 1437: 1436: 1431:(221–207 BCE) 1429: 1428: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1413: 1407: 1406: 1396:(475–221 BCE) 1394: 1391: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1369:(771–256 BCE) 1367: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1334: 1333: 1329: 1328: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1304: 1287: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1263: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1232: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1221: 1204: 1203: 1199: 1198: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1184: 1178: 1177: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1131: 1123: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1088: 1085: 1081: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1033: 1029: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1008: 1000: 998: 994: 984: 982: 978: 970: 968: 964: 956: 954: 950: 947: 943: 938: 934: 926: 924: 920: 917:Dynastic name 915: 903: 901: 897: 889: 887: 884: 880: 877: 873: 867: 862: 860: 856: 848: 846: 842: 834: 832: 828: 825: 821: 813: 811: 807: 804: 800: 794: 789: 787: 783: 775: 773: 769: 759: 757: 753: 745: 743: 739: 731: 729: 725: 722: 718: 713: 709: 701: 699: 695: 688: 683: 679: 674: 654: 652: 649: 648: 640: 638: 635: 634: 626: 624: 623:Southern Ming 621: 620: 612: 610: 607: 606: 598: 596: 593: 592: 584: 582: 579: 578: 575: 569: 566: 559: 558: 555: 554: 551: 548: 546: 543: 542: 538: 526: 521: 517: 513: 509: 504: 500: 499: 495: 492: 487: 484: 483: 481: 477: 468: 462: 458: 452: 448: 444: 440: 434: 430: 424: 420: 414: 410: 405: 401: 397: 392: 388: 384: 381: 380:Southern Ming 375: 372:25 April 1644 371: 368: 362: 358: 354: 348: 344: 341: 335: 331: 328: 325: 321: 317: 314: 311: 305: 302: 301:Wanli Emperor 299: 293: 290: 287: 281: 278: 275: 269: 265: 261: 259: 255: 252: 249: 245: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 206: 205: 201: 196: 195: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 162: 157: 154: 151: 150: 149: 145: 136: 133: 128: 125: 124: 122: 118: 111: 106: 102: 96: 91: 86: 85:Imperial seal 80: 73: 68: 60: 56: 52: 41: 40: 33: 30: 26: 22: 13751:Ming dynasty 13738: 13477:Contemporary 13327:Indo-Persian 13315:Nazi Germany 13259:Contemporary 13238: 13161:Vijayanagara 13060:Great Seljuk 12971:Thessalonica 12899:Golden Horde 12539:Carthaginian 12318:Neo-Assyrian 12303:Neo-Sumerian 12231: 12225:Other topics 12136:Four Masters 12061: 12054: 12047: 12040: 12033: 12026: 11866:House of Zhu 11819:Shanhai Pass 11799:Great Plague 11742:Jianzhou war 11516:Ming dynasty 11515: 11477:Qing dynasty 11465: 11460:Yuan dynasty 11407:Ming dynasty 11406: 11375: 11346: 11342: 11334: 11311:W. W. Norton 11309:, New York: 11306: 11286: 11266: 11246: 11231: 11213: 11204: 11185: 11166: 11155: 11138: 11113: 11102: 11081: 11062: 11029: 11025: 11009: 10974: 10970: 10951: 10932: 10913: 10890: 10868:(1): 29–49, 