1621:
Both cases can lead to deletions, rearrangements, and other mutations. Recent evidence has suggested that mitochondria have enzymes that proofread mtDNA and fix mutations that may occur due to free radicals. It is believed that a DNA recombinase found in mammalian cells is also involved in a repairing recombination process. Deletions and mutations due to free radicals have been associated with the aging process. It is believed that radicals cause mutations which lead to mutant proteins, which in turn led to more radicals. This process takes many years and is associated with some aging processes involved in oxygen-dependent tissues such as brain, heart, muscle, and kidney. Auto-enhancing processes such as these are possible causes of degenerative diseases including
410:
1436:
this strands is widespread, and appears to originate with an identification of the majority coding strand as the heavy in one influential article in 1999. In humans, the light strand of mtDNA carries 28 genes and the heavy strand of mtDNA carries only 9 genes. Eight of the 9 genes on the heavy strand code for mitochondrial tRNA molecules. Human mtDNA consists of 16,569 nucleotide pairs. The entire molecule is regulated by only one regulatory region which contains the origins of replication of both heavy and light strands. The entire human mitochondrial DNA molecule has been mapped.
233:
40:
1667:
mitochondrion will occur in chromosomal DNA, which is inherited in a
Mendelian pattern. Another result is that a chromosomal mutation will affect a specific tissue due to its specific needs, whether those may be high energy requirements or a need for the catabolism or anabolism of a specific neurotransmitter or nucleic acid. Because several copies of the mitochondrial genome are carried by each mitochondrion (2–10 in humans), mitochondrial mutations can be inherited maternally by mtDNA mutations which are present in mitochondria inside the
1642:
been isolated. Mitochondria need a certain protein to undergo fission. If this protein (generated by the nucleus) is not present, the mitochondria grow but they do not divide. This leads to giant, inefficient mitochondria. Mistakes in chromosomal genes or their products can also affect mitochondrial replication more directly by inhibiting mitochondrial polymerase and can even cause mutations in the mtDNA directly and indirectly. Indirect mutations are most often caused by radicals created by defective proteins made from nuclear DNA.
418:
430:(diseases due to malfunction of mitochondria) can be inherited both maternally and through chromosomal inheritance, the way in which they are passed on from generation to generation can vary greatly depending on the disease. Mitochondrial genetic mutations that occur in the nuclear DNA can occur in any of the chromosomes (depending on the species). Mutations inherited through the chromosomes can be autosomal dominant or recessive and can also be sex-linked dominant or recessive. Chromosomal inheritance follows normal
1695:. When a certain tissue reaches a certain ratio of mutant versus wildtype mitochondria, a disease will present itself. The ratio varies from person to person and tissue to tissue (depending on its specific energy, oxygen, and metabolism requirements, and the effects of the specific mutation). Mitochondrial diseases are very numerous and different. Apart from diseases caused by abnormalities in mitochondrial DNA, many diseases are suspected to be associated in part by mitochondrial dysfunctions, such as
1687:) makes them very hard to accurately recognize, diagnose and trace. Some diseases are observable at or even before birth (many causing death) while others do not show themselves until late adulthood (late-onset disorders). This is because the number of mutant versus wildtype mitochondria varies between cells and tissues, and is continuously changing. Because cells have multiple mitochondria, different mitochondria in the same cell can have different variations of the
1588:. One strand begins to replicate first, displacing the other strand. This continues until replication reaches the origin of replication on the other strand, at which point the other strand begins replicating in the opposite direction. This results in two new mtDNA molecules. Each mitochondrion has several copies of the mtDNA molecule and the number of mtDNA molecules is a limiting factor in
438:
mitochondria or the cytoplasm; this may lead to slight, if any, noticeable symptoms. On the other hand, some devastating mtDNA mutations are easy to diagnose because of their widespread damage to muscular, neural, and/or hepatic tissues (among other high-energy and metabolism-dependent tissues) and because they are present in the mother and all the offspring.
1525:, or one long transcript. The production of primers occurs by processing of light strand transcripts with the Mitochondrial RNase MRP (Mitochondrial RNA Processing). The requirement of transcription to produce primers links the process of transcription to mtDNA replication. Full length transcripts are cut into functional tRNA, rRNA, and mRNA molecules.
2890:
Courtenay, Monique D.; Gilbert, John R.; Jiang, Lan; Cummings, Anna C.; Gallins, Paul J.; Caywood, Laura; Reinhart-Mercer, Lori; Fuzzell, Denise; Knebusch, Claire; Laux, Renee; McCauley, Jacob L.; Jackson, Charles E.; Pericak-Vance, Margaret A.; Haines, Jonathan L.; Scott, William K. (February 2012).
1682:
range in severity from asymptomatic to fatal, and are most commonly due to inherited rather than acquired mutations of mitochondrial DNA. A given mitochondrial mutation can cause various diseases depending on the severity of the problem in the mitochondria and the tissue the affected mitochondria are
1760:
and unidentified remains. Many researchers believe that mtDNA is better suited to identification of older skeletal remains than nuclear DNA because the greater number of copies of mtDNA per cell increases the chance of obtaining a useful sample, and because a match with a living relative is possible
1641:
Because mitochondrial growth and fission are mediated by the nuclear DNA, mutations in nuclear DNA can have a wide array of effects on mtDNA replication. Despite the fact that the loci for some of these mutations have been found on human chromosomes, specific genes and proteins involved have not yet
1467:
There are many other variations among the codes used by other mitochondrial m/tRNA, which happened not to be harmful to their organisms, and which can be used as a tool (along with other mutations among the mtDNA/RNA of different species) to determine relative proximity of common ancestry of related
467:
It is possible, even in twin births, for one baby to receive more than half mutant mtDNA molecules while the other twin may receive only a tiny fraction of mutant mtDNA molecules with respect to wildtype (depending on how the twins divide from each other and how many mutant mitochondria happen to be
1620:
from mistakes that occur during the production of ATP through the electron transport chain. These mistakes can be caused by genetic disorders, cancer, and temperature variations. These radicals can damage mtDNA molecules or change them, making it hard for mitochondrial polymerase to replicate them.
