Urban planning in Singapore

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amenities will be community-centric so that public spaces can become more vibrant and inclusive. The plan details working with communities and protecting built heritage, in order to create distinct and unique local identities, creating place character and continuity. Continuing their shift towards sustainable mobility in the 2001 Concept plan, mobility will be encouraged with better connectivity across Singapore by enhancing cycling and pedestrian networks, promoting public transport use, making business nodes closer to homes and more easily accessible, and increasing the efficacy of goods delivery. This includes four additional new rail lines, the Cross Island Line, Jurong Regional Line and Thomson East-Coast Line, which will be complemented by Integrated Transport Hubs which place rail and bus services in close proximity to MRT stations. A new Connectivity Special Detailed and Control Plan was also developed such that cycling and pedestrian paths can be designed to provide optimised connectivity and bike parking will also be integrated within the new developments. A Transit Priority Corridor is also in the works, where bus lanes and cyclists enjoy seamless journeys, encouraging residents to cycle or take public transport.

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centres. These parks are geared towards image-conscious, knowledge based companies, with heavy landscaping and high quality working environments to attract companies which are higher in the value chain. To complement these business parks, the Marina Bay area will also become a downtown core area, with new hotels, shopping facilities, entertainment, convention centres and a new waterfront promenade. However, Singapore did not give up on their industrial planning entirely. In order to ensure that they stay competitive in the global market, Singapore shifted towards the development of industrial clusters in the 1990s. These clusters were industrial areas in which multiple businesses in the same industry were consolidated, in order to foster mutual support between companies and increase economies of scale. Furthermore, to ensure optimal land use, minimum plot ratios were introduced and older industrial areas were redeveloped for more productive industries.

200:. In addition, significant road network upgrades were proposed to handle predicted large increases in road traffic volumes, and two-thirds of slum residents were to be rehoused in formal housing. The plan was conceived with the expectation that Singapore would grow gradually and was unsuited for the social and economic change, rapid population growth and the Central Area's expansion in the early 1960s. Expected to last for 20 years, the Master Plan was formulated to be an instrument of control which could be expanded or retracted. Several British planning assumptions were evident in the plan, such as the slow and steady rate of social change and minimal public sector intervention in planning, ideas transmitted through the involvement of British planners overseas. Despite its short timeline, the 1958 Master Plan laid the groundwork for detailed urban planning in Singapore and came to be regarded as essential for the development of the country. 232:, which aimed to guide urban development in Singapore to the 1990s. The concept plan is based on the structure form of a 'Ring City', embodied by the ring-like structure of the transportation system. It is a 'comprehensive' plan, aiming to include all feasible planning variables and options. Specific areas were marked out for residential, industrial and other uses. The central area, about 2 kilometres north and south of the Singapore River, was marked to be redeveloped. Unlike previous plans, the concept plan placed immense confidence in the ability of science and technology to alleviate planning problems, believing that the future could be sculpted and moulded through new innovations and efficient planning. Through the cooperation of multiple agencies such as the 418:

conservation proposals, and to encourage the public to learn more about Singapore's built heritage. In addition, Identity Plans were introduced in the same year for fifteen districts across Singapore. For these plans, studies of the districts were made, and public feedback and forums were handled by Subject Groups formed for each district. This was part of a larger effort to enrich Singapore's heritage, culture and diversity and to enhance Singapore's natural environment. By retaining cultural and historic landmarks and integrating them with the new developments, this can create a sense of continuity and history in the new towns. New towns will also be smaller and carry a unique sense of identity, to create a sense of ownership for residents.

28: 303:(PWD). In particular, the HDB suburbanized the population, providing quality accommodation as good as private housing, to more than four-fifths of the population. URA also played a key role in rejuvenating the old core of the city, demolishing 1500 acres of the old city core to build a new one. Through 'active programs' which involved both public and private participation, URA revamped the road system and drastically changed the built environment of central Singapore. Led by its three guiding principles of conservation, rehabilitation, and rebuilding, URA planned and created a city that is physically, economically, and culturally regarded as a modern metropolis. 426:, empowering green practices, and making Singapore an endearing home, the Concept Plan was formed. Green infrastructure would consist of green buildings which conserve energy and have better life cycles, green mobility such as cycling, walking infrastructure and green habits, which consist of making recycling and reducing waste part of Singaporean's daily consciousness. Efforts to make Singapore an endearing home include preserving heritage buildings, introducing more live-in population to heritage districts, adding sculptures and public art to parks and housing estates and fostering partnership between community members such as business-owners and residents. 70:

integrated planning process used ever since. Planning in Singapore began to incorporate additional priorities from the 1980s, such as quality of life and conservation, while the 1991 revision of the Concept Plan introduced the concept of regional centres to promote decentralisation. To improve the implementation of the Concept Plan's strategies, Singapore was divided into multiple planning areas in the 1990s, and comprehensive plans for each area's development were produced and compiled into a new plan. In the 2001 and 2011 concept plan, Singapore's urban planners began to incorporate public feedback and opinions into the planning process, shifting towards

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imported to prepare plans, specialist services were obtained in the fields of planning, and the State and City Planning (SCP) Department was created. Local professional staff were sent overseas to be trained. Post-independence planning was characterized by egalitarian goals and ensuring optimal land use. Land was considered a scarce resource, and allocation of land was seen as a communal or national act as opposed to an individual one. The SCP was focused on 'optimisation of the republic's land resources and resolving conflicting development proposals in the overall interest of the state for the common good'.