10865: 10861: 10842: 10830:. Retrieved 10817: 10798: 10763: 10744: 10725: 10715:16 September 10713:. Retrieved 10708: 10704: 10688:. Retrieved 10683: 10661: 10642: 10623: 10599: 10593: 10567: 10544: 10526:W. W. Norton 10519: 10503: 10484: 10465: 10446: 10424:(2): 57–82, 10421: 10417: 10398: 10379: 10367:, retrieved 10360:the original 10345: 10313: 10309: 10284: 10280: 10263: 10260:Ming Studies 10259: 10251:j.ctt17t75h5 10242: 10225:(1): 45–61. 10222: 10219:Ming Studies 10218: 10199: 10180: 10170: 10160: 10151: 10142: 10133: 10116: 10094: 10075: 10056: 10043: 10031:. Retrieved 10024:the original 10019: 10000:. 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Retrieved 9175: 9171: 9146: 9142: 9123: 9106:Brook (1998) 9101: 9094:Ebrey (1999) 9089: 9077: 9070:Brook (1998) 9055:Brook (1998) 9050: 9038: 9031:Brook (1998) 9026: 9019:Brook (1998) 8997: 8990:Brook (1998) 8975:Brook (1998) 8960:Brook (1998) 8945:Brook (1998) 8930:Brook (1998) 8925: 8913: 8897: 8892:, p. 37 8885: 8873: 8861: 8849: 8837: 8825: 8813: 8801: 8789: 8777: 8765: 8753: 8741: 8729: 8717: 8705: 8693: 8681: 8669: 8657: 8645: 8633: 8621: 8609: 8582: 8570: 8539: 8527: 8515: 8503: 8491: 8479: 8467: 8455: 8448:Brook (1998) 8426: 8419:Brook (1998) 8414: 8407:Brook (1998) 8402: 8363:Ebrey (1999) 8358: 8351:Ebrey (1999) 8346: 8339:Brook (1998) 8334: 8327:Ebrey (1999) 8322: 8310: 8283: 8254: 8247:White (1966) 8242: 8235:Ebrey (1999) 8230: 8218: 8206: 8194: 8184:16 September 8182:. Retrieved 8178:the original 8163: 8153: 8141: 8129: 8110: 8104: 8099:, p. 11 8082:Brook (1998) 8077: 8070:Brook (1998) 8065: 8058:Brook (1998) 8053: 8031:Brook (1998) 8026: 8019:Ebrey (1999) 8014: 8007:Brook (1998) 8002: 7995:Chang (2007) 7980:Chang (2007) 7975: 7968:Chang (2007) 7963: 7956:Brook (1998) 7951: 7944:Brook (1998) 7939: 7927: 7915: 7908:Plaks (1987) 7903: 7896:Ebrey (1999) 7891: 7879: 7867: 7855: 7843: 7831: 7826:, p. 8. 7819: 7807: 7795: 7783: 7771: 7764:Elman (2000) 7759: 7752:Elman (1991) 7747: 7735: 7728:Ebrey (1999) 7723: 7711: 7704:Brook (1998) 7699: 7692:Ebrey (1999) 7687: 7680:Ebrey (1999) 7675: 7668:Ebrey (1999) 7663: 7656:Ebrey (1999) 7651: 7639: 7627: 7600: 7588: 7525: 7513: 7501: 7489: 7477: 7465: 7453: 7441: 7429: 7422:Chang (2007) 7407:Chang (2007) 7402: 7382:, p. 5. 7375: 7363: 7351: 7339: 7327: 7315: 7303: 7291: 7279: 7270: 7243: 7221:Chang (2007) 7201: 7189: 7180: 7168: 7156: 7127: 7115: 7103: 7096:Wills (1998) 7091: 7084:Brook (1998) 7079: 7067: 7060:Brook (1998) 7055: 7031:Wills (1998) 7026: 7014: 7007:Brook (1998) 7002: 6986: 6974: 6962: 6950: 6938: 6931:Ebrey (1999) 6926: 6914: 6902: 6890: 6878: 6871:Swope (2011) 6866: 6846: 6839: 6812: 6800: 6793:Ebrey (1999) 6788: 6776: 6764: 6752: 6740: 6713: 6701: 6676: 6672: 6666: 6659:Ebrey (1999) 6654: 6642: 6630: 6618: 6606: 6594: 6589:, p. 23 6582: 6577:, p. 8. 