1435:
Mitochondrial DNA traditionally had the two strands of DNA designated the heavy and the light strand, due to their buoyant densities during separation in cesium chloride gradients, which was found to be related to the relative G+T nucleotide content of the strand. However, confusion of labeling of
2706:
Carrieri, Giuseppina; Bonafè, Massimiliano; De Luca, Maria; Rose, Giuseppina; Varcasia, Ottavia; Bruni, Amalia; Maletta, Raffaele; Nacmias, Benedetta; Sorbi, Sandro; Corsonello, Francesco; Feraco, Emidio; Andreev, Kirill F.; Yashin, Anatoli I.; Franceschi, Claudio; De
Benedictis, Giovanna (March
1666:
synthesis. Only about 3% of them code for ATP production proteins. This means most of the genetic information coding for the protein makeup of mitochondria is in chromosomal DNA and is involved in processes other than ATP synthesis. This increases the chances that a mutation that will affect a
437:
Because of the complex ways in which mitochondrial and nuclear DNA "communicate" and interact, even seemingly simple inheritance is hard to diagnose. A mutation in chromosomal DNA may change a protein that regulates (increases or decreases) the production of another certain protein in the
2026:
Anderson, S.; Bankier, A. T.; Barrell, B. G.; de Bruijn, M. H. L.; Coulson, A. R.; Drouin, J.; Eperon, I. C.; Nierlich, D. P.; Roe, B. A.; Sanger, F.; Schreier, P. H.; Smith, A. J. H.; Staden, R.; Young, I. G. (April 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
1751:
laboratories occasionally use mtDNA comparison to identify human remains, and especially to identify older unidentified skeletal remains. Although unlike nuclear DNA, mtDNA is not specific to one individual, it can be used in combination with other evidence (anthropological evidence,
2373:
Anderson, S.; Bankier, A. T.; Barrell, B. G.; de Bruijn, M. H. L.; Coulson, A. R.; Drouin, J.; Eperon, I. C.; Nierlich, D. P.; Roe, B. A.; Sanger, F.; Schreier, P. H.; Smith, A. J. H.; Staden, R.; Young, I. G. (1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
1514:, H1, H2, and L (heavy strand 1, heavy strand 2, and light strand promoters). The H2 promoter transcribes almost the entire heavy strand and the L promoter transcribes the entire light strand. The H1 promoter causes the transcription of the two mitochondrial rRNA molecules.
1661:
In total, the mitochondrion hosts about 3000 different types of proteins, but only about 13 of them are coded on the mitochondrial DNA. Most of the 3000 types of proteins are involved in a variety of processes other than ATP production, such as
1548:
assemble at the mitochondrial promoters and begin transcription. The actual molecular events that are involved in initiation are unknown, but these factors make up the basal transcription machinery and have been shown to function in vitro.
3070:
Gill, Peter; Ivanov, Pavel L.; Kimpton, Colin; Piercy, Romelle; Benson, Nicola; Tully, Gillian; Evett, Ian; Hagelberg, Erika; Sullivan, Kevin (February 1994). "Identification of the remains of the
Romanov family by DNA analysis".
2840:
Ruiz-Pesini, Eduardo; Lapeña, Ana-Cristina; Díez-Sánchez, Carmen; Pérez-Martos, Acisclo; Montoya, Julio; Alvarez, Enrique; Díaz, Miguel; Urriés, Antonio; Montoro, Luis; López-Pérez, Manuel J.; Enríquez, José A. (September 2000).
3190:
Li, Xiangqi; Liu, Lianyong; Xi, Qian; Zhao, Xuemei; Fang, Mingshuang; Ma, Junhua; Zhu, Zhaohui; Wang, Xing; Shi, Chao; Wang, Jingnan; Zhu, Hongling; Zhang, Jichen; Zhang, Chaobao; Hu, Shuanggang; Ni, Minjie; Gu, Mingjun (2016).
1592:. After the mitochondrion has enough mtDNA, membrane area, and membrane proteins, it can undergo fission (very similar to that which bacteria use) to become two mitochondria. Evidence suggests that mitochondria can also undergo
1559:
translations have still not been successful, probably due to the difficulty of isolating sufficient mt mRNA, functional mt rRNA, and possibly because of the complicated changes that the mRNA undergoes before it is translated.
376:, with each such molecule normally containing a full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules, with the quantity ranging between 1 and 15. Each human
363:
carried in mitochondrial DNA, or nuclear DNA coding for mitochondrial components. Slight problems with any one of the numerous enzymes used by the mitochondria can be devastating to the cell, and in turn, to the organism.
421:
The reason for maternal inheritance in mitochondrial DNA is that when the sperm enters the egg cell, it discards its middle part, which contains its mitochondria, so that only its head with the nucleus penetrates the egg
380:
contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500. The amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, with some examples being:
244:, with 23 chromosome pairs, and the human mitochondrial genome to scale at bottom left (annotated "MT"). Its genome is relatively tiny compared to the rest, and its copy number per human cell varies from 0 (
2486:
Tanaka, Masashi; Fuku, Noriyuki; Nishigaki, Yutaka; Matsuo, Hitoshi; Segawa, Tomonori; Watanabe, Sachiro; Kato, Kimihiko; Yoko, Kiyoshi; Ito, Masafumi; Nozawa, Yoshinori; Yamada, Yoshiji (February 2007).
2289:
Barroso Lima, Nicholas Costa; Prosdocimi, Francisco (17 February 2018). "The heavy strand dilemma of vertebrate mitochondria on genome sequencing age: number of encoded genes or G + T content?".
2536:
Theodoratou, Evropi; Din, Farhat V.N.; Farrington, Susan M.; Cetnarskyj, Roseanne; Barnetson, Rebecca A.; Porteous, Mary E.; Dunlop, Malcolm G.; Campbell, Harry; Tenesa, Albert (February 2010).
2655:
Angireddy, Rajesh; Kazmi, Hasan Raza; Srinivasan, Satish; Sun, Li; Iqbal, Jameel; Fuchs, Serge Y.; Guha, Manti; Kijima, Takashi; Yuen, Tony; Zaidi, Mone; Avadhani, Narayan G. (August 2019).
778:
Unlike the other proteins, humanin does not remain in the mitochondria, and interacts with the rest of the cell and cellular receptors. Humanin can protect brain cells by inhibiting
452:
varies from cell (in this case, the fertilized oocyte) to cell depending both on the number it inherited from its mother cell and environmental factors which may favor mutant or
400:: Mature metaphase II egg cells can contain 100,000 mitochondria, and 50,000–1,500,000 copies of the mitochondrial genome (corresponding to up to 90% of the egg cell DNA).
3193:"Short-term serum deprivation causes no significant mitochondrial DNA mutation in vascular smooth muscle cells revealed by a new next generation sequencing technology"
1776:'s remains were identified using a comparison between mtDNA extracted from his remains and the mtDNA of the son of the female-line great-granddaughter of his sister.
1683:
in. Conversely, several different mutations may present themselves as the same disease. This almost patient-specific characterization of mitochondrial diseases (see
4026:
3116:"Mitochondrial DNA sequence heteroplasmy in the Grand Duke of Russia Georgij Romanov establishes the authenticity of the remains of Tsar Nicholas II"
1784:
2192:
1971:
1913:
498:
It was originally incorrectly believed that the mitochondrial genome contained only 13 protein-coding genes, all of them encoding proteins of the
2206:
Zimmerman, Earl G.; Akins, Darrin R.; Planz, John V.; Schurr, Michael J. (September 1988). "A rapid procedure for isolating mitochondrial DNA".
1521:
takes place on the heavy strand a polycistronic transcript is created. The light strand produces either small transcripts, which can be used as
344:
for mitochondrial RNA, and therefore most mitochondrial DNA mutations lead to functional problems, which may be manifested as muscle disorders (
3527:
162:
121:
3024:
Stone, Anne C.; Starrs, James E.; Stoneking, Mark (1 January 2001). "Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of the
Presumptive Remains of Jesse James".
