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referred to behavioural adaptations to prevailing climates in different species of bees as "what had merely been an idea, therefore, and opposed to instinct, has thus by slow degrees become an instinctive habit". The
Baldwin effect theory subsequently became more controversial, with scholars divided
125:
Selected offspring would tend to have an increased capacity for learning new skills rather than being confined to genetically coded, relatively fixed abilities. In effect, it places emphasis on the fact that the sustained behaviour of a species or group can shape the evolution of that species. The
116:
If animals entered a new environment—or their old environment rapidly changed—those that could flexibly respond by learning new behaviours or by ontogenetically adapting would be naturally preserved. This saved remnant would, over several generations, have the opportunity to exhibit spontaneously
279:
According to
Dennett, also in 2003, recent work has rendered the Baldwin effect "no longer a controversial wrinkle in orthodox Darwinism". Potential genetic mechanisms underlying the Baldwin effect have been proposed for the evolution of natural (genetically determinant) antibodies. In 2009,
201:", but he doubted that the phenomenon occurred very often, or if so, could be proven to occur. In his discussion of the reception of the Baldwin-effect theory Simpson points out that the theory appears to provide a reconciliation between a neo-Darwinian and a
150:
Thanks to the
Baldwin effect, species can be said to pretest the efficacy of particular different designs by phenotypic (individual) exploration of the space of nearby possibilities. If a particularly winning setting is thereby discovered, this discovery will
317:. The Baldwin effect includes genetic accommodation, of which one type is genetic assimilation. Science historian Laurent Loison has written that "the Baldwin effect and genetic assimilation, even if they are quite close, should not be conflated".
270:
who are searching for scenarios in which a population can get itself by behavioral trial and error onto a "hard to find" part of the fitness landscape in which human brain, language, and mind can rapidly coevolve. They are searching for what
117:
congenital variations similar to their acquired traits and have these variations naturally selected. It would look as though the acquired traits had sunk into the hereditary substance in a
Lamarckian fashion, but the process would really be
261:
Still, David Depew observed in 2003, "it is striking that a rather diverse lot of contemporary evolutionary theorists, most of whom regard themselves as supporters of the Modern
Synthesis, have of late become 'Baldwin boosters'". These
187:
Initially
Baldwin's ideas were not incompatible with the prevailing, but uncertain, ideas about the mechanism of transmission of hereditary information and at least two other biologists put forward very similar ideas in 1896. In 1901,
171:
in the 1960s–1970s. This new version included an explicit role for the social in shaping subsequent natural change in humans (both evolutionary and developmental), with reference to alterations of selection pressures.
84:
their parents' acquired characteristics. The
Baldwin effect only posits that learning ability, which is genetically based, is another variable in / contributor to environmental adaptation. First proposed during the
245:
and evolution in the effect. Baldwin's account of how neurophysiological and conscious mental factors may contribute to the effect brings into focus the question of the possible survival value of consciousness.
205:
approach and that "Mendelism and later genetic theory so conclusively ruled out the extreme neo-Lamarckian position that reconciliation came to seem unnecessary". In 1942, the evolutionary biologist
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Lindahl, B. I. B. (2001). "Consciousness, behavioural patterns and the direction of biological evolution: implications for the mind–brain problem". In Pylkkänen, Paavo; Vadén, Tere (eds.).
929:
Griffiths, Paul E. (2003). "Beyond the
Baldwin effect: James Mark Baldwin's 'social heredity', epigenetic inheritance, and niche construction". In Weber, Bruce H.; Depew, David J. (eds.).
1235:
76:. It posits that subsequent selection might reinforce the originally learned behaviors, if adaptive, into more in-born, instinctive ones. Though this process appears similar to
220:
the argument is stated in terms of the individual genotype, whereas what is really exposed to the selection pressure is a phenotypically and genetically variable population;
72:
new behaviours (e.g. to acclimatise to a new stressor) will affect its reproductive success and will therefore have an effect on the genetic makeup of its species through
535:
2017, 6(4), 47; doi:10.3390/biology6040047, quoting
Bateson, P. The adaptability driver: Links between behaviour and evolution. Biol. Theory 2006, 1, 342–345. See also
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a new selection pressure: organisms that are closer in the adaptive landscape to that discovery will have a clear advantage over those more distant.
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and Steven Nowlan demonstrated by computer simulation that learning can accelerate evolution, and they associated this with the
Baldwin effect.