529:' in order to own a car, which typically costs SGD$ 70,000 to SGD$ 100,000 (US$ 50,000 to US$ 75,000), which critics say makes cars unaffordable for lower-income families. Moreover, with an almost eagle-like focus on economic development in its early days, critics lament the loss of historical buildings for economic development, though conservation efforts have been increased in recent planning efforts. Much of the criticism stems from dissatisfaction against what critics regard as Singapore's semi-authoritarian political system and the impingement on personal freedoms as a result of planning policies. 135:

indigenous population, depending on the European Quarter as an administrative and commercial centre. This perspective is part of the larger critique of British hegemonic rule, where only selected ethnic leaders (mostly wealthy, professional and business Chinese) were represented in the Municipal Committee, which regulates ethnic interests. Such policies gave the appearance of mass support for British planning policies, such as those involving ethnic segregation, without considering the interests of the working class or other under-represented ethnic groups.

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targets and handle expected population increases, it is revised every 10 years. The Master Plan, intended for the medium term, comprises land use plans across Singapore, and is revised every five years, while the detailed plans, issued by agencies supervising certain aspects of urban development, plot out short-term development. Preparation of the long-term plan and Master Plan is done by the URA, while the URA carries out the planning process in cooperation with four other agencies, namely the LTA, the HDB,

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regional hub employment, shopping, business, entertainment and cultural activities. With the objective of economic decentralisation, companies were also encouraged to spread out to the regional centres. The plan also detailed that the transport system will be improved by focusing on areas of maximum accessibility and by expanding the transport network. New MRT stations, a new ferry system, light rail, cycleways and walkways were also planned to reduce automobiles on the road.

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Master Plan provided a guide for the control of development and land use, it became inadequate for the rapidly changing social and economic conditions in Singapore as a result of self governance and time lapses between policy formulation and implementation. The main problems that the plan had to target was the high rate of population growth, rapid expansion of central area, traffic congestion and deterioration of the city core.

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high public-housing ownership, when in reality, due to the Land Acquisition Act which allows the government to own most of Singapore's underlying land, 80% of HDB residents only have 99-year leases on their flats, which depreciates in value as the 99-year term approaches. In the same vein, other planning outcomes such as low-car ownership were also a result of controversial policies. Car-owners have to obtain a '

3665: 414:(LTA) released the Land Transport Master Plan 2008, which called for bus route planning to be handled by the LTA, a significant expansion of the rail network, and for the integration of the bus and rail systems in a hub-and-spoke network. The subsequent Master Plan, released in 2013, called for more sheltered walkways and cycling path networks within new towns to improve pedestrian and cycling access. 398:

zone was also introduced, designated for multiple industries, and were referred to by the government as "mixed-use developments". These areas consisted of plots that could be used in multiple ways, with multiple open spaces between developments, and were intended to foster the development of knowledge-based and creative industries in Singapore. Three regional centres were also added to the mix, with

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commercial outlet to a centre of manufacturing export for Malaysia's industries and a centre for industrial expansion. The population basis for planning was raised to between 3.5 and 4 million, and plans to accommodate this expanded population took the form of a radial expansion. The ''Ring City' would have urban centres along the coast and at selected inland sites. A network of highways and a

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gardens and common facilities were incorporated into public housing estates to foster a sense of community between residents. Moreover, from 1980, industrial planning shifted towards infrastructure and areas suited for higher value industries, and industrial areas started to be constructed as "business parks". These "business parks" had cleaner environments than earlier industrial areas.

99:. As a result, commercial houses and wharves grew disorderly along the banks of the Singapore River, a location known for its accessibility to trading boats. A town committee was formed as a result, to ensure that Singapore developed and grew in an orderly manner, as part of Raffle's vision of Singapore as a commercial and administrative centre. The first official plan of the town, the 147:

development from the 1890s, taking responsibility for development work under the Municipal Bill of 1896, constructing back lanes and introducing building regulations. Nevertheless, these efforts were far from able to control urban development, and by the 20th century, Singapore faced congestion and squatter problems. This observation was made with regards to Singapore in the 1920s:

184:, the British government was focused on alleviating the housing shortage in Singapore, redeveloping the central area and to improve living conditions in the congested city centre. At this time, Singapore faced an urgent need for environmental management and to control land use. This was further motivated by the vision that Singapore will play a wider economic role in the 521:

Residents own their own home and at the 2010 Venice Architecture Biennale, it was calculated that with Singapore's land-use efficiency, the world's population could fit into 0.5% of the Earth's landmass. Common traits cited for Singapore's successful urban planning include clean streets, automobile restrictions, ubiquitous greenery and distinct lack of urban sprawl.

78:, while prioritising economic development as the powerhouse of each plan's success. The 2011 Concept Plan also featured a distinct focus on sustainability and conservation. The most recent plan is the 2019 masterplan, which details Singapore's increasing consideration towards sustainability, cultural preservation, building communities and closing resource loops. 434:, through the establishment of a Heritage Advisory Panel and the Our Heritage SG Plan for the heritage sector, while the Conservation Advisory Panel was replaced by a Heritage and Advisory Partnership in 2018. This partnership, besides providing feedback for conservation proposals, was intended to generate new proposals regarding building heritage in Singapore. 221:

experienced by the new administration in the early 1960s. Additionally, the rapid advance in information technology at the time made it essential for Singapore to become a global city. These goals, combined with the drive to attain excellence individually and organizationally as a new country, combine to produce the post-independence planning process.