167:
17:
3924:
2078:
1608:, and protein exchanges are constantly occurring. mtDNA shared among mitochondria (despite the fact that they can undergo fusion).
1504:
is controlled by nuclear genes and is specifically suited to make as many mitochondria as that particular cell needs at the time.
3979:
3974:
1792:
2108:
Satoh, M; Kuroiwa, T (September 1991). "Organization of multiple nucleoids and DNA molecules in mitochondria of a human cell".
1452:" are "UAA", "UAG", and "UGA". In vertebrate mitochondria "AGA" and "AGG" are also stop codons, but not "UGA", which codes for
3114:
Ivanov, Pavel L.; Wadhams, Mark J.; Roby, Rhonda K.; Holland, Mitchell M.; Weedn, Victor W.; Parsons, Thomas J. (April 1996).
1448:
is, for the most part, universal, with few exceptions: mitochondrial genetics includes some of these. For most organisms the "
468:
on each side of the division). In a few cases, some mitochondria or a mitochondrion from the sperm cell enters the oocyte but
4047:
4016:
3657:
3281:
3170:
311:
1528:
The process of transcription initiation in mitochondria involves three types of proteins: the mitochondrial RNA polymerase (
4021:
1811:
1780:
1468:
species. (The more related two species are, the more mtDNA/RNA mutations will be the same in their mitochondrial genome).
1845:
1835:
653:
3779:
2793:"Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups and risk of transient ischaemic attack and ischaemic stroke: a genetic association study"
4052:
2707:
2001). "Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups and APOE4 allele are non-independent variables in sporadic
Alzheimer's disease".
2451:
Asin-Cayuela, Jordi; Gustafsson, Claes M. (2007). "Mitochondrial transcription and its regulation in mammalian cells".
481:
330:
3520:
2999:
1818:
3796:
1803:
1788:
109:
2241:
Welter, Cornelius; Meese, Eckart; Blin, Nikolaus (1988). "Rapid step-gradient purification of mitochondrial DNA".
1532:), mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM), and mitochondrial transcription factors B1 and B2 (TFB1M, TFB2M).
138:
288:
is the entirety of hereditary information contained in human mitochondria. Mitochondria are small structures in
48:
with the protein-coding (red, orange, yellow), ribosomal RNA (blue), and transfer RNA genes (white). Non-coding
445:
the mitochondria within the fertilized oocyte is what the new life will have to begin with (in terms of mtDNA),
306:(nDNA). In humans, as in most multicellular organisms, mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother's
3642:
351:
Because they provide 30 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule in contrast to the 2 ATP molecules produced by
3513:
1840:
126:
1830:
1471:
Using these techniques, it is estimated that the first mitochondria arose around 1.5 billion years ago.
469:
2657:"Cytochrome c oxidase dysfunction enhances phagocytic function and osteoclast formation in macrophages"
1522:
155:
3789:
3274:
315:
179:
1756:, and the like) to establish identification. mtDNA is also used to exclude possible matches between
3843:
3627:
3494:
2145:"Nitric oxide-dependent mitochondrial biogenesis generates Ca2+ signaling profile of lupus T cells"
1850:
499:
441:
The number of affected mtDNA molecules inherited by a specific offspring can vary greatly because
3244:
1753:
3749:
3722:
1720:
1704:
1630:
1626:
1622:
143:
2942:"Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis"
199:
3784:
3682:
2186:
1965:
1907:
1799:
1684:
1679:
1651:
1605:
1597:
1589:
1581:
1416:
782:. Despite its name, versions of humanin also exist in other animals, such as rattin in rats.
431:
427:
372:
In humans, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) forms closed circular molecules that contain 16,569 DNA
356:
319:
186:
2425:
4004:
3929:
3914:
3744:
3692:
3667:
3607:
3482:
3267:
2953:
2383:
2036:
1807:
1601:
1593:
1472:
678:
460:
232:
218:
49:
45:
8:
3672:
3489:
1600:) genetic material among each other. Mitochondria sometimes form large matrices in which
334:
174:
64:
2957:
2538:"Association between common mtDNA variants and all-cause or colorectal cancer mortality"
2387:
2082:
2040:
39:
3143:
3096:
3049:
2917:
2892:
2867:
2842:
2817:
2792:
2732:
2683:
2656:
2632:
2605:
2518:
2407:
2314:
2266:
2169:
2144:
2060:
1948:
1931:
1585:
1511:
1487:
552:
2976:
2941:
2808:
2350:
2333:
1891:
3734:
3646:
3457:
3214:
3166:
3135:
3088:
3041:
2981:
2922:
2872:
2822:
2773:
2750:
Martín-Jiménez, Rebeca; Lurette, Olivier; Hebert-Chatelain, Etienne (1 August 2020).
2724:
2688:
2637:
2586:
2559:
2510:
2468:
2399:
2355:
2306:
2258:
2223:
2219:
2174:
2125:
2121:
2052:
2008:
1953:
1895:
1724:
1696:
299:
272:
97:
3100:
2522:
2318:
114:
3823:
3702:
3204:
3127:
3080:
3053:
3033:
2971:
2961:
2912:
2904:
2862:
2854:
2812:
2804:
2791:
Chinnery, Patrick F; Elliott, Hannah R; Syed, Anila; Rothwell, Peter M (May 2010).
2763:
2736:
2716:
2678:
2668:
2627:
2617:
2549:
2500:
2460:
2411:
2391:
2345:
2298:
2270:
2250:
2215:
2164:
2156:
2142:
2117:
2064:
2044:
1998:
1943:
1887:
1748:
1732:
1476:
360:
3147:
2489:"Women With Mitochondrial Haplogroup N9a Are Protected Against Metabolic Syndrome"
2302:
417:
3816:
3637:
3585:
2334:"The mitochondrial genome: structure, transcription, translation and replication"
1708:
1671:
before fertilization, or (as stated above) through mutations in the chromosomes.
296:
for the cell to use, and are hence referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell.
75:
2160:
3707:
3631:
2464:
1853:
for lists of databases which help users find others with their Y-DNA and mtDNA.