108:, with a second paper in 1897. The paper proposed a mechanism for specific selection for general learning ability. As the historian of science
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in the late 19th century, this effect has been independently proposed several times, and today it is generally recognized as part of the
1195:"Canalization and genetic assimilation: Reassessing the radicality of the Waddingtonian concept of inheritance of acquired characters"
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1267:"The Baldwin effect and genetic assimilation: revisiting two mechanisms of evolutionary change mediated by phenotypic plasticity"
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promoted the Baldwin effect as part of the modern synthesis, saying the concept had been unduly neglected by evolutionists.
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Hall, Brian K. (2001). "Organic Selection: Proximate Environmental Effects on the Evolution of Morphology and Behaviour".
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Puentedura, Ruben R. (2003). "The Baldwin effect in the age of computation". In Weber, Bruce H.; Depew, David J. (eds.).
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The Baldwin effect has been confused with, and sometimes conflated with, a different evolutionary theory also based on
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it is not sufficiently emphasized that the degree of modification of the phenotype is in itself genetically controlled;
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52:. All the theories offer explanations of how organisms respond to a changed environment with adaptive inherited change.
1084:"Evolutionary significance of phenotypic accommodation in novel environments: an empirical test of the Baldwin effect"
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Paul Griffiths suggests two reasons for the continuing interest in the Baldwin effect. The first is the role
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in 1953. Simpson "admitted that the idea was theoretically consistent, that is, not inconsistent with the
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101:
The effect, then unnamed, was put forward in 1896 in a paper "A New Factor in Evolution" by the American
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Anderson, Russell (1996). "How the adaptive antibodies facilitate the evolution of natural antibodies".
275:, himself a Baldwin booster, calls an "evolutionary crane," an instrument to do some heavy lifting fast.
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3647:
3426:
3171:
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1838:
501:
Burman, J. T. (2013). "Updating the Baldwin Effect: The biological levels behind Piaget's new theory".
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between "Baldwin boosters" and "Baldwin skeptics". The theory was first called the "Baldwin effect" by
24:
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empirical evidence for the Baldwin effect was provided from the colonisation of North America by the
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into its developmental genetic or epigenetic repertoire. In the words of the philosopher of science
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it is assumed that phenotypic rigidity is selectively superior to phenotypic flexibility.
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257:'s colonisation of North America has provided empirical evidence of the Baldwin effect.
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353: – Distinction between germ cell lineages producing gametes and somatic cells
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Subsequent research shows that Baldwin was not the first to identify the process;
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1741:
1627:"How Adaptive Learning Affects Evolution: Reviewing Theory on the Baldwin Effect"
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1818:
704:
Scheiner, Samuel M. (2014). "The Baldwin Effect: Neglected and Misunderstood".
469:
335: – Influence of mother's environment and genotype on offspring's phenotype
272:
143:
1642:
1577:
1482:
1453:
1183:(Cambridge, MA, 2010; online edn, MIT Press Scholarship Online, 22 Aug. 2013).
627:
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2018:
2013:
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994:
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102:
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is understood to play in the effect. The second is the connection between
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782:
344:
213:
202:
77:
37:
1360:
Bateson, Patrick (2004). "The Active Role of Behaviour in Evolution".
1320:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
407:
Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior
3802:
2930:
2781:
2390:
2008:
1756:
1028:
865:
840:
1609:
1553:
1429:
1012:
962:
603:
553:
4254:
4014:
3719:
2833:
2035:
1409:
1251:
758:
Adaptive Individuals In Evolving Populations: Models And Algorithms
717:
135:
4155:
2218:
1932:
1316:"Epigenetic inheritance and evolution: a historian's perspective"
675:
Depew, David J. (2003), "Baldwin Boosters, Baldwin Skeptics" in:
817:; Nowlan, Steven J. (1987). "How learning can guide evolution".
341: – Thought or idea that can be shared, in analogy to a gene
216:
contended that the Baldwin effect theory was untenable because
2139:
1088:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B
338:
1625:
Sznajder, B.; Sabelis, M. W.; Egas, M. (September 2012).
472:(2003), "The Baldwin Effect: a Crane, not a Skyhook" in:
96:
933:
Evolution and Learning: The Baldwin Effect Reconsidered
900:
Evolution and Learning: The Baldwin Effect Reconsidered
680:
Evolution and Learning: The Baldwin Effect Reconsidered
477:
Evolution and Learning: The Baldwin Effect Reconsidered
294:
64:
describes an effect of learned behaviour on evolution.
656:. Dodd, Mead and Co. pp. Chapter VII section 102.
531:(2017) Was the Watchmaker Blind? Or Was She One-Eyed?