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coastline with flood walls and revetments, raising minimum platform levels, widening and deepening drains in order to mitigate increasing flood risk as a result of climate change and rising sea-levels. Other efforts to close resource loops and reduce energy use include strengthening current national water supply, exploring the use solar panels at

508:, building super-low energy buildings such as ALICE@Mediapolis and aiming for zero waste, with a recycling rate of up to 70%. The Masterplan also explores the use of underground space and co-location for pedestrian linkages, car parking and the expansion of the public transport network, in order to preserve space in land-scarce Singapore. 366:

locating residential estates near waterfronts, parks and gardens. Development of more resorts, marinas, beaches, sports facilities, entertainment complexes and theme parks were also planned to provide the population a wider range of leisure options. Historic areas in the city were also strategically conserved to be developed into a '

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sustaining economic growth, increasing transport efficiency and providing comfortable accommodation for 4 million people and improving the quality of life for the population. Economic growth will be sustained through providing land to meet the needs of all industries, developing business parks, constructing four regional centres (

188:. A comprehensive plan for Singapore's development was drafted, but was not implemented after the return of civilian rule. Nevertheless, to provide more housing and raise living standards in the central area, the SIT started preparing a Master Plan in 1951. The plan was passed to the government in 1955 and was adopted in 1958. 212:(MRT) system will be used to provide transport. The First Review of the plan included an area encompassing southern Johore and Singapore Island, in line with the plan's regional focus. However, with Singapore's direction of development unclear, the 1965 Plan was held back innovatively and was not expected to last past 1972. 386:

residential and recreational developments, and balancing the goals of liveability and economic growth. This included plans to build housing in mature estates, in the new downtown at Marina South and at the western area of the island. Green spaces would be expanded from 2000 to 4500 ha, with the opening of areas such as

151:... a striking example of a planless modern city and regional growth undirected by any comprehensive general plan and complementary schemes of improvement and development. The outcome of their modern growth is much unnecessary disorder, congestion and difficulties for which remedial measures have long been overdue 511:

Singapore sees a distinct shift towards sustainability and addressing climate-change related fears in its recent planning policies. Beyond being an economic powerhouse, Singapore's planning priorities have expanded to sustainability, culture and resource preservation, bolstered by the use of advanced

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While Singapore pivots towards becoming an Asian economic powerhouse, the revised plan did not forget the importance of creating a beautiful city in facilitating this change. Urban development would be integrated with the natural environment, with an island-wide network of blue and green linkages and

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districts, were designated as areas for high-density development. More attention was also paid to conservation, with the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) setting aside certain parts of the city centre for conservation in 1986, and announcing the Conservation Master Plan in 1989, under which entire

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While Singapore's development focused mainly on economic success during the initial post-independence years, as Singaporeans became more affluent in the 1980s, planners started taking into account quality of life factors. Additional land within new towns was allocated for parks and open spaces, while

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Unlike the 1958 masterplan, the 1965 plan had a regional element, characteristic of the new government's priority that Singapore's future planning cannot be considered in isolation to its surrounding regions. Beyond basic standard of living and amenity, the 1965 Plan re-oriented Singapore from a mere

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In 1918, in response to a Housing Committee's findings regarding unsanitary living conditions posing a health hazard, the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) was established in 1927. Tasked with carrying out urban improvement and rehousing works, the SIT was not empowered to prepare comprehensive plans

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Like the plans before, the 2019 Master Plan also has a big focus on economic development in various distinct economic zones. The Northern area has been primed for growth industries and innovative sectors, with key developments such as Agri-Food Innovation Park at Sungei Kadut and the Punggol Digital

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In 2011, the Concept Plan was revised yet again, with a focus on sustainability. A focus group on 'Sustainability and Identity' was assembled to discuss three key issues: Quality of Life, Sustainability, Ageing and Identity. Based on the feedback from this focus group, which emphasized strengthening

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The ethnic segregation was considered by some as part of a "divide and rule" strategy, a concerted effort by the British government to make residents reliant on them for matters related to race and ethnicity. The demarcations also allowed the British political and economic control over the separated

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in 1822, which divided Singapore town into multiple ethnic areas and established Singapore as a commercial and administrative centre. For a century, the colonial authorities in Singapore were not very involved in its development until they began engaging in urban regulation in the 1890s, in response

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Singapore has been referred to by many as the "best-planned city" in the world, with planners lauding the rapid development from British colony to global city, world-class public infrastructure, efficient public transportation and wide-scale affordable housing. Over 90% of Singaporeans or Permanent

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Under Singapore's current planning policy, development outside the central area comprises independent new towns, with residential, commercial and industrial areas, linked by expressways and a rail network. These new towns are in turn served by four regional centres, one in each region of Singapore,

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At the foundation of the plan was the Compulsory Land Acquisition Act, introduced in 1966, which allowed the government to acquire, amalgamate, and redevelop land. The act allowed for unobstructed clearance of land for development. The simultaneous development of mass housing and urban renewal also

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Singapore officially separated from Malaysia on 9 August 1965 and attained independence. As a new nation, the government had a new set of goals and priorities: national survival, achievement, and making Singapore a global city. Survival was important to Singapore due to the communist confrontations

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In order to formulate the plan, the 1958 Master Plan undertook detailed surveys and forecasts of major variables: land use, population, traffic, employment and possible industrial development. A blueprint planning approach was adopted for the plan, with a strong emphasis on rational use of land for

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and morphologically, the grid street pattern provided the form for the central area. The rigidity of the street pattern also became one of the main reasons for traffic congestion post-war when private cars began to take to the streets. Long afterwards, the segregation of racial groups will continue

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were placed in separate ethnic enclaves. To make Singapore a commercial and administrative centre, haphazardly constructed buildings were discouraged and significant disruptions were caused by the massive movements of people to and from their designated areas. Furthermore, to add professionalism to

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In February 2021, a woodland reserve the size of 10 football fields just Northwest of Kranji was accidentally cleared for construction purposes, drawing intense criticism from Singapore's conservation groups. They argued that the forest was an important ecosystem, green corridor and one of the few

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However, Singapore's highly curated, meticulously planned city is also not without its critics. Some have criticised Singapore's lack of spontaneous organic city growth and that the emphasis on a highly controlled urban plan has resulted in a sterile city. Others have also criticised the façade of

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and the expansion of Changi Air Hub, will continue to be a gateway for Singapore to the rest of the world. An additional Changi East Urban District will join the current lifestyle-business clusters in the area, bringing more jobs to the East. Lastly, the Western Gateway will be anchored by the new

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Much like the 1991 Concept Plan, the 2001 concept plan prioritized the shift towards higher-value industries, such as electronics and pharmaceuticals. It included the proposal of a new zoning system to differentiate business and industrial uses based on their impact to the environment. A new white