1757:
377:
289:
86:
2908:
2843:"Human mtDNA Haplogroups Associated with High or Reduced Spermatozoa Motility"
355:, mitochondria are essential to all higher organisms for sustaining life. The
314:
can occur under certain circumstances. Mitochondrial inheritance is therefore
4041:
3687:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
2893:"Mitochondrial Haplogroup X is associated with successful aging in the Amish"
1769:
1617:
1237:
1021:
973:
791:
3505:
2554:
2537:
409:
3662:
3536:
3477:
3443:
3438:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3290:
3218:
3045:
2966:
2926:
2876:
2826:
2777:
2728:
2692:
2673:
2641:
2563:
2514:
2472:
2359:
2310:
2178:
2012:
1957:
1716:
1692:
1577:
1573:
1572:
gene) is used in the copying of mtDNA during replication. Because the two (
1445:
725:
657:
449:
341:
281:
245:
241:
222:
203:
3209:
3192:
3139:
3092:
3003:
2985:
2768:
2751:
2720:
2590:
2403:
2262:
2227:
2129:
2056:
1899:
1875:
3881:
3876:
3739:
3717:
3712:
3580:
3298:
3248:
2839:
2003:
1986:
1773:
385:
303:
3901:
3891:
3886:
3871:
3811:
3801:
3677:
3651:
3602:
3592:
3540:
3232:
3131:
3084:
2622:
2254:
1479:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1357:
1213:
1117:
949:
391:
352:
3238:
3037:
2505:
2488:
1656:
1496:
506:
was discovered, and was found to be encoded by the mitochondrial gene
3853:
3597:
3575:
3556:
2749:
2395:
2048:
1929:
1873:
1663:
1490:
1483:
1333:
1093:
1045:
779:
373:
255:
237:
3115:
434:, despite the fact that the phenotype of the disease may be masked.
3839:
3623:
3430:
3307:
3256:, reports on published data about human mitochondrial DNA variation
2858:
1712:
1556:
1381:
997:
925:
511:
453:
397:
345:
266:
249:
2535:
1636:
4009:
3863:
3774:
3769:
2752:"Damage in Mitochondrial DNA Associated with Parkinson's Disease"
1261:
1165:
1141:
1069:
901:
852:
833:
764:
759:
743:
730:
598:
507:
503:
212:
3919:
3806:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3259:
2372:
2025:
1728:
1700:
1668:
1533:
1529:
1405:
1320:
1309:
1296:
1285:
1189:
1176:
1152:
709:
696:
683:
662:
637:
624:
611:
585:
572:
559:
323:
293:
193:
150:
502:. However, in 2001, a 14th biologically active protein called
3984:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3909:
3847:
2889:
1736:
1688:
1545:
1541:
1392:
1368:
1344:
1272:
1248:
1224:
1200:
1128:
1104:
1080:
1056:
1032:
1008:
984:
960:
936:
912:
322:
presumes that half the genetic material of a fertilized egg (
2143:
Nagy G, Barcza M, Gonchoroff N, Phillips PE, Perl A (2004).
1568:
2790:
2654:
1747:
Human mtDNA can also be used to help identify individuals.
1569:
1537:
872:
307:
3253:
2705:
2485:
2205:
277:
3113:
1802:
remains his mitochondrial DNA was compared with that of
1761:
even if numerous maternal generations separate the two.
1580:) strands on the circular mtDNA molecule have different
493:
4027:
International System for Human
Cytogenetic Nomenclature
3069:
2450:
2288:
1787:
by comparison of their mitochondrial DNA with that of
1932:"Mitochondria in oocyte aging: current understanding"
3163:
The Last Days of
Richard III and the Fate of His DNA
3023:
1985:
Schwartz, Marianne; Vissing, John (22 August 2002).
1791:, whose maternal grandmother was Alexandra's sister
2579:
Nihon Rinsho. Japanese
Journal of Clinical Medicine
2338:
Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics
1810:(Queen Alexandra) was sister of Nicholas II mother
1657:
Contribution of mitochondrial versus nuclear genome
1497:
Replication, repair, transcription, and translation
2606:"Understanding mitochondrial myopathies: a review"
2284:
2282:
2280:
1876:"Mitochondrial DNA in anucleate human blood cells"
1735:and which are also believed to play a role in the
463:in the mitochondria varies from around two to ten.
1611:
4039:
1783:, last Empress of Russia, and her children were
1616:Mitochondrial DNA is susceptible to damage from
2946:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2432:. National Center for Biotechnology Information
2277:
2240:
1984:
1637:Chromosomally mediated mtDNA replication errors
1563:
3065:
3063:
1930:Zhang D, Keilty D, Zhang ZF, Chian RC (2017).
1925:
1923:
1874:Shuster RC, Rubenstein AJ, Wallace DC (1988).
3535:
3521:
3275:
1869:
1867:
510:which also encodes part of the mitochondrial
3160:
2191:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2107:
2019:
1970:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1912:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3189:
3060:
2136:
2103:
2101:
2099:
1987:"Paternal Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA"
1920:
3528:
3514:
3282:
3268:
3000:"Paleo-DNA Laboratory – Forensic Services"
1864:
38:
3208:
3017:
2975:
2965:
2916:
2866:
2816:
2767:
2682:
2672:
2631:
2621:
2553:
2504:
2349:
2168:
2002:
1947:
1645:
2096:
1439:
416:
408:
231:
2331:
404:
27:Study of the human mitochondrial genome
14:
4040:
2847:The American Journal of Human Genetics
1475:is that mitochondria originated as an
4017:List of organisms by chromosome count
3509:
3263:
2939:
2603:
2332:Taanman, Jan-Willem (February 1999).
616:10,760–12,137 (overlap with MT-ND4L)
494:Electron transport chain, and humanin
312:paternal mtDNA transmission in humans
3197:Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica
2576:
1781:Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)
1430:
340:Eighty percent of mitochondrial DNA
310:. There are theories, however, that
2604:Ahuja, Abhimanyu S. (21 May 2018).
1846:Human mitochondrial molecular clock
1836:Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups
1806:, whose maternal great-grandmother
1742:
1691:. This condition is referred to as
1555:is still not very well understood.
735:8,527–9,207 (overlap with MT-ATP8)
654:Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase
302:(mtDNA) is not transmitted through
24:
3183:
1510:in humans is initiated from three
1464:in vertebrate mitochondrial mRNA.
482:Category:Human mitochondrial genes
413:Mitochondrial inheritance patterns
25:
4064:
3226:
3289:
1804:James Carnegie, 3rd Duke of Fife
1789:Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
3638:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
3154:
3107:
2992:
2933:
2883:
2833:
2784:
2743:
2699:
2648:
2597:
2570:
2529:
2479:
2444:
2418:
2366:
2325:
1991:New England Journal of Medicine
1674:
1473:A generally accepted hypothesis
450:number of affected mitochondria
2577:Goto, Y (September 1993). "".
2453:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
2234:
2199:
2071:
1978:
1817:Similarly were the remains of
1798:Similarly to identify Emperor
1612:Damage and transcription error
76:
13:
1:
2809:10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70083-1
2351:10.1016/s0005-2728(98)00161-3
2303:10.1080/24701394.2016.1275603
1892:10.1016/s0006-291x(88)81291-9
1857:
331:mitochondrial DNA haplogroups
329:This allowed the creation of
4048:Human mitochondrial genetics
3026:Journal of Forensic Sciences
2940:Brown, W. M. (1 June 1980).
2220:10.1016/0735-0651(88)90004-0
2122:10.1016/0014-4827(91)90467-9
1841:Cambridge Reference Sequence
1814:(Empress Maria Feodorovna).
1564:Mitochondrial DNA polymerase
1403:
1379:
1355:
1331:
1307:
1283:
1259:
1235:
1211:
1187:
1163:
1139:
1115:
1091:
1067:
1043:
1019:
995:
971:
947:
923:
899:
326:) derives from each parent.