368:
366:
436:
434:
432:
138:
as a result of its interaction with its environment
1233:
363:
329: – Capacity of a system for adaptive evolution
1179:. In Massimo Pigliucci, and Gerd B. MĂĽller (eds),
786:
429:
378:
287:The Baldwin effect has been incorporated into the
446:
159:An update to the Baldwin effect was developed by
130:literature as a scenario in which a character or
4350:
347: – Darwin's proposed mechanism for heredity
1313:
1236:"The Ecological Dimension of Natural Selection"
1192:
889:
395:
393:
2995:
1700:
922:
835:
697:
182:
813:
3009:
1043:
465:
463:
461:
411:. The University of Chicago Press. p.
390:
3002:
2988:
1707:
1693:
1077:
1075:
895:
748:
712:(4). University of Chicago Press: ii–iii.
676:
671:
669:
667:
665:
663:
648:
473:
19:For the organic chemistry guidelines, see
1650:
1341:
1331:
1282:
1210:
1107:
928:
864:
677:Weber, Bruce H.; Depew, David J. (2003).
474:Weber, Bruce H.; Depew, David J. (2003).
212:In the 1960s, the evolutionary biologist
126:"Baldwin effect" is better understood in
4166:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2941:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1714:
1388:
1130:
1007:
957:
775:
703:
458:
399:
372:
248:
80:, that view proposes that living things
68:and others suggested that an organism's
31:
1592:
1424:
1081:
1072:
1049:
660:
598:
440:
384:
23:. For the astronomical phenomenon, see
16:Effect of learned behavior on evolution
4351:
1497:
1264:
548:
500:
452:
3658:Psychological effects of Internet use
2983:
2704:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
1688:
761:. Taylor & Francis. p. 100.
754:
1554:"Ontogenic and Phylogenic Variation"
1082:Badyaev, Alexander V. (March 2009).
781:
604:"Ontogenic and phylogenic variation"
295:Comparison with genetic assimilation
3638:Digital media use and mental health
13:
3269:Automatic and controlled processes
2109:Evolutionary developmental biology
1374:10.1023/b:biph.0000024468.12161.83
1058:. John Benjamins. pp. 73–99.
1054:Dimensions of Conscious Experience
515:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2012.07.003
128:evolutionary developmental biology
14:
4380:
3678:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
1668:
1181:Evolution: The Extended Synthesis
4329:
4316:
4304:
4303:
3703:Mobile phones and driving safety
2963:
2954:
2953:
1284:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00203.x
841:"When learning guides evolution"
4359:Extended evolutionary synthesis
3606:Computer-mediated communication
2766:Extended evolutionary synthesis
1955:Gene-centered view of evolution
1307:
1258:
1227:
1186:
1167:
1124:
1001:
951:
937:. MIT Press. pp. 193–215.
829:
807:
642:
592:
554:"On modification and variation"
289:extended evolutionary synthesis
36:The Baldwin effect compared to
3883:Empathising–systemising theory
3186:female intrasexual competition
3123:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2894:Hologenome theory of evolution
2761:History of molecular evolution
1987:Evolutionarily stable strategy
1876:Last universal common ancestor
1596:(1953). "The Baldwin effect".
1500:"Putting Genes in their place"
542:
521:
494:
480:. MIT Press. pp. 69–106.
1:
4243:Standard social science model
3296:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
2688:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1353:
1013:"Consciousness and evolution"
140:becomes gradually assimilated
38:Lamarck's theory of evolution
4091:Missing heritability problem
3683:Social aspects of television
3306:Evolution of nervous systems
3274:Computational theory of mind
2899:Missing heritability problem
2526:Gamete differentiation/sexes
1234:Aaby, Bendik Hellem (2022).
1212:10.1016/j.semcdb.2018.05.009
793:. Harvard University Press.
789:Animal Species and Evolution
683:. MIT Press. pp. 3–31.
7:
4337:Evolutionary biology portal
1394:"A New Factor in Evolution"
1133:Immunology and Cell Biology
320:
97:"A New Factor in Evolution"
10:
4385:
4298:Evolutionary psychologists
4171:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
4086:Human–animal communication
3798:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
3648:Imprinted brain hypothesis
3616:Human–computer interaction
2531:Life cycles/nuclear phases
2083:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1498:Newman, Stuart A. (2002).
755:Belew, Richard K. (2018).