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area into an international business hub. The plan for four regional centres is consistent with the policy of decentralisation that began in the 1970s. There will be a distinct identity and economic focus for each regional centre, which will be self-contained. Each regional centre would serve as a

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As the 1971 Concept Plan's plan period ended in 1992, a revised Concept Plan was released in 1991. In line with the shift towards making Singapore more liveable, the revised Concept Plan touched on all aspects of life, from business to leisure, powered by economic growth. Its main focuses include

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The 1971 Concept Plan marked a change in the nature of Singapore's urban planning from one based on the possible directions Singapore's development could take to one based on the path its development should take, and the introduction of an integrated planning process brought about by inter-agency

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For the next century, until 1958, there was little involvement by the colonial authorities in the planning of Singapore, and while the authorities occasionally modified Raffles' plan, they did not make any official plans on a comprehensive scale. The authorities only became more involved in urban

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The current Master Plan, released in 2019, focuses on the themes of liveable and inclusive communities, sustainability, sustainable mobility, conservation of historic areas and Singapore as an international gateway. In order to create closer knit communities, new towns will be well-connected and

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Singapore's planning framework comprises three tiers, a long-term plan, the Master Plan, and detailed plans. The long-term plan, formerly called the Concept Plan, plots out Singapore's developmental direction over at least five decades. Intended to ensure optimal land use to meet economic growth

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Public consultation and feedback started playing a greater role in Singapore's urban planning from the early 2000s, and for the preparation of the 2001 Concept Plan, focus groups were formed to discuss urban planning issues. The 2001 plan mainly focused on quality of life, proposing more diverse

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The revised Concept Plan also prioritised the need for Singapore to move away from manufacturing-oriented industries to professional and higher technology industries. Business parks were planned to be built along technology corridors, in close proximity to major transportation nodes and regional

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allowed large amounts of the population to be systematically transferred from the city core to the suburbs. Since housing and urban renewal were at the top of the government's priorities, URA was given access to resources, capital, and manpower on a national scale for its development activities.

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Unlike the 1958 plan, post-independence planning was firmly set within the boundaries of main and offshore plans. The need for economic success was also urgently conveyed in the plans leading up to 1980s. To this end, planning began to become an institutionalized, professional act. Expertise was

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Singapore gained self governance in 1959 and was part of the Federation of Malaya for four years. The uneasy political arrangement and disputes over Singapore's status within the federation played a big influence on the planning process and the formulation of the 1965 Master Plan. While the 1958

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The 2019 Masterplan also reflected Singapore's worries about climate change and recent commitment to cut greenhouse gas emissions to half by 2050, with a strong emphasis on protecting Singapore against climate conditions and creating sustainable communities. This includes efforts to protect the

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which carry out some of the functions of the central area. Moreover, the new towns are planned out with the intent to foster community interaction, improve connectivity, and to improve quality of life, with common areas, integrated cycling and pedestrian path networks, and widespread greenery.

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In response to recommendations by focus groups during the 2001 Concept Plan review to form a conservation trust to foster more public engagement, a Conservation Advisory Panel was formed in 2002. Consisting of members from many parts of society, it was intended to provide feedback on the URA's

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for waste incineration and disposal, citing that landfill space will run out by 2035, the use of petroleum and natural gas as a source of energy and the petrochemical industries located on Jurong Island. Many also criticise Singapore's heavy focus in flood and climate change protection in the

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After Singapore's independence in 1965, planning policies were revised, and the State and City Planning Project was initiated to produce a new plan for Singapore, which became the 1971 Concept Plan. This plan laid out the basic infrastructure for Singapore's development and brought about the

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District complementing the current Woodlands Regional Centre. The central area, home to Singapore's financial hub, will continue to grow, accommodating more nearby housing and a larger diversity of jobs in the future. The Eastern Gateway, bolstered by the recent opening of

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A review of planning of the Central Area culminated in the Structure Plan in 1984. Under this plan, several districts in the city centre were identified for conservation, open spaces and parks were clearly marked out, and other districts, such as the Golden Shoe and

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Industrial areas in the 2010s were planned to be further integrated, with districts comprising residential, recreational and industrial developments closely linked together. In addition, building conservation saw the greater involvement of the public and the

45:. It is done through a three-tiered planning framework, consisting of a long-term plan to plot out Singapore's development over at least 50 years, a Master Plan for the medium term, and short-term plans, the first two of which are prepared by the 243:

The plan was premised on the development of good infrastructure, which would facilitate economic growth, satisfy housing requirements and basic social needs of the population. Key infrastructure developments included the new international

123:, an architect and surveyor, and appointed Jackson, an assistant engineer), to build and oversee the development of the island. It was Jackson who would have the most significant impact on the appearance of the town, building the earliest 284:, forming one of the main engines for Singapore's growth. Singapore's highly efficient transportation system, the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), is also a product of the 1971 Concept Plan, speaking to its success in moulding Singapore today. 65:

for Singapore eventually started in the 1950s, with the goal to give Singapore a wider economic role in the Federation of Malaya. The 1958 plan was produced as a result, heavily influenced by British planning practices and assumptions.

248:, a mass rapid transit system, and a new expressway system. High density housing would be concentrated along high capacity transportation routes, while the central area would be cleared of its residential population, in an effort to 164:

or to control development, initially only handling minor development schemes. In the years preceding the Second World War, the SIT concentrated mostly on building and improving roads and open spaces, and constructing

95:, who founded Singapore in 1819, returned to the colony, he was dissatisfied with the haphazard development he encountered. At this time, Singapore was considered the trading factory and warehouse of the 532:

Sustainability advocates have also been urging for even more sustainable planning policies, arguing that Singapore's commitment to slash carbon emissions by half by 2050 does not fulfil the

470:, Singapore's transport planning has several key aims, namely increased connectivity, improved public transport provision, and increasing the proportion of commuters using public transport. 377:. Development Guide Plans, comprehensive plans for each planning area, were drawn up between 1993 and 1998, and the resulting plans were compiled into a plan for the whole island. 114:) and south-western tip was used for defence purposes. Crucially, the plan divided Singapore into several ethnic subdivisions, the Europeans, Malays, Chinese, Indians, Arabs and 466:

Transport planning in Singapore consists of the Land Transport Master Plan, which is revised every five years, and development plans for the rail and bus system. Built upon a

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remaining forests in Singapore, using this incident to highlight their view that planning in Singapore should do more to protect and preserve existing forests and wildlife.