263:Human mitochondrial genetics
7:
3161:Ashdown-Hill, John (2013).
2161:10.4049/jimmunol.173.6.3676
1831:Paternal mtDNA transmission
1824:
1764:
1596:and exchange (in a form of
1508:Mitochondrial transcription
871:The following genes encode
816:Positions in the mitogenome
790:The following genes encode
538:Positions in the mitogenome
367:
10:
4069:
3678:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
2465:10.1016/j.tibs.2007.01.003
2110:Experimental Cell Research
1880:Biochem Biophys Res Commun
1779:Similarly, the remains of
1649:
1460:in most organisms but for
488:human mitochondrial genome
479:
394:: 3 mitochondria per cell.
388:: 0 mitochondria per cell.
286:human mitochondrial genome
253:
4053:Human mitochondrial genes
4022:List of sequenced genomes
3997:
3900:
3862:
3832:
3790:Chromosomal translocation
3760:
3663:A chromosome/B chromosome
3654:(or accessory chromosome)
3616:
3547:
3470:
3456:
3429:
3306:
3297:
2909:10.1007/s00439-011-1060-3
2243:Molecular Biology Reports
1553:Mitochondrial translation
1502:Mitochondrial replication
1456:instead. "AUA" codes for
758:
755:
724:
721:
677:
674:
652:
649:
551:
548:
472:are actively decomposed.
461:number of mtDNA molecules
211:
192:
185:
173:
161:
149:
137:
132:
120:
108:
103:
93:
74:
62:
57:
44:The 16,569 bp long human
37:
32:
18:Mitochondrial DNA (human)
3844:Telomere-binding protein
3658:Supernumerary chromosome
2291:Mitochondrial DNA Part A
2208:Gene Analysis Techniques
500:electron transport chain
475:
3464:Human mitochondrial DNA
3241:: A mitogenome browser.
1754:circumstantial evidence
1631:coronary artery disease
866:
785:
33:Human mitochondrial DNA
3780:Structural alterations
2967:10.1073/pnas.77.6.3605
2674:10.1096/fj.201900010RR
1705:cardiovascular disease
1680:Mitochondrial diseases
1646:Mitochondrial diseases
1582:origins of replication
1484:symbiotic relationship
428:mitochondrial diseases
423:
414:
357:mitochondrial diseases
259:
3797:Numerical alterations
3785:Chromosomal inversion
3683:Homologous chromosome
2769:10.1089/dna.2020.5398
2721:10.1007/s004390100463
2555:10.1093/carcin/bgp237
1936:Facts Views Vis Obgyn
1685:Personalized medicine
1652:Mitochondrial disease
1650:Further information:
1590:mitochondrial fission
1584:, it replicates in a
1440:Genetic code variants
470:paternal mitochondria
420:
412:
320:Mendelian inheritance
254:Further information:
235:
4005:Extrachromosomal DNA
3693:Satellite chromosome
3668:Lampbrush chromosome
3608:Nuclear organization
3483:Human Genome Project
3458:Mitochondrial genome
2797:The Lancet Neurology
2756:DNA and Cell Biology
2430:www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
2004:10.1056/NEJMoa020350
1808:Alexandra of Denmark
1725:Parkinsons's disease
1711:, specific forms of
1618:free oxygen radicals
679:Cytochrome c oxidase
405:Inheritance patterns
265:is the study of the
133:External map viewers
50:mtDNA control region
46:mitochondrial genome
3698:Centromere position
3673:Polytene chromosome
3643:Circular chromosome
3490:List of human genes
3235:: A genome browser.
3210:10.1093/abbs/gmw059
2958:1980PNAS...77.3605B
2426:"The Genetic Codes"
2388:1981Natur.290..457A
2041:1981Natur.290..457A
1721:Alzheimer's disease
514:(made out of RNA):
335:population genetics
280:contained in human
248:) up to 1,500,000 (
104:Complete gene lists
3132:10.1038/ng0496-417
3085:10.1038/ng0294-130
2623:10.7717/peerj.4790
2255:10.1007/BF00539059
553:NADH dehydrogenase
456:mitochondrial DNA,
424:
415:
260:
187:Full DNA sequences
4035:
4034:
3993:
3992:
3730:Centromere number
3647:Linear chromosome
3503:
3502:
3495:Human archaeology
3452:
3451:
3245:Mitochondrial DNA
3172:978-0-7524-9205-6
3165:. History Press.
3038:10.1520/JFS14932J
2661:The FASEB Journal
2506:10.2337/db06-1105
2035:(5806): 457–465.
1851:Genetic genealogy
1812:Dagmar of Denmark
1793:Victoria of Hesse
1697:diabetes mellitus
1431:Location of genes
1428:
1427:
864:
863:
776:
775:
361:genetic disorders
300:Mitochondrial DNA
273:mitochondrial DNA
230:
229:
98:Mitochondrial DNA
83:13 (coding genes)
16:(Redirected from
4060:
3860:
3859:
3824:Polyploidization
3652:Extra chromosome
3567:Genetic material
3530:
3523:
3516:
3507:
3506:
3304:
3303:
3284:
3277:
3270:
3261:
3260:
3222:
3212:
3177:
3176:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3067:
3058:
3057:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3002:. Archived from
2996:
2990:
2989:
2979:
2969:
2952:(6): 3605–3609.
2937:
2931:
2930:
2920:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2870:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2820:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2771:
2762:(8): 1421–1430.
2747:
2741:
2740:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2686:
2676:
2667:(8): 9167–9181.
2652:
2646:
2645:
2635:
2625:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2557:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2508:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2396:10.1038/290457a0
2382:(5806): 457–65.
2370:
2364:
2363:
2353:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2286:
2275:
2274:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2190:
2182:
2172:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2105:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2081:. Archived from
2075:
2069:
2068:
2049:10.1038/290457a0
2023:
2017:
2016:
2006:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1961:
1951:
1927:
1918:
1917:
1911:
1903:
1871:
1819:King Richard III
1743:Use in forensics
1733:male infertility
878:
877:
797:
796:
517:
516:
490:are as follows.
