140:
515:, variety or seedlot are likely to germinate over a given period. It is a measure of germination time course and is usually expressed as a percentage, e.g., an 85% germination rate indicates that about 85 out of 100 seeds will probably germinate under proper conditions over the germination period given. Seed germination rate is determined by the seed genetic composition, morphological features and environmental factors. The germination rate is useful for calculating the number of seeds needed for a given area or desired number of plants. For seed physiologists and seed scientists "germination rate" is the reciprocal of time taken for the process of germination to complete starting from time of
565:
474:
3349:
42:
31:
117:
950:(ABA), a plant hormone largely responsible for seed dormancy. The balance between GA and ABA is important. When ABA levels are higher than GA then that leads to dormant seeds and when GA levels are higher, seeds germinate. The switch between seed dormancy and germination needs to occur at a time when the seed has the best chances of surviving and an important cue that begins the process of seed germination and overall plant growth is light.
407:
202:
803:
128:
349:) to break dormancy. Some seeds in a dormant state will not germinate even if conditions are favorable. Seeds that are dependent on temperature to end dormancy have a type of physiological dormancy. For example, seeds requiring the cold of winter are inhibited from germinating until they take in water in the fall and experience cooler temperatures. Cold
345:
temperatures slightly above 60-75 F (16–24 C) , while others germinate just above freezing and others germinate only in response to alternations in temperature between warm and cool. Some seeds germinate when the soil is cool 28–40 F (-2 - 4 C), and some when the soil is warm 76-90 F (24–32 C). Some seeds require exposure to cold temperatures (
153:
945:
seeds to NO gas and within the next 4 days, 90% of the seeds broke dormancy and germinated. The authors also looked at how NO and GA effects the vacuolation process of aleurone cells that allow the movement of nutrients to be digested. A NO mutant resulted in inhibition of vacuolation but when GA was
460:
marks the end of germination and the beginning of "establishment", a period that utilizes the food reserves stored in the seed. Germination and establishment as an independent organism are critical phases in the life of a plant when they are the most vulnerable to injury, disease, and water stress.
344:
affects cellular metabolic and growth rates. Seeds from different species and even seeds from the same plant germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Seeds often have a temperature range within which they will germinate, and they will not do so above or below this range. Many seeds germinate at
197:
and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Dormant seeds are viable seeds that do not germinate because they require specific internal or environmental stimuli to resume growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryo resumes growth,
798:
microscopy. Another type of cell is a conidial anastomosis tube (CAT); these differ from germ tubes in that they are thinner, shorter, lack branches, exhibit determinate growth and home toward each other. Each cell is of a tubular shape, but the conidial anastomosis tube forms a bridge that allows
904:
which are dormant structures produced by a number of different bacteria. They have no or very low metabolic activity and are formed in response to adverse environmental conditions. They allow survival and are not a form of reproduction. Under suitable conditions the spore germinates to produce a
431:
can originate in different parts of the seed, for example, within the embryo; in other cases the seed coat is involved. Dormancy breaking often involves changes in membranes, initiated by dormancy-breaking signals. This generally occurs only within hydrated seeds. Factors affecting seed dormancy
324:
pore spaces; if a seed is buried too deeply within the soil or the soil is waterlogged, the seed can be oxygen starved. Some seeds have impermeable seed coats that prevent oxygen from entering the seed, causing a type of physical dormancy which is broken when the seed coat is worn away enough to
789:
are asexual reproductive (reproduction without the fusing of gametes) spores of fungi which germinate under specific conditions. A variety of cells can be formed from the germinating conidia. The most common are germ tubes which grow and develop into hyphae. The initial formation and subsequent
397:
mimics natural processes that weaken the seed coat before germination. In nature, some seeds require particular conditions to germinate, such as the heat of a fire (e.g., many
Australian native plants), or soaking in a body of water for a long period of time. Others need to be passed through an
917:
can be an environmental factor that stimulates the germination process. The seed needs to be able to determine when is the perfect time to germinate and they do that by sensing environmental cues. Once germination starts, the stored nutrients that have accumulated during maturation start to be
223:
Disturbance of soil can result in vigorous plant growth by exposing seeds already in the soil to changes in environmental factors where germination may have previously been inhibited by depth of the seeds or soil that was too compact. This is often observed at gravesites after a burial.
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grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. They consist of a protective coat containing several cells (up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2–3 in flowering plants). One of these cells is a
652:, respectively. The coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. The coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. There, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge.
157:
526:
Soil salinity is one of the stress factors that can limit the germination rate. Environmental stress activates some stress-related activities , genetic template stability and photosynthetic pigment activation. Application of exogenic
926:) is the photoreceptor that is responsible for the beginning stages of germination. When red light is present, PHYB is converted to its active form and moves from the cytoplasm to the nucleus where it upregulates the degradation of
627:
Germination can also be done by hypogeal germination (or hypogeous germination), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. In this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. Peas,
843:
cells from the hardened spore. After cracking the spore coat, further development involves cell division, but not necessarily the development of a multicellular organism (for example in the free-living amoebas of slime molds).