394:. Sport facilities will also be built for recreational purposes, complementing the opening of reservoirs, where residents can exercise and enjoy closer access to nature. 1460: 1807: 492:(JLD), planned as the largest commercial node outside of the Central Business District, which is bolstered by its close proximity to world-class universities, the 1382: 1485: 1410: 252:. Meanwhile, the city core would be redeveloped as an international financial, commercial, and tourist centre. Key developments in the city core include 1304: 674: 410:

supported by an expansive train network which provides links to places island-wide. Furthermore, in response to population changes in the 2000s, the

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From colonial segregation to postcolonial 'integration' - constructing ethnic difference through Singapore's Little India and the Singapore 'Indian'

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zoning and physical elements of the plan. The plan consisted of zoning throughout all urban land uses, open spaces such as greenbelts, and several

3475: 1435: 536:(IPCC) requirements. Believing that Singapore should slash carbon emissions to zero by 2050, advocates argue against the unsustainable use of 3131: 2071: 1768: 3422: 533: 2703: 2495: 2265: 1893: 1822: 1593: 1354: 724: 177: 2099: 2210: 2020: 17: 3522: 1944: 1263: 1329: 3691: 3455: 1842: 229: 2774: 2441: 1781: 431: 300: 2919: 1641: 240:, the project released a draft plan in 1969, which, with several amendments, was approved in 1971 as the Concept Plan. 1873: 1741: 1727: 1660: 1545: 1230: 1051: 974: 559: 1516: 1097: 541:

masterplan, declaring that more attention should be given to Singapore's unsustainable economic and energy sources.

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Singapore from the sea, June 1823 : notes on a recently discovered sketch attributed to Lt. Philip Jackson

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The strict regularity of the plan placed Singapore's streets and roads in a grid network. An area south of the

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was set aside as a commercial and administrative centre, while the river's east bank, the 'Forbidden Hill' (

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Cheong, Koon Hean (December 2016). "Chapter 7: The Evolution of HDB Towns". In Heng, Chye Kiang (ed.).

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was developed into a thriving industrial and residential area. Industrial estates were also located at

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cooperation. Moreover, it laid out the basic infrastructure from which Singapore developed further.

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to congestion and squatter settlements. When this proved inadequate, the British established the

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Key agencies tasked to execute the plan were the State City Planning Department (SCPD),

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Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power Relations and the Urban Built Environment

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To aid the implementation of the Concept Plan's aims, Singapore was divided into 55

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were transformed from rural wastelands to modern residential living areas, whereas

249: 197: 92: 61:(SIT) in 1927, which had limited powers and hence limited initial impact. Detailed 3614: 3574: 3320: 3275: 3205: 2929: 2924: 2190: 1546:"The Deceptive Allure of Singapore's Urban Planning to Urban Planners in America" 296: 237: 128: 107: 71: 3245: 3325: 3305: 3285: 3265: 3255: 3250: 3195: 3092: 3088: 3077: 2909: 2886: 2826: 2504: 795:"Centenary paper: Urban planning in Southeast Asia: perspective from Singapore" 367: 245: 165: 75: 62: 1240: 1218: 660: 442: 171: 3685: 3635: 3604: 3599: 3569: 3380: 3330: 3235: 3166: 3156: 3141: 3072: 3026: 3005: 2966: 2939: 2679: 2638: 1023: 949: 760: 624: 537: 139: 1665: 1061: 984: 895: 710: 3554: 3315: 3310: 3200: 3186: 3151: 3102: 2998: 2957: 2871: 2861: 2643: 2367: 325: 261: 181: 100: 53: 1173: 1156: 3370: 3295: 3176: 3161: 3136: 2986: 2976: 403: 346: 281: 257: 253: 1077:

URA-REDAS Joint Seminar on Living the Next Lap - Blueprints for Business

864: 840: 818: 810: 794: 774:

Home, R. "Colonial Town Planning in Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong".

632: 600: 362:

was also carried out to increase the land available for industrial use.

215: 3290: 2971: 2546: 755:. University of Canterbury. School of Culture, Literature and Society. 387: 650: 3579: 3209: 3052: 2225: 1777: 1746: 1075:

How, P.H (30 October 1991). "Opportunities in the Leisure Industry".

750: 370:' in order to attract tourists and maintain Asian roots in the city. 273: 42: 1041: 964: 885: 700: 3031: 3021: 2993: 2961: 2914: 2653: 2571: 2566: 399: 334: 265: 228:

The concept plan was developed in 1971, with the assistance of the

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Founding of modern Singapore and early colonial period (1819–1826)

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Four Decades of Transformation: Land Use in Singapore, 1960–2000

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and the Central Catchment Reserve, which will be accessible by

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Reade, Town Planning Adviser to the Federated Malay States (FMS)

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Urban planning in Singapore : the transformation of a city

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A view of a model of the land use in the Singapore city centre.

277: 269: 1594:"How Did Singapore Clear a Giant Forest Reserve 'By Mistake'?" 34:, more commonly known as the Jackson Plan or Raffles Town Plan 2856: 1720:

City & The State: Singapore's Built Environment Revisited

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Cities for People: Reflections of a Southeast Asian Architect

926:"Planning principles in pre- and post-independence Singapore" 725:"Multiracial Singapore: Ensuring inclusivity and integration" 601:"Planning Principles in Pre- and Post-Independence Singapore" 115: 1223:

Road Pricing and Provision: Changed Traffic Conditions Ahead

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to remain intact and only begin to change in the mid-1960s.