226:
207:
87:non coding genes
78:
42:
30:
29:
21:
4068:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4057:
4038:
4037:
4036:
4031:
3989:
3896:
3858:
3828:
3817:Paleopolyploidy
3762:
3756:
3612:
3586:Heterochromatin
3549:
3543:
3534:
3504:
3499:
3466:
3448:
3425:
3293:
3288:
3229:
3186:
3184:Further reading
3181:
3180:
3173:
3159:
3155:
3120:Nature Genetics
3112:
3108:
3073:Nature Genetics
3068:
3061:
3022:
3018:
3009:
3007:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2938:
2934:
2888:
2884:
2838:
2834:
2789:
2785:
2748:
2744:
2704:
2700:
2653:
2649:
2602:
2598:
2575:
2571:
2534:
2530:
2484:
2480:
2449:
2445:
2435:
2433:
2424:
2423:
2419:
2371:
2367:
2330:
2326:
2287:
2278:
2239:
2235:
2204:
2200:
2184:
2183:
2141:
2137:
2106:
2097:
2088:
2086:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2024:
2020:
1983:
1979:
1963:
1962:
1928:
1921:
1905:
1904:
1872:
1865:
1860:
1827:
1767:
1758:missing persons
1745:
1709:lactic acidosis
1677:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1639:
1614:
1566:
1499:
1442:
1433:
869:
788:
522:
496:
484:
478:
407:
370:
258:
217:
198:
84:
53:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4066:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4013:
4012:
4001:
3999:
3995:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3906:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3868:
3866:
3857:
3856:
3851:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3787:
3777:
3772:
3766:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3755:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3708:Submetacentric
3705:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3649:
3640:
3635:
3634:or heterosome)
3628:Sex chromosome
3620:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3611:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3589:
3588:
3583:
3573:
3564:
3559:
3553:
3551:
3545:
3544:
3533:
3532:
3525:
3518:
3510:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3486:
3485:
3474:
3472:
3471:Related topics
3468:
3467:
3462:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3431:Sex chromosome
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3312:
3310:
3301:
3299:Nuclear genome
3295:
3294:
3287:
3286:
3279:
3272:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3251:
3242:
3236:
3228:
3227:External links
3225:
3224:
3223:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3171:
3153:
3126:(4): 417–420.
3106:
3079:(2): 130–135.
3059:
3016:
2991:
2932:
2903:(2): 201–208.
2897:Human Genetics
2882:
2859:10.1086/303040
2853:(3): 682–696.
2832:
2803:(5): 498–503.
2783:
2742:
2715:(3): 194–198.
2709:Human Genetics
2698:
2647:
2596:
2569:
2548:(2): 296–301.
2542:Carcinogenesis
2528:
2499:(2): 518–521.
2478:
2443:
2417:
2365:
2344:(2): 103–123.
2324:
2297:(2): 300–302.
2276:
2249:(2): 117–120.
2233:
2214:(5): 102–104.
2198:
2155:(6): 3676–83.
2135:
2116:(1): 137–140.
2095:
2070:
2018:
1997:(8): 576–580.
1977:
1919:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1826:
1823:
1766:
1763:
1744:
1741:
1676:
1673:
1658:
1655:
1647:
1644:
1638:
1635:
1613:
1610:
1565:
1562:
1498:
1495:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1349:15,888–15,953
1347:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1325:12,207–12,265
1323:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1277:15,956–16,023
1275:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1182:
1181:12,266–12,336
1179:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1109:12,138–12,206
1107:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1037:14,674–14,742
1035:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1006:
1003:
1000:
994:
993:
990:
987:
982:
979:
976:
970:
969:
966:
963:
958:
955:
952:
946:
945:
942:
941:10,405–10,469
939:
934:
931:
928:
922:
921:
918:
915:
910:
907:
904:
898:
897:
894:
891:
888:
885:
882:
868:
865:
862:
861:
858:
855:
850:
847:
843:
842:
839:
836:
831:
828:
824:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
787:
784:
774:
773:
770:
767:
762:
757:
753:
752:
749:
746:
740:
739:
736:
733:
728:
723:
719:
718:
715:
712:
706:
705:
702:
699:
693:
692:
689:
686:
681:
676:
672:
671:
668:
667:14,747–15,887
665:
660:
651:
647:
646:
643:
642:14,149–14,673
640:
634:
633:
630:
629:12,337–14,148
627:
621:
620:
617:
614:
608:
607:
604:
603:10,470–10,766
601:
595:
594:
591:
590:10,059–10,404
588:
582:
581:
578:
575:
569:
568:
565:
562:
556:
555:
550:
546:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
495:
492:
477:
474:
465:
464:
457:
446:
432:Mendelian laws
406:
403:
402:
401:
395:
389:
369:
366:
292:that generate
228:
227:
215:
209:
208:
196:
190:
189:
183:
182:
177:
171:
170:
165:
159:
158:
153:
147:
146:
141:
135:
134:
130:
129:
124:
118:
117:
112:
106:
105:
101:
100:
95:
91:
90:
81:
72:
71:
68:
60:
59:
55:
54:
43:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4065:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4006:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3996:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3855:
3852:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3822:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3795:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3763:and evolution
3759:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3728:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3688:Isochromosome
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3615:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3531:
3526:
3524:
3519:
3517:
3512:
3511:
3508:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3459:
3455:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3285:
3280:
3278:
3273:
3271:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3233:ISOGG YBrowse
3231:
3230:
3220:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3174:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3066:
3064:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3006:on 2012-03-13
3005:
3001:
2995:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2886:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2836:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2787:
2779:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2702:
2694:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2651:
2643:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2600:
2592:
2588:
2585:(9): 2373–8.
2584:
2580:
2573:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2482:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2459:(3): 111–17.
2458:
2454:
2447:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2369:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2085:on 2011-08-13
2084:
2080:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1973:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1915:
1909:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1886:(3): 1360–5.
1885:
1881:
1877:
1870:
1868:
1863:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1822:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1737:aging process
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1672:
1670:
1665:
1653:
1643:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1519:transcription
1515:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1503:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1437:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1238:Phenylalanine
1236:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1087:
1085:9,991–10,058
1084:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1022:Glutamic acid
1020:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
991:
988:
986:
983:
980:
977:
975:
974:Aspartic acid
972:
967:
964:
962:
959:
956:
953:
951:
948:
943:
940:
938:
935:
932:
929:
927:
924:
919:
916:
914:
911:
908:
905:
903:
900:
895:
892:
889:
886:
883:
880:
879:
876:
874:
859:
856:
854:
851:
848:
845:
844:
840:
837:
835:
832:
829:
826:
825:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
798:
795:
793:
783:
781:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
754:
750:
747:
745:
742:
741:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
720:
716:
713:
711:
708:
707:
703:
700:
698:
695:
694:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
673:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
655:
648:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
631:
628:
626:
623:
622:
618:
615:
613:
610:
609:
605:
602:
600:
597:
596:
592:
589:
587:
584:
583:
579:
576:
574:
571:
570:
566:
563:
561:
558:
557:
554:
547:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
519:
518:
515:
513:
509:
505:
501:
491:
489:
486:Genes in the
483:
473:
471:
462:
458:
455:
451:
447:
444:
443:
442:
439:
435:
433:
429:
419:
411:
399:
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
383:
382:
379:
375:
365:
362:
358:
354:
349:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
316:non-Mendelian
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
274:
268:
264:
257:
251:
247:
243:
239:
234:
224:
220:
216:
214:
210:
205:
201:
197:
195:
191:
188:
184:
181:
178:
176:
172:
169:
168:Chromosome MT
166:
164:
160:
157:
156:Chromosome MT
154:
152:
148:
145:
144:Chromosome MT
142:
140:
136:
131:
128:
125:
123:
119:
116:
113:
111:
107:
102:
99:
96:
92:
88:
82:
80:
73:
69:
66:
61:
56:
51:
47:
41:
36:
31:
19:
3729:
3697:
3537:Cytogenetics
3478:Human genome
3463:
3291:Human genome
3203:(9): 862–4.