298:
268:evolutionary psychologists
183:Controversy and acceptance
25:Baldwin effect (astronomy)
18:
4292:
4218:Environmental determinism
4189:Cultural selection theory
4181:
4076:Evolutionary epistemology
4063:
3990:evolutionary neuroscience
3952:
3945:
3843:
3718:
3663:Rank theory of depression
3586:
3510:
3412:
3218:
3211:
3165:Parent–offspring conflict
3074:
3017:
2949:
2849:
2774:
2678:
2605:
2561:
2416:
2320:
2137:
2096:
2029:Parent–offspring conflict
1965:
1834:Earliest known life forms
1755:
1722:
1643:10.1007/s11692-011-9155-2
1578:10.1126/science.4.100.786
1454:10.1126/science.5.121.634
628:10.1126/science.4.100.786
4111:Cultural group selection
3995:Biocultural anthropology
3688:Societal impacts of cars
3621:Media naturalness theory
3311:Fight-or-flight response
2882:Cultural group selection
2746:The eclipse of Darwinism
2718:On the Origin of Species
2693:Transmutation of species
1314:Loison, Laurent (2021).
1193:Loison, Laurent (2019).
987:10.1126/science.3.64.438
973:(64): 438–441, 558–561.
578:10.1126/science.4.99.733
357:
4311:Evolutionary psychology
4275:Sociocultural evolution
4116:Dual inheritance theory
3573:Personality development
3034:Theoretical foundations
3011:Evolutionary psychology
2887:Dual inheritance theory
2726:History of paleontology
1483:10.1023/a:1006773408919
1398:The American Naturalist
963:"Heredity and instinct"
706:The American Naturalist
503:New Ideas in Psychology
134:change occurring in an
4233:Social constructionism
4228:Psychological nativism
4203:Biological determinism
4151:Recent human evolution
4146:Punctuated equilibrium
3969:Behavioral epigenetics
3964:evolutionary economics
3933:Variability hypothesis
3878:Emotional intelligence
3611:Engineering psychology
3301:Evolution of the brain
2575:Punctuated equilibrium
1896:Non-adaptive radiation
1844:Evolutionary arms race
1507:Journal of Biosciences
1471:Biology and Philosophy
1362:Biology and Philosophy
1333:10.1098/rstb.2020.0120
1265:Crispo, Erika (2007).
1100:10.1098/rstb.2008.0285
904:. MIT press. pp.
277:
258:
195:George Gaylord Simpson
179:mentioned it in 1873.
157:
123:
53:
4260:Multilineal evolution
4223:Nature versus nurture
4182:Theoretical positions
4030:Functional psychology
4025:Evolutionary medicine
4000:Biological psychiatry
3708:Texting while driving
3698:Lead–crime hypothesis
3558:Cognitive development
3543:Caregiver deprivation
3054:Gene selection theory
2867:Evolutionary medicine
2741:Mendelian inheritance
2449:Biological complexity
2437:Programmed cell death
2129:Phenotypic plasticity
1849:Evolutionary pressure
1839:Evidence of evolution
1737:Timeline of evolution
1240:Philosophy of Science
1176:Phenotypic Plasticity
307:phenotypic plasticity
299:Further information:
264:
252:
148:
114:
35:
4364:Evolutionary biology
4213:Cultural determinism
4020:Evolutionary biology
4005:Cognitive psychology
3953:Academic disciplines
3601:Cognitive ergonomics
3568:Language acquisition
3548:Childhood attachment
3361:Wason selection task
3255:Behavioral modernity
3044:Cognitive revolution
3027:Evolutionary thought
2841:Teleology in biology
2736:Blending inheritance
2114:Genetic assimilation
1977:Artificial selection
1716:Evolutionary biology
1675:Baldwinian evolution
1631:Evolutionary Biology
1173:Pigliucci, Massimo.
1017:Psychological Review
315:genetic assimilation
301:Genetic assimilation
87:Eclipse of Darwinism
58:evolutionary biology
50:genetic assimilation
4280:Unilineal evolution
4045:Population genetics
3830:Sexy son hypothesis
3768:Hormonal motivation
3748:Concealed ovulation
3289:Dual process theory
3160:Parental investment
2904:Molecular evolution
2862:Ecological genetics
2731:Transitional fossil
2521:Sexual reproduction
2361:endomembrane system
2290:pollinator-mediated
2246:dolphins and whales
2024:Parental investment
1594:Simpson, G. Gaylord
1570:1896Sci.....4..786O
1446:1897Sci.....5..634B
1430:"Organic Selection"
1199:Semin Cell Dev Biol
1145:10.1038/icb.1996.50
1094:(1520): 1125–1141.