353:
is a process that induces the dormancy breaking prior to light emission that promotes germination . Four degrees
Celsius is cool enough to end dormancy for most cool dormant seeds, but some groups, especially within the family
378:) can germinate at significantly lower temperatures, as low as 40 F (4 C), thus allowing them to be grown from seeds in cooler climates. Suboptimal temperatures lead to lower success rates and longer germination periods.
168:
Germination is usually the growth of a plant contained within a seed resulting in the formation of the seedling. It is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of
535:
seeds shows a reduction in the mean germination time, an increase in the coefficient of germination velocity, the germination index and germination percentage after administration of exogenous glutamine to plants.
941:(NO) plays a role in this pathway as well. NO is thought to repress PIF1 gene expression and stabilises HFR1 in some way to support the start of germination. Bethke et al. (2006) exposed dormant
748:. Some plants use the control of pollen germination as a way to prevent this self-pollination. Germination and growth of the pollen tube involve molecular signaling between stigma and pollen. In
568:
The stages of germination of a pea plant: A. seed coat, B. radicle, C. primary root, D. secondary root, E. cotyledon, F. plumule, G. leaf, H. tap root
660:
When a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i.e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination.
934:(GA), a major hormone in the germination process. Another factor that promotes germination is HFR1 which accumulates in light in some way and forms inactive heterodimers with PIF1.
219:
Step 3: This marks the final step in the germination of the seed, where the cotyledons are expanded, which are the true leaves. Note: Temperature must be kept at an optimum level.
3179:
156:
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Variation in Seed
Dormancy and Germination within and between Individuals and Populations of a Species. Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and, Evolution of Dormancy and Germination
1883:
Li R, Jia Y, Yu L, Yang W, Chen Z, Chen H, Hu X (February 2018). "Nitric oxide promotes light-initiated seed germination by repressing PIF1 expression and stabilizing HFR1".
270:
is required for germination. Mature seeds are often extremely dry and need to take in significant amounts of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed, before cellular
2072:
An extensive study of the germination rates of a huge variety of seeds under different experimental conditions, including temperature variation and chemical environment
465:
in soils. The mortality between dispersal of seeds and completion of the establishment can be so high that many species have adapted to produce large numbers of seeds.
3184:
1318:
Koppen G, Verschaeve L (2001). "The alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis/comet assay: a way to study DNA repair in radicle cells of germinating Vicia faba".
251:. Various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on the individual seed variety and is closely linked to the
389:
seeds, including species found in forest settings, will not germinate until an opening in the canopy allows sufficient light for the growth of the seedling.
259:. For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation; most often these responses are types of
1236:"The role of exogenous glutamine on germination, plant development and transcriptional expression of some stress-related genes in onion under salt stres"
946:
later added the process was active again leading to the belief that NO is prior to GA in the pathway. NO may also lead to the decrease in sensitivity of
686:
298:. After the seedling emerges from the seed coat and starts growing roots and leaves, the seedling's food reserves are typically exhausted; at this point
3317:
205:
Step 1: Water imbibition, the uptake of water, results in rupture of seed coat. Step 2: The imbibition of the seed coat results in emergence of the
1621:
Roca MG, Davide LC, Davide LM, Mendes-Costa MC, Schwan RF, Wheals AE (November 2004). "Conidial anastomosis fusion between
Colletotrichum species".
385:
can be an environmental trigger for germination and is a type of physiological dormancy. Most seeds are not affected by light or darkness, but many
930:. PIF1, phytochrome-interaction-factor-1, negatively regulates germination by increasing the expression of proteins that repress the synthesis of
278:, which leads to the swelling and the breaking of the seed coat. When seeds are formed, most plants store a food reserve with the seed, such as
2084:
576:
or primary root. It allows the seedling to become anchored in the ground and start absorbing water. After the root absorbs water, an embryonic
274:
and growth can resume. Most seeds need enough water to moisten the seeds but not enough to soak them. The uptake of water by seeds is called
615:
through the soil. Once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air.
3235:
1928:"The Arabidopsis aleurone layer responds to nitric oxide, gibberellin, and abscisic acid and is sufficient and necessary for seed dormancy"
603:(or epigeous germination) is a botanical term indicating that the germination takes place above the ground. In epigeal germination, the
556:
has a major role in integrating progression through germination with repair responses to the DNA damages accumulated by the aged seed.
1975:
Shu K, Meng YJ, Shuai HW, Liu WG, Du JB, Liu J, Yang WY (November 2015). "Dormancy and germination: How does the crop seed decide?".
905:
viable bacterium. Endospores are formed inside the mother cell, whereas exospores are formed at the end of the mother cell as a bud.