3200:
3196:
3162:
3156:
3123:
3119:
3109:
3076:
3072:
3032:(1): 173–6.
3029:
3025:
3019:
3008:. Retrieved
3004:the original
2994:
2949:
2945:
2935:
2900:
2896:
2885:
2850:
2846:
2835:
2800:
2796:
2786:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2664:
2660:
2650:
2613:
2609:
2599:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2545:
2541:
2531:
2496:
2492:
2481:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2434:. Retrieved
2429:
2420:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2341:
2337:
2327:
2294:
2290:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2187:cite journal
2152:
2148:
2138:
2113:
2109:
2087:. Retrieved
2083:the original
2073:
2032:
2028:
2021:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1966:cite journal
1942:(1): 29–38.
1939:
1935:
1908:cite journal
1883:
1879:
1821:identified.
1816:
1797:
1778:
1768:
1746:
1717:osteoporosis
1693:heteroplasmy
1678:
1675:Presentation
1660:
1640:
1615:
1567:
1552:
1551:
1527:
1518:
1516:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1500:
1470:
1466:
1446:genetic code
1443:
1434:
1421:1,602–1,670
1397:5,826–5,891
1373:5,512–5,579
1301:7,446–7,514
1229:4,402–4,469
1205:8,295–8,364
1157:3,230–3,304
1133:4,263–4,331
1061:4,329–4,400
1013:5,761–5,826
989:7,518–7,585
965:5,657–5,729
917:5,587–5,655
870:
857:1,671–3,229
846:Large (LSU)
827:Small (SSU)
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
789:
777:
748:8,366–8,572
726:ATP synthase
714:9,207–9,990
701:7,586–8,269
688:5,904–7,445
658:Cytochrome b
577:4,470–5,511
564:3,307–4,262
542:
537:
532:
527:
520:
497:
487:
485:
466:
440:
436:
425:
386:Erythrocytes
371:
350:
339:
328:
298:
285:
282:mitochondria
270:
262:
261:
246:erythrocytes
242:human genome
240:showing the
180:Chromosome M
3750:Polycentric
3740:Monocentric
3723:Holocentric
3718:Acrocentric
3713:Telocentric
3703:Metacentric
3581:Euchromatin
3541:chromosomes
3249:MedlinePlus
1800:Nicholas II
1774:Jesse James
1699:, forms of
1627:Alzheimer's
1623:Parkinson's
1586:D-loop mode
1450:stop codons
881:Amino Acid
392:Lymphocytes
304:nuclear DNA
4042:Categories
3902:Centromere
3833:Structures
3812:Polyploidy
3802:Aneuploidy
3603:Nucleosome
3593:Chromosome
3010:2012-06-13
2089:2012-06-13
2079:"Untitled"
1858:References
1785:identified
1486:within an
1480:prokaryote
1462:methionine
1458:isoleucine
1454:tryptophan
1358:Tryptophan
1314:Ser (AGY)
1290:Ser (UCN)
1214:Methionine
1170:Leu (CUN)
1146:Leu (UUR)
1118:Isoleucine
950:Asparagine
893:Positions
838:648–1,601
480:See also:
374:base pairs
353:glycolysis
346:myopathies
236:Schematic
3854:Protamine
3761:Processes
3745:Dicentric
3598:Chromatid
3576:Chromatin
3557:Karyotype
3239:mitoWheel
2616:: e4790.
2149:J Immunol
1664:porphyrin
1598:crossover
1512:promoters
1491:eukaryote
1488:anaerobic
1334:Threonine
1094:Histidine
1046:Glutamine
887:1-Letter
884:3-Letter
780:apoptosis
333:to study
256:Karyotype
238:karyogram
200:NC_012920
127:Gene list
115:Gene list
3998:See also
3840:Telomere
3807:Euploidy
3735:Acentric
3632:allosome
3624:Autosome
3550:concepts
3308:Autosome
3219:27261779
3101:33557869
3046:11210907
2927:21750925
2877:10936107
2827:20362514
2778:32397749
2729:11354629
2693:31063702
2642:29844960
2564:19945968
2523:34199769
2515:17259400
2493:Diabetes
2473:17291767
2436:16 March
2360:10076021
2319:20552678
2311:28129726
2179:15356113
2013:12192017
1958:28721182
1825:See also
1770:American
1765:Examples
1749:Forensic
1713:myopathy
1557:In vitro
1382:Tyrosine
1253:577–647
998:Cysteine
926:Arginine
528:Category
512:ribosome
454:wildtype
426:Because
398:Egg cell
368:Quantity
267:genetics
79:of genes
63:Length (
58:Features
52:in grey.
4010:Plasmid
3864:Histone
3775:Meiosis
3770:Mitosis
3254:MITOMAP
3140:8630496
3093:8162066
3054:6480921
2986:6251473
2954:Bibcode
2918:4834861
2868:1287528
2818:2855429
2737:6171041
2684:6662975
2633:5967365
2591:8411715
2412:4355527
2404:7219534
2384:Bibcode
2271:3157709
2263:3221842
2228:2847966
2170:4034140
2130:1715276
2065:4355527
2057:7219534
2037:Bibcode
1949:5506767
1900:3178814
1772:outlaw
1606:fission
1523:primers
1477:aerobic
1262:Proline
1166:Leucine
1142:Leucine
1070:Glycine
902:Alanine
896:Strand
890:MT DNA
853:MT-RNR2
834:MT-RNR1
801:Subunit
765:MT-RNR2
760:Humanin
744:MT-ATP8
731:MT-ATP6
599:MT-ND4L
521:Complex
508:MT-RNR2
504:humanin
284:). The
250:oocytes
213:GenBank
139:Ensembl
3571:Genome
3562:Ploidy
3217:
3169:
3148:287478
3146:
3138:
3099:
3091:
3052:
3044:
2984:
2977:349666
2974:
2925:
2915:
2875:
2865:
2825:
2815:
2776:
2735:
2727:
2691:
2681:
2640:
2630:
2589:
2562:
2521:
2513:
2471:
2410:
2402:
2376:Nature
2358:
2317:
2309:
2269:
2261:
2226:
2177:
2167:
2128:
2063:
2055:
2029:Nature
2011:
1956:
1946:
1898:
1729:stroke
1701:cancer
1669:oocyte
1629:, and
1602:fusion
1594:fusion
1540:, and
1534:POLRMT
1530:POLRMT
1406:Valine
1321:MT-TS2
1310:Serine
1297:MT-TS1
1286:Serine
1190:Lysine
1177:MT-TL2
1153:MT-TL1
821:Strand
710:MT-CO3
697:MT-CO2
684:MT-CO1
663:MT-CYB
638:MT-ND6
625:MT-ND5
612:MT-ND4
586:MT-ND3
573:MT-ND2
560:MT-ND1
543:Strand
523:number
324:zygote
294:energy
271:human
219:J01415
194:RefSeq
151:Entrez
70:16,569
3848:TINF2
3617:Types
3548:Basic
3144:S2CID
3097:S2CID
3050:S2CID
2733:S2CID
2610:PeerJ
2519:S2CID
2408:S2CID
2315:S2CID
2267:S2CID
2061:S2CID
1689:mtDNA
1578:light
1574:heavy
1546:TFB2M
1542:TFB1M
1517:When
1482:in a
1417:MT-TV
1393:MT-TY
1369:MT-TW
1345:MT-TT
1273:MT-TP
1249:MT-TF
1225:MT-TM
1201:MT-TK
1129:MT-TI
1105:MT-TH
1081:MT-TG
1057:MT-TQ
1033:MT-TE
1009:MT-TC
985:MT-TD
961:MT-TN
937:MT-TR
913:MT-TA
873:tRNAs
811:Genes
792:rRNAs
533:Genes
476:Genes
422:cell.