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Post-World War II Town Planning (1958 and 1965 Master Plan)

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Urban Planning in Singapore: The Transformation of a City

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Meng, Meng; Zhang, Jie; Wong, Yiik Diew (February 2016).

138:

The Jackson Plan formed the foundations of Singapore's

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Master plan first review, 1965 : report of survey

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the planning process, Raffles secured the services of

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Post-independence and the Concept Plan (1965 - 1980s)

1709:. 1998. Singapore: Singapore Institute of Planners. 1098:"Concept Plan 2001 is unveiled - Singapore History" 1000:"Planning, Urban Renewal, and Housing in Singapore" 841:"Planning, Urban Renewal, and Housing in Singapore" 1157:"Integrated foresight urban planning in Singapore" 41:is the direction of infrastructure development in 103:, was drawn up in December 1822 or January 1823. 3683: 1436:"A Sustainable and Resilient City of the Future" 966:Revised Master plan 1985 : report of survey 1707:Planning Singapore: From Plan to Implementation 1695:. 2003. Singapore: Singapore University Press. 1686:Beyond Description: Singapore Space Historicity 1517:"SINGAPORE: THE BEST-PLANNED CITY IN THE WORLD" 1039: 1219:"5 Singapore's land transport management plan" 2489: 1762: 1684:Bishop, R., J. Phillips, and W.-W. Yeo, eds. 1666:About Us, Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) 1568:"Explainer: The Climate Crisis and Singapore" 1154: 329:areas in the city centre could be conserved. 196:away from the city centre for the purpose of 1221:. In de Percy, Michael; Wanna, John (eds.). 1823:British Military Administration (1945–1946) 1550:Journal of Comparative Urban Law and Policy 962: 748: 52:Planning in Singapore first began with the 2496: 2482: 1769: 1755: 1674:. 1999, New York: Oxford University Press. 437: 1305:"New Housing Concepts & More Choices" 1172: 963:Department., Singapore. Planning (1985). 534:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 49:(URA) and the last by multiple agencies. 2704:Regional Planning Association of America 1833:Self-governance of Singapore (1955–1962) 1681:. 1990, Singapore: Select Books Pte Ltd. 441: 26: 1539: 1537: 1486:"Creating Spaces for Our Growing Needs" 1355:"Convenient & Sustainable Mobility" 1256:50 Years of Urban Planning in Singapore 698: 473: 14: 3684: 2072:China–Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park 1776: 1736:. 2004. Cavendish Square Publishing. 1732:Wong, Tiah-Chee, Yap, Adriel Lian-Ho, 1543: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1405: 1403: 1377: 1375: 1258:. World Scientific. pp. 101–125. 1253: 1212: 1210: 1120: 1118: 1092: 1090: 1088: 1086: 1035: 1033: 997: 919: 917: 915: 913: 911: 909: 907: 905: 838: 314: 2477: 1750: 1150: 1148: 1146: 644: 642: 594: 592: 590: 588: 586: 584: 582: 580: 512:technology to create smarter cities. 3664: 1534: 1216: 792: 236:(HDB), Planning Department, and the 230:United Nations Development Programme 87:Colonial Town Planning (1819 - 1958) 2775:Professional transportation planner 1556:: 155–190 – via Reading Room. 1503: 1400: 1372: 1207: 1115: 1083: 1074: 1030: 923: 902: 648: 598: 380: 24: 2503: 1616: 1514: 1247: 1143: 890:. Singapore: Planning Department. 832: 786: 639: 577: 25: 3703: 1651:Tan, Sumiko. "Home, work, play." 1411:"Strengthening Economic Gateways" 1016:10.3828/tpr.38.2.eg304r3377568262 942:10.3828/tpr.63.2.vr76822vu248631x 857:10.3828/tpr.38.2.eg304r3377568262 617:10.3828/tpr.63.2.vr76822vu248631x 560:Urban planning areas in Singapore 3663: 3642: 3641: 3629: 1838:Merger with Malaysia (1962–1965) 773: 498:Nanyang Technological University 494:National University of Singapore 127:and the earliest bridges across 3172:Transferable development rights 2727:Environmental impact assessment 1818:Japanese occupation (1942–1945) 1813:Straits Settlements (1826–1942) 1586: 1560: 1478: 1453: 1428: 1347: 1322: 1297: 1272: 1195:. Urban Redevelopment Authority 1181: 1068: 991: 956: 878: 468:spoke-hub distribution paradigm 178:British Military Administration 2798:Community economic development 2577:Planning and zoning commission 1828:Post-war Singapore (1946–1955) 1515:Wu, Daven (2 September 2020). 1330:"Rejuvenating Familiar Places" 767: 742: 717: 692: 667: 13: 1: 1653:Urban Redevelopment Authority 1383:"Better Connectivity for All" 1225:. ANU Press. pp. 73–86. 570: 293:Urban Redevelopment Authority 234:Housing and Development Board 47:Urban Redevelopment Authority 32:Plan of the Town of Singapore 3411:Planning Accreditation Board 2770:Transit-oriented development 2732:Recreation resource planning 1843:Republic of Singapore (1965– 1688:. 2004, Routledge: New York. 1642:Resources in other libraries 1461:"Closing Our Resource Loops" 924:Eng, Teo Siew (April 1992). 599:Teo, Siew Eng (April 1992). 515: 7: 3692:Urban planning in Singapore 2266:Water supply and sanitation 1628:Urban planning in Singapore 749:Subramaniam, Aiyer (2007). 548: 59:Singapore Improvement Trust 39:Urban planning in Singapore 10: 3708: 3423:Professional organizations 2780:Urban freight distribution 2755:Transportation forecasting 2211:National Courtesy Campaign 998:Jensen, Rolf (July 1967). 839:Jensen, Rolf (July 1967). 699:Hancock, T. H. H. (1986). 565:Urban renewal in Singapore 527:Certificate of Entitlement 97:British East India Company 81: 3659:List of planning journals 3623: 3545: 3510: 3484: 3438: 3431: 3398: 3358: 3234: 3227: 3040: 2948: 2895: 2819: 2810: 2788: 2745: 2712: 2694: 2662: 2628:History of urban planning 2609: 2600: 2539: 2511: 2428: 2376: 2274: 2146: 2137: 2047: 2038: 1940: 1931: 1864: 1855: 1788: 1637:Resources in your library 1161:Urban Design and Planning 289:Housing Development Board 140:Central Business District 3595:Marine spatial planning 3107:Healthy community design 2685:Village design statement 2675:Preservation development 2670:Conservation development 1945:Administrative divisions 1803:Early history (pre–1819) 1798:Archaeology in Singapore 1521:Discovery Cathay Pacific 1217:Looi, Teik Soon (2018). 