979:1896Sci.....3..438B
857:1987Natur.329..761S
837:Maynard Smith, John
815:Hinton, Geoffrey E.
654:The Life of the Bee
650:Materlinck, Maurice
620:1896Sci.....4..786O
570:1896Sci.....4..733L
401:Richards, Robert J.
190:Maurice Maeterlinck
42:Darwinian evolution
4238:Social determinism
4121:Fisher's principle
4081:Great ape language
4071:Cultural evolution
4040:Philosophy of mind
3873:Division of labour
3835:Westermarck effect
3783:Mating preferences
3693:Distracted driving
3427:Literary criticism
3284:Domain specificity
3264:modularity of mind
2877:Cultural evolution
1992:Fisher's principle
1921:Handicap principle
1911:Parallel evolution
1775:Adaptive radiation
1519:10.1007/bf02703765
259:
106:James Mark Baldwin
66:James Mark Baldwin
54:
4346:
4345:
4324:Psychology portal
4288:
4287:
4131:Hologenome theory
4101:Unit of selection
4096:Primate cognition
4010:Cognitive science
3941:
3940:
3812:Sexual attraction
3788:Mating strategies
3553:Cinderella effect
3483:Moral foundations
3387:Visual perception
3279:Domain generality
3248:Facial expression
3196:Sexual dimorphism
3155:Natural selection
3101:Hamiltonian spite
2977:
2976:
2593:Uniformitarianism
2546:Sex-determination
2051:Sexual dimorphism
2046:Natural selection
1950:Unit of selection
1916:Signalling theory
1277:(11): 2469–2479.
1065:978-90-272-5157-2
851:(6142): 761–762.
800:978-0-674-03750-2
768:978-0-429-97145-7
690:978-0-262-23229-6
487:978-0-262-23229-6
422:978-0-226-71199-7
169:Conrad Waddington
74:natural selection
4376:
4333:
4320:
4307:
4306:
3950:
3949:
3946:Related subjects
3733:Adult attachment
3260:Cognitive module
3216:
3215:
3203:Social selection
3177:Costly signaling
3172:Sexual selection
3059:Modern synthesis
3004:
2997:
2990:
2981:
2980:
2967:
2957:
2956:
2756:Modern synthesis
2516:Multicellularity
2511:Mosaic evolution
2396:auditory ossicle
2078:Social selection
2061:Flowering plants
2056:Sexual selection
1709:
1702:
1695:
1686:
1685:
1664:
1654:
1621:
1589:
1564:(100): 786–789.
1550:Osborn, Henry F.
1545:
1543:
1537:. Archived from
1504:
1494:
1465:
1440:(121): 634–636.
1426:Baldwin, J. Mark
1421:
1404:(354): 441–451.
1390:Baldwin, J. Mark
1385:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1335:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1286:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1246:(5): 1199–1209.
1231:
1225:
1224:
1214:
1190:
1184:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1111:
1079:
1070:
1069:
1057:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1029:10.1037/h0063996
1009:Baldwin, J. Mark
1005:
999:
998:
959:Baldwin, J. Mark
955:
949:
948:
936:
926:
920:
919:
903:
893:
887:
886:
868:
866:10.1038/329761a0
833:
827:
826:
811:
805:
804:
792:
779:
773:
772:
752:
746:
745:
701:
695:
694:
673:
658:
657:
646:
640:
639:
614:(100): 786–789.
596:
590:
589:
546:
540:
525:
519:
518:
498:
492:
491:
467:
456:
450:
444:
438:
427:
426:
410:
397:
388:
382:
376:
370:
351:Weismann barrier
311:C. H. Waddington
199:modern synthesis
177:Douglas Spalding
91:modern synthesis
70:ability to learn
4384:
4383:
4379:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4373:
4349:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4284:
4270:Neoevolutionism
4177:
4161:Species complex
4126:Group selection
4064:Research topics
4059:
4035:Neuropsychology
3937:
3923:Substance abuse
3845:Sex differences
3839:
3753:Coolidge effect
3714:
3626:Neuroergonomics
3591:
3582:
3506:
3408:
3342:Folk psychology
3223:
3207:
3077:
3070:
3013:
3008:
2978:
2973:
2945:
2872:Group selection
2845:
2770:
2674:
2601:
2563:Tempo and modes
2557:
2412:
2316:
2133:
2092:
1968:
1961:
1938:Species complex
1751:
1742:History of life
1718:
1713:
1671:
1624:
1610:10.2307/2405746
1548:
1541:
1502:
1468:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1312:
1308:
1263:
1259:
1232:
1228:
1191:
1187:
1172:
1168:
1129:
1125:
1080:
1073:
1066:
1048:
1044:
1006:
1002:
956:
952:
945:
927:
923:
916:
894:
890:
834:
830:
819:Complex Systems
812:
808:
801:
780:
776:
769:
753:
749:
702:
698:
691:
674:
661:
647:
643:
597:
593:
564:(99): 733–740.