6570: 6558: 6546: 6539:Ebrey (1999) 6534: 6527:Geiss (1988) 6522: 6510: 6498: 6486: 6474: 6462: 6450: 6443:Norbu (2001) 6438: 6426: 6419:Wylie (2003) 6395: 6383: 6378:, p. 73 6371: 6359: 6347: 6340:Ebrey (1999) 6335: 6323: 6311: 6299: 6287: 6275: 6263: 6251: 6239: 6232:Ebrey (1999) 6212: 6200: 6193:Ebrey (1999) 6171: 6164:Ebrey (1999) 6159: 6125: 6119: 6107: 6095: 6088:Zhang (2008) 6066: 6054: 6042: 6030: 6018: 6011:Frank (1998) 6006: 5963: 5936:Qing dynasty 5913: 5896: 5879: 5862: 5845: 5826:in the Ming) 5723: 5700: 5691: 5688: 5652: 5642: 5620:oral hygiene 5614: 5610: 5604: 5591: 5583:hand cannons 5548: 5545: 5536: 5534: 5518: 5461: 5436:, just like 5429: 5423: 5418:Matteo Ricci 5416:Portrait of 5391: 5378:water clocks 5354: 5332:Simon Stevin 5315: 5312:Guo Shoujing 5305: 5296:trigonometry 5292:Guo Shoujing 5264:Michael Boym 5252:heliocentric 5239: 5236:Yuanjingshuo 5235: 5217: 5205: 5179: 5172:wrought iron 5130: 5124: 5106:Yangzi River 5099: 5093: 5062: 5051: 5043: 4962: 4932: 4909: 4901:Zhou dynasty 4823: 4812:Portrait of 4785:Kaifeng Jews 4782: 4778:Qing dynasty 4726: 4707:Matteo Ricci 4680: 4660: 4655:Bodhisattva 4612: 4608: 4604:Taoist canon 4579:Confucianism 4568: 4561:statue of a 4521:Matteo Ricci 4517: 4495: 4490: 4456: 4412:Dong Qichang 4405: 4362:Jin Ping Mei 4361: 4350:Yuan Hongdao 4347: 4331:movable type 4320: 4304: 4294: 4279: 4276:Ling Mengchu 4267:Jin Ping Mei 4265: 4259: 4255:Water Margin 4253: 4219: 4194: 4161: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4108:showing the 4105: 4090: 4061: 4057: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4023:outlined by 4018: 4015:(1494–1552). 3989: 3967: 3962: 3959: 3954:Ming coinage 3940:countryside. 3894:Public Works 3853: 3832:Jiang Shunfu 3816: 3807: 3803: 3801: 3770: 3735: 3731: 3723: 3715: 3711: 3703: 3690: 3672: 3628: 3624:Shun dynasty 3592:Shanhai Pass 3582:crossed the 3577: 3561: 3529: 3505: 3491: 3451: 3379: 3374:copper coins 3363:through the 3321: 3299: 3279: 3260: 3244: 3240: 3237:(1568–1627). 3193: 3155: 3141: 3102: 3041:Yongle used 3040: 3005: 2956: 2932: 2929:(r. 1402–24) 2862:Qing dynasty 2850: 2826: 2821: 2806:Qing dynasty 2799: 2797: 2769: 2765: 2737: 2708:Yuan dynasty 2702: 2685:rammed earth 2659:sinification 2630: 2604: 2585: 2572: 2553: 2549:Tang dynasty 2542: 2537: 2529: 2519: 2513: 2510:(r. 1368–98) 2451:Yuan dynasty 2448: 2422:Yellow River 2410:Yuan dynasty 2403: 2367:Qing dynasty 2363:Eight Banner 2355:Shun dynasty 2289:—spread the 2276: 2265: 2257:forced labor 2246: 2234:Indian Ocean 2187: 2157: 2145:rump regimes 2143:), numerous 2141:Shun dynasty 2125:Yuan dynasty 2112: 2082:Ming dynasty 2081: 2079: 1976:LGBT history 1912: 1894: 1867: 1834: 1822: 1821: 1808: 1778: 1765: 1752: 1733: 1723: 1711: 1700:Ten Kingdoms 1696: 1649: 1636: 1623:Northern and 1621: 1591: 1569: 1559: 1527: 1517: 1511: 1505: 1499:(220–280 CE) 1493: 1480: 1470: 1460: 1450: 1438: 1425: 1365:Eastern Zhou 1363: 1355:Western Zhou 1353: 1330: 1306: 1283: 1259: 1235: 1229: 1223: 1200: 1190: 1084:Southern Min 