1040:Dale, Ole Johan (1999). 845:The Town Planning Review 799:The Town Planning Review 605:The Town Planning Review 412:Land Transport Authority 270:Jurong Industrial Estate 3610:Real estate development 3341:List of urban theorists 2837:City Beautiful movement 2765:Rational planning model 2747:Transportation planning 2737:Sustainable development 2110:Singapore Standard (SS) 453:Jurong Town Corporation 438:Current planning policy 432:National Heritage Board 349:) and transforming the 301:Public Works Department 297:Jurong Town Corporation 238:Public Works Department 3654:List of planned cities 3590:Landscape architecture 3346:List of urban planners 3068:Conservation community 2905:Collaborative planning 2714:Environmental planning 2622:Comprehensive planning 2206:Long hair in Singapore 1544:Binder, Denis (2019). 1189:"Past Long-Term Plans" 793:Yuen, Belinda (2011). 555:Geography of Singapore 447: 159: 35: 18:Development Guide Plan 3565:Development economics 3416:Real estate education 3376:James Howard Kunstler 3301:Konstantinos Doxiadis 3182:Urban growth boundary 3122:Mixed-use development 3017:Intentional community 2095:Proposed developments 1174:10.1680/udap.14.00061 1102:eresources.nlb.gov.sg 445: 149: 30: 3117:Leapfrog development 3063:Complete Communities 2920:Intelligent urbanism 2847:Garden city movement 2790:Economic development 2722:Environmental design 1874:Environmental issues 1004:Town Planning Review 930:Town Planning Review 538:Pulau Semakau Island 490:Jurong Lake District 485:Jewel Changi Airport 474:The 2019 Master Plan 457:National Parks Board 424:green infrastructure 186:Federation of Malaya 3523:Communist countries 3147:Planning Permission 3084:Filtering (housing) 3058:Cluster development 2867:Settlement movement 2852:Indigenous planning 2231:Population planning 2216:National Day Parade 2052:Economic statistics 1691:Yeoh, Brenda S. A. 811:10.3828/tpr.2011.12 702:Coleman's Singapore 315:The 1980s and 1990s 125:Raffles Institution 3406:Planning education 3366:Elizabeth Farrelly 3210:High-rise urbanism 3048:Affordable housing 2587:World Urbanism Day 2221:No U-turn syndrome 2115:Telecommunications 2105:Singapore Exchange 2067:Monetary Authority 1600:. 22 February 2021 448: 210:Mass Rapid Transit 36: 3679: 3678: 3636:Cities portal 3560:Civil engineering 3541: 3540: 3394: 3393: 3223: 3222: 3191:Peri-urbanisation 3011:Planned community 2842:Dark-sky movement 2832:Car-free movement 2806: 2805: 2760:Trip distribution 2696:Regional planning 2649:Urban green space 2617:Land-use planning 2592:Labor market area 2582:Growth management 2557:Metropolitan area 2471: 2470: 2424: 2423: 2319:Singapore English 2133: 2132: 2034: 2033: 2021:Political parties 1967:Foreign relations 1927: 1926: 1623:Library resources 1265:978-981-4656-48-1 729:lkyspp.nus.edu.sg 266:Tampines New Town 112:Fort Canning Hill 16:(Redirected from 3699: 3667: 3666: 3645: 3644: 3634: 3633: 3632: 3585:Land development 3436: 3435: 3271:Donald Appleyard 3232: 3231: 2982:Mining community 2935:Radical planning 2882:Transition towns 2817: 2816: 2633:Spatial planning 2607: 2606: 2498: 2491: 2484: 2475: 2474: 2451: 2444: 2437: 2151:Communitarianism 2144: 2143: 2080: 2045: 2044: 1938: 1937: 1862: 1861: 1846: 1771: 1764: 1757: 1748: 1747: 1610: 1609: 1607: 1605: 1590: 1584: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1564: 1558: 1557: 1541: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1512: 1501: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1482: 1476: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1457: 1451: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1432: 1426: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1407: 1398: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1379: 1370: 1369: 1367: 1365: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1326: 1320: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1301: 1295: 1294: 1292: 1290: 1276: 1270: 1269: 1251: 1245: 1244: 1214: 1205: 1204: 1202: 1200: 1185: 1179: 1178: 1176: 1152: 1141: 1140: 1138: 1136: 1122: 1113: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1094: 1081: 1080: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1037: 1028: 1027: 995: 989: 988: 960: 954: 953: 921: 900: 899: 882: 876: 875: 873: 871: 836: 830: 829: 827: 825: 790: 784: 783: 776:Planning History 771: 765: 764: 746: 740: 739: 737: 735: 721: 715: 714: 696: 690: 689: 687: 685: 679:www.roots.gov.sg 671: 665: 664: 646: 637: 636: 596: 506:Tengah Reservoir 381:2000s to present 360:Land reclamation 198:decentralization 157: 93:Stamford Raffles 21: 3707: 3706: 3702: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3697: 3696: 3682: 3681: 3680: 3675: 3630: 3628: 3619: 3615:Social sciences 3575:Urban economics 3547: 3537: 3506: 3480: 3427: 3390: 3354: 3321:Peter Calthorpe 3276:Ebenezer Howard 3237: 3219: 3206:Verticalization 3036: 2944: 2930:Market urbanism 2925:Livable streets 2891: 2812: 2802: 2784: 2741: 2708: 2690: 2658: 2602: 2596: 2535: 2507: 2502: 2472: 2467: 2454: 2447: 2440: 2433: 2420: 2372: 2270: 2251:Sex trafficking 2246:Public holidays 2191:Eat Frozen Pork 2129: 2078: 2030: 1923: 1851: 1844: 1784: 1775: 1705:Yuen, Belinda. 