547:
543:
526:
522:
499:
495:
488:
470:Dennett, Daniel
468:
459:
451:
447:
439:
430:
423:
398:
391:
383:
379:
371:
364:
360:
333:Maternal effect
323:
303:
297:
232:Geoffrey Hinton
185:
110:Robert Richards
99:
28:
21:Baldwin's rules
17:
12:
11:
5:
4382:
4372:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4340:
4327:
4314:
4301:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4191:
4185:
4183:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4067:
4065:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3975:
3966:
3956:
3954:
3947:
3943:
3942:
3939:
3938:
3936:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3849:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3838:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3814:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3724:
3722:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3653:Mind-blindness
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3597:
3595:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3527:
3522:
3516:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3487:
3486:
3485:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3429:
3418:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3358:
3348:
3346:theory of mind
3339:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3257:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3229:
3227:
3213:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3179:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3113:Baldwin effect
3110:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3088:
3082:
3080:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3007:
3006:
2999:
2992:
2984:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2971:
2961:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2712:Charles Darwin
2709:
2708:
2707:
2695:
2690:
2684:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2650:Non-ecological
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2611:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2599:
2590:
2581:
2567:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2423:
2421:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2401:nervous system
2398:
2393:
2388:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2268:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2221:
2211:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2167:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2150:
2144:
2142:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2005:
2004:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1973:
1971:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1947:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1901:Origin of life
1898:
1893:
1888:
1886:Microevolution
1883:
1881:Macroevolution
1878:
1873:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1819:Common descent
1816:
1815:
1814:
1804:
1799:
1797:Baldwin effect
1794:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1712:
1711:
1704:
1697:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1677:
1670:
1669:External links
1667:
1666:
1665:
1637:(3): 301–310.
1622:
1604:(2): 110–117.
1590:
1546:
1544:on 2008-12-17.
1495:
1477:(2): 215–237.
1466:
1422:
1410:10.1086/276408
1386:
1368:(2): 283–298.
1355:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1306:
1257:
1252:10.1086/714999
1226:
1185:
1166:
1139:(2): 286–291.
1123:
1071:
1064:
1042:
1023:(3): 300–309.
1000:
950:
943:
921:
914:
888:
828:
806:
799:
774:
767:
747:
718:10.1086/677944
696:
689:
659:
641:
600:Osborne, H. F.
591:
541:
520:
509:(3): 363–373.
493:
486:
457:
445:
428:
421:
389:
377:
361:
359:
356:
355:
354:
348:
342:
336:
330:
322:
319:
296:
293:
273:Daniel Dennett
266:are typically
228:
227:
224:
221:
203:neo-Lamarckian
184:
181:
144:Daniel Dennett
98:
95:
62:Baldwin effect
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4381:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4339:
4338:
4332:
4328:
4326:
4325:
4319:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4302:
4300:
4299:
4295:
4294:
4291:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4265:Neo-Darwinism
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4250:Functionalism
4248:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4208:Connectionism
4206:
4204:
4201:
4200:
4199:
4198:indeterminism
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4180:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
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4074:
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4068:
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4051:
4048:
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4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3951:
3948:
3944:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3918:Schizophrenia
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3903:Mental health
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3842:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3778:Mate guarding
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3738:Age disparity
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3668:Schizophrenia
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3593:Mental health
3589:
3588:Human factors
3585:
3579:
3578:Socialization
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3538:paternal bond
3535:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3437:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3403:
3402:NaĂŻve physics
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3369:
3368:Motor control
3366:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3331:
3327:
3326:Ophidiophobia
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3316:Arachnophobia
3314:
3313:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3243:Display rules
3241:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3145:Kin selection
3143:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3079:
3073:
3067:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3039:Adaptationism
3037:
3036:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3000:
2998:
2993:
2991:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2960:
2952:
2951:
2948:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2914:Phylogenetics
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2817:Structuralism
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2792:Catastrophism
2790:
2789:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2751:Neo-Darwinism
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2710:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2665:Reinforcement
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2597:Catastrophism
2594:
2591:
2589:
2588:Macromutation
2585:
2584:Micromutation
2582:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2491:Immune system
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2415:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2351:symbiogenesis
2349:
2348:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2095:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2019:Kin selection
2017:
2015:
2014:Genetic drift
2012:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1964:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1705:
1703:
1698:
1696:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1513:(2): 97–104.