1018:Romanization 953:Hanyu Pinyin 876:Southern Min 728:Hanyu Pinyin 676:Ming dynasty 637:Qing dynasty 595:Shun dynasty 568:Yuan dynasty 550:Succeeded by 549: 544: 437:• 1600 427:• 1500 417:• 1393 327:Early modern 219:Confucianism 191: 29: 13065:Khwarezmian 12998:Carolingian 12803:Rashtrakuta 12507:Shaishunaga 12406:Hellenistic 12389:New Kingdom 12379:Old Kingdom 12178:Tai history 11861:Family tree 11772:Liaoluo Bay 11706:Renyin plot 11656:Tumu Crisis 11236:online free 10266:(1): 1–16. 10046:, Seattle: 9903:j.ctt6wr0q3 9474:(1): 7–28. 9115:Works cited 8746:Song (1966) 8734:Song (1966) 8698:Song (1966) 8686:Song (1966) 8508:Wong (1963) 8472:Zhou (1990) 8223:Wong (1963) 8097:Wang (2012) 7812:Mote (2003) 7356:Yuan (1994) 7274:Spence, 25. 7072:Lane (2019) 6991:Tsai (1996) 6967:Chen (2016) 6919:Tsai (1996) 6907:Ness (1998) 6718:Wang (1998) 6364:Tsai (2001) 6352:Wang (2011) 5810:Ming poetry 5731:Grand Canal 5683:South Zhili 5668:infanticide 5663:North Zhili 5587:ten barrels 5571:aerodynamic 5550:Huolongjing 5520:Huolongjing 5496:crystallize 5472:sericulture 5450:John Milton 5202:East Africa 5178:, from the 4937:and by the 4903:capital of 4848:Fang Xiaoru 4748:, or their 4733:Xi'an Stele 4667:He Chaozong 4593:-supported 4513:latticework 4483:He Chaozong 4453:, New York. 4286:Tang Xianzu 4182:Ming poetry 4144:feudatories 3997:Sui dynasty 3872:Ministries— 3797:chancellors 3779:since late 3708:prefectures 3669:is disputed 3636:Zhu Youlang 3600:Shanhaiguan 3430:Shanhaiguan 3365:Philippines 3359:across the 3341:the Spanish 3261:The eunuch 3160:had staged 3125:Tumu Crisis 3109:Esen Tayisi 3075:Tumu Crisis 3028:Han dynasty 2829:sovereignty 2560:Chancellery 2551:(618–907). 2431:White Lotus 2427:Red Turbans 2351:an epidemic 2253:Tumu Crisis 2214:Grand Canal 2023:Discoveries 2018:Cartography 2013:Archaeology 1951:Art history 1840:(1644–1912) 1827:(1368–1644) 1814:(1271–1368) 1784:(1115–1234) 1771:(1038–1227) 1767:Western Xia 1739:(1127–1279) 1571:Eastern Jin 1561:Western Jin 1486:(25–220 CE) 1482:Eastern Han 1462:Western Han 1341: 1046 1321: 1046 1317: 1250 1294: 1600 1270: 2070 1211: 8500 1192:Paleolithic 1183:Prehistoric 1059:daai6 ming4 1045:Daaih Mìhng 837:Mìhng chìuh 545:Preceded by 489:(1368–1450) 486:Paper money 441:160,000,000 431:125,000,000 138:(1403–1644) 130:(1368–1644) 13745:Categories 13635:Portuguese 13516:Revival Le 13506:Vietnamese 13149:Later Tran 13119:Vietnamese 13015:Singhasari 13003:Holy Roman 12627:Bulgarian 12563:Satavahana 12534:Phoenician 12470:Achaemenid 12431:Indo-Greek 12411:Macedonian 12325:Babylonian 12146:Zhe School 12100:Ming tombs 11984:Inner Asia 11956:Shenjiying 11946:Great Wall 11844:Government 11471:1368–1644 11242:Huang, Ray 11017:Wikisource 9541:, Leiden: 9313:T'oung Pao 8904:, p. 7344:Fan (2016) 6883:Xie (2013) 6316:Shi (2002) 5979:References 5944:Ming tombs 5919:Zhu Shugui 5906:Ebrey 1999 5851:King of Wu 5703:gazetteers 5634:Population 5593:Li