342:codes
318:, as
290:cells
276:(the
223:FASTA
204:FASTA
3630:(or
3215:PMID
3167:ISBN
3136:PMID
3089:PMID
3042:PMID
2982:PMID
2923:PMID
2873:PMID
2823:PMID
2774:PMID
2725:PMID
2689:PMID
2638:PMID
2587:PMID
2560:PMID
2511:PMID
2469:PMID
2438:2019
2400:PMID
2356:PMID
2342:1410
2307:PMID
2259:PMID
2224:PMID
2193:link
2175:PMID
2126:PMID
2053:PMID
2009:PMID
1972:link
1954:PMID
1914:link
1896:PMID
1703:and
1576:and
1570:POLG
1538:TFAM
1444:The
1410:Val
1386:Tyr
1362:Trp
1338:Thr
1266:Pro
1242:Phe
1218:Met
1194:Lys
1122:Ile
1098:His
1074:Gly
1050:Gln
1026:Glu
1002:Cys
978:Asp
954:Asn
930:Arg
906:Ala
867:tRNA
849:16S
830:12S
806:rRNA
786:rRNA
650:III
459:the
448:the
378:cell
359:are
308:ovum
175:UCSC
163:NCBI
122:NCBI
110:HGNC
94:Type
85:24 (
3882:H2B
3877:H2A
3247:in
3205:doi
3128:doi
3081:doi
3034:doi
2972:PMC
2962:doi
2913:PMC
2905:doi
2901:131
2863:PMC
2855:doi
2813:PMC
2805:doi
2764:doi
2717:doi
2713:108
2679:PMC
2669:doi
2628:PMC
2618:doi
2550:doi
2501:doi
2461:doi
2392:doi
2380:290
2346:doi
2299:doi
2251:doi
2216:doi
2165:PMC
2157:doi
2153:173
2118:doi
2114:196
2045:doi
2033:290
1999:doi
1995:347
1944:PMC
1888:doi
1884:155
1544:or
675:IV
348:).
278:DNA
269:of
252:).
77:No.
4044::
3925:C2
3920:C1
3892:H4
3887:H3
3872:H1
3842::
3539::
3421:22
3416:21
3411:20
3406:19
3401:18
3396:17
3391:16
3386:15
3381:14
3376:13
3371:12
3366:11
3361:10
3213:.
3201:48
3199:.
3195:.
3142:.
3134:.
3124:12
3122:.
3118:.
3095:.
3087:.
3075:.
3062:^
3048:.
3040:.
3030:46
3028:.
2980:.
2970:.
2960:.
2950:77
2948:.
2944:.
2921:.
2911:.
2899:.
2895:.
2871:.
2861:.
2851:67
2849:.
2845:.
2821:.
2811:.
2799:.
2795:.
2772:.
2760:39
2758:.
2754:.
2731:.
2723:.
2711:.
2687:.
2677:.
2665:33
2663:.
2659:.
2636:.
2626:.
2612:.
2608:.
2583:51
2581:.
2558:.
2546:31
2544:.
2540:.
2517:.
2509:.
2497:56
2495:.
2491:.
2467:.
2457:32
2455:.
2428:.
2406:.
2398:.
2390:.
2378:.
2354:.
2340:.
2336:.
2313:.
2305:.
2295:29
2293:.
2279:^
2265:.
2257:.
2247:13
2245:.
2222:.
2210:.
2189:}}
2185:{{
2173:.
2163:.
2151:.
2147:.
2124:.
2112:.
2098:^
2059:.
2051:.
2043:.
2031:.
2007:.
1993:.
1989:.
1968:}}
1964:{{
1952:.
1938:.
1934:.
1922:^
1910:}}
1906:{{
1894:.
1882:.
1878:.
1866:^
1795:.
1739:.
1731:,
1727:,
1723:,
1719:,
1715:,
1707:,
1633:.
1625:,
1604:,
1536:,
1493:.
1424:H
1413:V
1400:L
1389:Y
1376:H
1365:W
1352:H
1341:T
1328:H
1317:S
1304:L
1293:S
1280:L
1269:P
1256:H
1245:F
1232:H
1221:M
1208:H
1197:K
1184:H
1173:L
1160:H
1149:L
1136:H
1125:I
1112:H
1101:H
1088:H
1077:G
1064:L
1053:Q
1040:L
1029:E
1016:L
1005:C
992:H
981:D
968:L
957:N
944:H
933:R
920:L
909:A
875::
860:H
841:H
794::
772:—
769:—
756:—
751:H
738:H
722:V
717:H
704:H
691:H
670:H
656:/
645:L
632:H
619:H
606:H
593:H
580:H
567:H
549:I
337:.
225:)
206:)
65:bp
3985:T
3980:Q
3975:P
3970:O
3965:N
3960:M
3955:K
3950:J
3945:I
3940:H
3935:F
3930:E
3915:B
3910:A
3850:)
3846:(
3645:/
3626:/
3569:/
3529:e
3522:t
3515:v
3444:Y
3439:X
3356:9
3351:8
3346:7
3341:6
3336:5
3331:4
3326:3
3321:2
3316:1
3283:e
3276:t
3269:v
3221:.
3207::
3175:.
3150:.
3130::
3103:.
3083::
3077:6
3056:.
3036::
3013:.
2988:.
2964::
2956::
2929:.
2907::
2879:.
2857::
2829:.
2807::
2801:9
2780:.
2766::
2739:.
2719::
2695:.
2671::
2644:.
2620::
2614:6
2593:.
2566:.
2552::
2525:.
2503::
2475:.
2463::
2440:.
2414:.
2394::
2386::
2362:.
2348::
2321:.
2301::
2273:.
2253::
2230:.
2218::
2212:5
2195:)
2181:.
2159::
2132:.
2120::
2092:.
2067:.
2047::
2039::
2015:.
2001::
1974:)
1960:.
1940:9
1916:)
1902:.
1890::
221:(
202:(
89:)
67:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