1512:
1508:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1357:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1078:
1076:
1067:
1061:
1056:
1055:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1004:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
954:
946:
944:9780262232296
940:
935:
934:
925:
917:
915:9780262232296
911:
907:
902:
901:
892:
884:
880:
876:
872:
867:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
832:
824:
820:
816:
810:
802:
796:
791:
790:
784:
778:
770:
764:
760:
759:
751:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
700:
692:
686:
682:
681:
672:
670:
668:
666:
664:
655:
651:
645:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
595:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
550:Morgan, C. L.
545:
538:
537:Stigler's law
534:
530:
524:
516:
512:
508:
504:
497:
489:
483:
479:
478:
471:
466:
464:
462:
454:
449:
442:
437:
435:
433:
424:
418:
414:
409:
408:
402:
396:
394:
386:
381:
374:
373:Baldwin 1896a
369:
367:
362:
352:
349:
346:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
324:
318:
316:
312:
308:
302:
292:
290:
285:
283:
276:
274:
269:
263:
256:
251:
247:
244:
240:
235:
233:
225:
222:
219:
218:
217:
215:
210:
208:
207:Julian Huxley
204:
200:
196:
191:
180:
178:
173:
170:
166:
162:
156:
154:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
122:
120:
119:neo-Darwinian
113:
111:
107:
104:
94:
92:
88:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
26:
22:
4335:
4322:
4309:
4296:
4055:Sociobiology
3913:Neuroscience
3893:Intelligence
3439:Anthropology
3392:Color vision
3377:Multitasking
3356:Flynn effect
3351:Intelligence
3333:Folk biology
3112:
3076:Evolutionary
2926:Polymorphism
2909:Astrobiology
2857:Biogeography
2812:Saltationism
2802:Orthogenesis
2787:Alternatives
2716:
2702:
2635:Cospeciation
2630:Cladogenesis
2579:Saltationism
2536:Mating types
2459:Color vision
2444:Avian flight
2366:mitochondria
2104:Canalisation
1982:Biodiversity
1796:
1727:Introduction
1680:Bibliography
1634:
1630:
1601:
1597:
1561:
1557:
1539:the original
1510:
1506:
1474:
1470:
1437:
1433:
1401:
1397:
1365:
1361:
1323:
1319:
1309:
1274:
1270:
1260:
1243:
1239:
1229:
1202:
1198:
1188:
1180:
1175:
1169:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1091:
1087:
1053:
1045:
1020:
1016:
1003:
970:
966:
953:
932:
924:
899:
891:
848:
844:
831:
822:
818:
809:
788:
777:
757:
750:
709:
705:
699:
679:
653:
644:
611:
607:
594:
561:
557:
544:
532:
523:
506:
502:
496:
476:
448:
441:Simpson 1953
406:
385:Baldwin 1897
380:
327:Evolvability
304:
286:
278:
265:
260:
242:
238:
236:
229:
211:
186:
174:
158:
152:
149:
124:
115:
103:psychologist
100:
81:
69:
61:
55:
29:
4194:Determinism
4106:Coevolution
4050:Primatology
3888:Gender role
3793:Orientation
3673:Screen time
3530:Affectional
3512:Development
3191:Mate choice
3118:By-products
3086:Adaptations
3049:Cognitivism
2936:Systematics
2807:Mutationism
2625:Catagenesis
2553:Snake venom
2486:Eusociality
2464:in primates
2454:Cooperation
2382:In animals
2202:butterflies
2175:Cephalopods
2165:Brachiopods
2097:Development
2071:Mate choice
1824:Convergence
1807:Coevolution
1765:Abiogenesis
783:Mayr, Ernst
527:Noble, R.;
453:Newman 2002
282:house finch
255:house finch
243:development
161:Jean Piaget
4353:Categories
4141:Population
4136:Lamarckism
3982:behavioral
3960:Behavioral
3908:Narcissism
3853:Aggression
3643:Hypophobia
3633:Depression
3520:Attachment
3502:Universals
3466:Psychology
3444:Biological
3432:Musicology
3422:Aesthetics
3321:Basophobia
3128:Exaptation
3106:Reciprocal
2797:Lamarckism
2775:Philosophy
2698:David Hume
2660:Peripatric
2655:Parapatric
2640:Ecological
2620:Anagenesis
2615:Allopatric
2607:Speciation
2571:Gradualism
2496:Metabolism
2356:chromosome
2346:Eukaryotes
2124:Modularity
2041:Population
1967:Population
1928:Speciation
1906:Panspermia
1859:Extinction
1854:Exaptation
1829:Divergence
1802:Cladistics
1790:Reciprocal
1770:Adaptation
1354:References
825:: 495–502.