Shizhen 5567:land mines 5541:Xu Guangqi 5500:naval mine 5468:snorkeling 5301:field mill 5280:Copernican 5276:John Fryer 5272:Alex Wylie 5102:Huai River 4928:courtesans 4799:Philosophy 4793:1642 flood 4770:Dominicans 4719:Xu Guangqi 4713:" upended 4687:Franciscan 4539:See also: 4529:Xuande era 4317:mineralogy 4309:characters 4221:Literature 4104:Detail of 4021:Four Books 3848:rank badge 3785:Chancellor 3650:See also: 3646:Government 3584:Great Wall 3553:Xi dynasty 3532:Li Zicheng 3498:Great Qing 3494:Hong Taiji 3415:See also: 3231:Tianqi-era 3166:Great Wall 3156:While the 3063:Lê dynasty 3010:commander 2992:Ming Tombs 2882:Güshi Khan 2870:Yellow Hat 2866:Dalai Lama 2833:suzerainty 2818:censorship 2753:Amur River 2556:Hu Weiyong 2530:Da Ming Lü 2471:fire ships 2414:Han people 2335:heterodoxy 2311:Portuguese 2261:Great Wall 2242:Inner Asia 2184:enfeoffing 2137:Li Zicheng 2129:Han people 2113:Great Ming 2028:Inventions 1758:(916–1125) 1729:(960–1127) 1717:(960–1279) 1384: – c. 1382: 770 1343: – c. 1319: – c. 1308:Late Shang 1296: – c. 1272: – c. 1213: – c. 981:Wade–Giles 851:ming4 ciu4 810:Suzhounese 763:Ming ch'ao 756:Wade–Giles 609:Xi dynasty 494:Bimetallic 474:19.8 taels 421:65,000,000 407:Population 247:Government 172:Old Uyghur 155:(official) 36:Great Ming 13628:Couronian 13266:Ethiopian 13254:Manchukuo 13209:Brazilian 13055:Ghaznavid 13025:Srivijaya 12976:Trebizond 12961:Byzantine 12943:North Sea 12938:Norwegian 12926:Almoravid 12909:Ilkhanate 12879:Majapahit 12852:Muromachi 12761:Solomonic 12746:Ethiopian 12660:Caliphate 12593:Aragonese 12421:Ptolemaic 12141:Wu School 12126:Musicians 11989:Manchuria 11977:Frontiers 11054:201773710 10999:144538656 10882:144136313 10832:18 August 10330:144496554 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Brill. 9504:154406547 9382:162510092 9304:152169027 9225:15 August 9200:162090282 8259:Xu (2003) 7132:So (2012) 6693:0041-977X 5999:Ho (1959) 5984:Citations 5969:Ho (1962) 5820:Ye Chunji 5573:control, 5559:Liu Bowen 5529:Liu Bowen 5517:from the 5484:quenching 5324:Zhu Zaiyu 5284:Ptolemaic 5232:telescope 5170:and then 5110:sugarcane 5070:pederasty 4935:Censorate 4897:Confucius 4872:Confucius 4750:ancestors 4746:Confucius 4709:, whose " 4559:stoneware 4509:cloisonné 4501:porcelain 4420:Shen Zhou 4400:Wu School 4396:Shen Zhou 4313:geography 4292:in 1598. 4202:Shen Zhou 4041:shengyuan 3973:Personnel 3969:princes. 3874:Personnel 3789:Censorate 3612:Han River 3588:Wu Sangui 3569:Chongzhen 3353:New Spain 3345:the Dutch 3248:Wang Zhen 3216:Imjin War 3113:Wang Zhen 2724:Uriankhai 2714:based in 2534:Tang Code 2526:Confucian 2461:, in the 2449:With the 2418:inflation 2371:Wu Sangui 2283:Guangzhou 2232:into the 2115:, was an 1704:(907–979) 1665:(690–705) 1655:(618–907) 1642:(581–618) 1629:(420–589) 1597:(304–439) 1575:(317–420) 1565:(266–316) 1533:(266–420) 1476:(9–23 CE) 1202:Neolithic 1166:Dynasties 906:Bîng tiâu 892:Bêng tiâu 778:Míng