1648: 1647: 1646: 1631: 1630: 1626: 1619: 1617:Further reading 1614: 1613: 1603: 1601: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1577: 1575: 1566: 1565: 1561: 1542: 1535: 1525: 1523: 1513: 1504: 1494: 1492: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1459: 1458: 1454: 1444: 1442: 1434: 1433: 1429: 1419: 1417: 1409: 1408: 1401: 1391: 1389: 1381: 1380: 1373: 1363: 1361: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1338: 1336: 1328: 1327: 1323: 1313: 1311: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1288: 1286: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1266: 1252: 1248: 1233: 1215: 1208: 1198: 1196: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1153: 1144: 1134: 1132: 1124: 1123: 1116: 1106: 1104: 1096: 1095: 1084: 1073: 1069: 1054: 1038: 1031: 996: 992: 977: 961: 957: 922: 903: 884: 883: 879: 869: 867: 837: 833: 823: 821: 791: 787: 772: 768: 747: 743: 733: 731: 723: 722: 718: 697: 693: 683: 681: 673: 672: 668: 649:Pearson, H. F. 647: 640: 597: 578: 573: 551: 518: 476: 440: 392:Park Connectors 383: 317: 218: 174: 158: 155: 129:Singapore River 108:Singapore River 89: 84: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3705: 3695: 3694: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3639: 3624: 3621: 3620: 3618: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3551: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3514: 3512: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3479: 3478: 3476:United Kingdom 3473: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3456:Czech Republic 3453: 3448: 3442: 3440: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3425: 3420: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3402: 3400: 3396: 3395: 3392: 3391: 3389: 3388: 3386:Randal O'Toole 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3362: 3360: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3326:Patrick Geddes 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3306:Kevin A. Lynch 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3286:Guy Benveniste 3283: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3266:Daniel Burnham 3263: 3261:Colin Buchanan 3258: 3256:Clarence Stein 3253: 3251:Clarence Perry 3248: 3242: 3240: 3229: 3225: 3224: 3221: 3220: 3218: 3217: 3212: 3203: 3198: 3196:Urban vitality 3193: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3103:Healthy cities 3100: 3095: 3093:Brusselization 3089:Gentrification 3086: 3081: 3078:Eminent domain 3075: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3008: 3003: 3002: 3001: 2991: 2990: 2989: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2954: 2952: 2950:Cities by type 2946: 2945: 2943: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2917: 2912: 2910:Context theory 2907: 2901: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2890: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2829: 2827:Athens Charter 2823: 2821: 2814: 2808: 2807: 2804: 2803: 2801: 2800: 2794: 2792: 2786: 2785: 2783: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2762: 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975: 955: 901: 877: 851:(2): 115–131. 831: 805:(2): 145–167. 785: 766: 741: 716: 691: 675:"Jackson Plan" 666: 638: 611:(2): 163–185. 575: 574: 572: 569: 568: 567: 562: 557: 550: 547: 517: 514: 475: 472: 439: 436: 382: 379: 375:planning areas 368:Civic District 316: 313: 299:(JTC) and the 246:Changi Airport 217: 214: 173: 170: 166:public housing 153: 88: 85: 83: 80: 76:sustainability 63:urban planning 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3704: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3672: 3671: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3626: 3625: 3622: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3605:Public policy 3603: 3601: 3600:Public health 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3570:Urban ecology 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3552: 3550: 3544: 3534: 3533:Ancient Egypt 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3509: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3421: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3408: 3407: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3381:Lewis Mumford 3379: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3363: 3361: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3331:Raymond Unwin 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3267: 3264: 3262: 3259: 3257: 3254: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3238:practitioners 3233: 3230: 3226: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3167:Tract housing 3165: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3157:Temporary use 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3142:Planning gain 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3074: 3073:Creative city 3071: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 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1731: 1729: 1728:9780195882636 1725: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1680: 1677:Lim, W.S.W., 1676: 1673: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1662: 1661:981-04-1706-3 1658: 1654: 1650: 1649: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1574:. 28 May 2020 1573: 1569: 1563: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1540: 1538: 1522: 1518: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1491: 1487: 1481: 1466: 1462: 1456: 1441: 1437: 1431: 1416: 1412: 1406: 1404: 1388: 1384: 1378: 1376: 1360: 1356: 1350: 1335: 1331: 1325: 1310: 1306: 1300: 1285: 1281: 1280:"Master Plan" 1275: 1267: 1261: 1257: 1250: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1232:9781760462314 1228: 1224: 1220: 1213: 1211: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1175: 1170: 1167:(DP1): 1–13. 1166: 1162: 1158: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1131: 1127: 1121: 1119: 1103: 1099: 1093: 1091: 1089: 1087: 1078: 1071: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1053:967-65-3064-6 1049: 1045: 1044: 1036: 1034: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 994: 986: 982: 978: 976:9971-88-136-5 972: 968: 967: 959: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 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