345:Pangenesis
214:Ernst Mayr
165:Paul Weiss
112:explains:
78:Lamarckism
46:Waddington
4369:Selection
3986:cognitive
3978:Affective
3863:Cognition
3817:Sexuality
3803:Pair bond
3563:Education
3220:Cognition
3138:Inclusive
3078:processes
3066:Criticism
2931:Protocell
2782:Darwinism
2670:Sympatric
2419:processes
2307:Tetrapods
2256:Kangaroos
2182:Dinosaurs
2119:Inversion
2088:Variation
2009:Gene flow
2002:Inclusive
1812:Mutualism
1757:Evolution
1598:Evolution
1392:(1896a).
1271:Evolution
1011:(1896c).
961:(1896b).
726:0003-0147
529:Noble, D.
82:inherited
4255:Memetics
4015:Ethology
3973:genetics
3808:Physical
3773:Jealousy
3728:Activity
3534:maternal
3490:Religion
3478:Morality
3456:Language
3337:taxonomy
3150:Mismatch
3096:Cheating
3091:Altruism
2959:Category
2834:Vitalism
2829:Theistic
2822:Spandrel
2506:Morality
2501:Monogamy
2376:plastids
2341:Flagella
2297:Reptiles
2278:sea cows
2261:primates
2170:Molluscs
2148:Bacteria
2036:Mutation
1969:genetics
1945:Taxonomy
1891:Mismatch
1871:Homology
1785:Cheating
1780:Altruism
1661:22923852
1586:17734840
1552:(1896).
1527:11937679
1491:80821399
1462:17781159
1428:(1897).
1382:85267141
1326:(1826).
1293:17714500
1221:29763656
1205:: 4–13.
1161:20023879
1118:19324617
1037:17835006
995:17780356
839:(1987).
785:(1963).
734:25354416
652:(1901).
636:17734840
602:(1896).
586:17735249
552:(1896).
403:(1987).
321:See also
230:In 1987
136:organism
4156:Species
3928:Suicide
3763:Fantasy
3743:Arousal
3525:Bonding
3414:Culture
3238:Display
3225:Emotion
3133:Fitness
3022:History
2850:Related
2680:History
2541:Meiosis
2476:Empathy
2471:Emotion
2371:nucleus
2312:Viruses
2302:Spiders
2214:Mammals
2197:Insects
1997:Fitness
1933:Species
1732:Outline
1652:3423563
1618:2405746
1566:Bibcode
1558:Science
1535:1162454
1442:Bibcode
1434:Science
1418:7059820
1343:8059632
1301:9292273
1153:8799730
1109:2666683
975:Bibcode
967:Science
883:5476916
875:3670381
853:Bibcode
742:9214778
616:Bibcode
608:Science
566:Bibcode
558:Science
533:Biology
4334:
4321:
4308:
3898:Memory
3858:Autism
3825:female
3758:Desire
3495:Origin
3471:Speech
3461:Origin
3233:Affect
2969:Portal
2645:Hybrid
2481:Ethics
2323:organs
2285:Plants
2271:lemurs
2266:humans
2251:horses
2241:hyenas
2229:wolves
2224:canids
2158:origin
1659:
1649:
1616:
1584:
1533:
1525:
1489:
1460:
1416:
1380:
1340:
1299:
1291:
1219:
1159:
1151:
1116:
1106:
1062:
1035:
993:
941:
912:
908:–234.
881:
873:
845:Nature
797:
765:
740:
732:
724:
687:
634:
584:
484:
419:
167:, and
153:create
60:, the
44:, and
3868:Crime
3451:Crime
3382:Sleep
3372:skill
3212:Areas
2432:Death
2427:Aging
2406:brain
2192:Fungi
2153:Birds
2066:Fungi
1864:Event
1747:Index
1614:JSTOR
1542:(PDF)
1531:S2CID
1503:(PDF)
1487:S2CID
1414:S2CID
1378:S2CID
1297:S2CID
1157:S2CID
879:S2CID
738:S2CID
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