cháo 734:Míng cháo 581:Later Jin 455:(nominal) 203:Religion 182:Mongolian 70:1368–1644 13608:Japanese 13571:Scottish 13551:American 13543:Colonial 13472:Imperial 13440:Moroccan 13376:Japanese 13354:Afsharid 13213:Burmese 13199:Austrian 13154:Later Le 13129:Early Le 13114:Venetian 13040:Tiwanaku 12953:Hellenic 12916:Moroccan 12847:Kamakura 12837:Japanese 12820:Saffarid 12773:Georgian 12687:Chalukya 12665:Rashidun 12655:Calakmul 12623:Bruneian 12502:Haryanka 12480:Sasanian 12475:Parthian 12426:Bactrian 12416:Seleucid 12396:Goguryeo 12374:Egyptian 12308:Assyrian 12298:Akkadian 12289:Colonies 12192:Currency 12131:Painting 11941:Military 11934:Military 11445:Archived 11373:(1990). 11363:25165269 11244:(1981), 11046:25549473 10690:26 March 10684:BBC News 10518:(1999), 10115:(1959), 10033:26 March 10002:4 August 9843:: 1–66, 9508:Archived 9216:Archived 9192:20079347 5741:See also 5735:Zhejiang 5480:crucible 5393:Yuan Shi 5349:Zheng He 5288:Shen Kuo 5194:Zheng He 5168:pig iron 5166:to make 4971:Qiu Ying 4967:zh:南都繁会图 4881:Classics 4728:Elements 4657:Manjusri 4633:Zheng He 4600:Zhu Quan 4587:Buddhism 4573:and the 4535:Religion 4525:Liu Tong 4432:Qiu Ying 4424:Tang Yin 4342:Ji Sheng 4297:Xu Xiake 4225:painting 4197:Mount Lu 4079:playing 4052:Shanghai 4013:Qiu Ying 3963:de facto 3775:system, 3763:evicted 3706:省) were 3700:province 3304:Qiu Ying 3143:Tianshun 3137:Tianshun 3121:Zhu Qiyu 3012:Zheng He 2983:miles). 2740:Jurchens 2720:Naghachu 2716:Mongolia 2580:Jurchens 2564:Jinyiwei 2492:era name 2435:Buddhist 2395:Founding 2307:potatoes 2285:such as 2226:Zheng He 1991:Timeline 1918:(Taiwan, 1898:of China 1412:Imperial 1161:Timeline 1135:a series 1133:Part of 1114:Tāi-bîng 1100:Tāi-bêng 1053:Jyutping 973:ㄉㄚˋ ㄇㄧㄥˊ 967:Bopomofo 845:Jyutping 748:ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ 742:Bopomofo 479:Currency 459:estimate 224:Buddhism 153:Mandarin 13675:largest 13670:Empires 13650:Swedish 13645:Spanish 13640:Russian 13603:Italian 13578:Chinese 13566:English 13561:British 13556:Belgian 13531:Vietnam 13521:Tay son 13467:Tsarist 13462:Russian 13457:Ottoman 13423:Dzungar 13418:Khoshut 13391:Mexican 13386:Maratha 13369:Pahlavi 13349:Safavid 13344:Iranian 13271:Haitian 13234:Chinese 13194:Ashanti 13166:Wagadou 13092:Eastern 13087:Western 13070:Timurid 13030:Tibetan 13020:Songhai 13010:Serbian 12931:Almohad 12921:Idrisid 12825:Samanid 12815:Tahirid 12810:Iranian 12788:Kannauj 12768:Genoese 12704:Chinese 12697:Eastern 12692:Western 12680:Fatimid 12675:Abbasid 12670:Umayyad 12643:Burmese 12603:Ayyubid 12598:Angevin 12568:Xianbei 12556:Eastern 12551:Western 12497:Magadha 12460:Iranian 12453:Xiongnu 12438:Hittite 12347:Chinese 12335:Kassite 12284:Ancient 12276:Empires 12199:Coinage 12173:Economy 12001:Vietnam 11893:Princes 11851:Emperor 11639:Middle 11525:History 11328:Archive 11320:Archive 11160:excerpt 11107:(1994). 10801:. 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