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Since most plants carry both male and female reproductive organs in their flowers, there is a high risk of self-pollination and thus
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provides the energy needed for continued growth and the seedling now requires a continuous supply of water, nutrients, and light.
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produced in the pollen grain for fertilization. The germinated pollen grain with its two sperm cells is the mature male
519:. On the other hand, the number of seed able to complete germination in a population (i.e. seed lot) is referred to as
1848:
de Wit M, Galvão VC, Fankhauser C (April 2016). "Light-Mediated
Hormonal Regulation of Plant Growth and Development".
3241:
1188:
752:, the stigma of certain plants can molecularly recognize pollen from the same plant and prevent it from germinating.
227:
Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include right
139:
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549:
544:
Seed quality deteriorates with age, and this is associated with accumulation of genome damage. During germination,
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and need more time, and/or need to be subjected to specific environmental conditions before they will germinate.
1523:"In vitro germination characteristics of maize pollen to detect biological activity of environmental pollutants"
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and others, need conditions cooler than -5 C. Some seeds will only germinate after hot temperatures during a
444:, barley seeds are treated with gibberellin to ensure uniform seed germination for the production of barley
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2327:
552:. In particular, single- and double-strand breaks in DNA can be repaired. The DNA damage checkpoint kinase
802:
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45:
Sunflower time lapse with soil. Cross section, showing how the root and the upper part of the plant grow
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digested which then supports cell expansion and overall growth. Within light-stimulated germination,
2023:
1635:
1096:
Siegel SM, Rosen LA (1962). "Effects of
Reduced Oxygen Tension on Germination and Seedling Growth".
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3174:
2224:
1388:"DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM regulates germination and maintains genome stability in seeds"
3159:
3083:
1630:
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290:. This food reserve provides nourishment to the growing embryo. When the seed imbibes water,
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1984:
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have optimal germination temperatures between 75–90 F (24–32 C), though many species (e.g.
2546:
2042:
1861:
827:, germination involves cracking the thick cell wall of the dormant spore. For example, in
8:
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The part of the plant that first emerges from the seed is the embryonic root, termed the
313:
121:
1988:
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in gymnosperms), it takes up water and germinates. Pollen germination is facilitated by
332:, anaerobic germination can occur in waterlogged conditions. The seed produces a hollow
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1004:, when seeds or embryos begin to develop inside or before they detach from the parent
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are activated which break down these stored food resources into metabolically useful
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Waterworth WM, Masnavi G, Bhardwaj RM, Jiang Q, Bray CM, West CE (September 2010).
1290:
1279:"The importance of safeguarding genome integrity in germination and seed longevity"
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A seed pot used in horticulture for sowing and taking plant cuttings and growing
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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316:, the main source of the seedling's energy until it grows leaves. Oxygen is an
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Bethke PC, Libourel IG, Aoyama N, Chung YY, Still DW, Jones RL (March 2007).
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Waterworth WM, Footitt S, Bray CM, Finch-Savage WE, West CE (August 2016).
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Rajjou L, Duval M, Gallardo K, Catusse J, Bally J, Job C, Job D (2012).
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1071:(7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers. pp.
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619:, tamarind, and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way.
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486:
333:
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275:
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20:
1996:
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2209:
2108:, ≈1 minute HD video of mung bean seeds germinating over 10 days, on
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that acts like a 'snorkel', providing the seed with access to oxygen.
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The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses Cabi Series
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which cracks their seed coats; this is a type of physical dormancy.
295:
248:
201:
144:
93:
65:
53:
1347:"A plant DNA ligase is an important determinant of seed longevity"
580:
emerges from the seed. This shoot comprises three main parts: the
2457:
2452:
2369:
2359:
2109:
1668:"Cell biology of conidial anastomosis tubes in Neurospora crassa"
1385:
888:
that can often be found underneath a spore-shedding adult plant.
880:, similar to fungal hyphae, from which the gametophyte grows. In
786:
772:
709:
of the stigma and style. Pollen can also be induced to germinate
641:
573:
512:
457:
441:
375:
283:
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210:
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174:
170:
1742:
Eldra
Solomon; Linda Berg; Diana W. Martin (15 September 2010).
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2536:
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2526:
2145:
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Takayama S, Isogai A (2005). "Self-incompatibility in plants".
1125:"Rice germination and seedling growth in the absence of oxygen"
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to weaken the seed coat enough to allow the seedling to emerge.
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elongates and forms a hook, pulling rather than pushing the
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seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a
616:
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69:
2021:
1123:
Magneschi, Leonardo; Perata, Pierdomenico (25 July 2008).
760:
Germination can also refer to the emergence of cells from
584:(seed leaves), the section of shoot below the cotyledons (
325:
allow gas exchange and water uptake from the environment.
2905:
2467:
2114:
1925:
1714:
592:). The way the shoot emerges differs among plant groups.
287:
240:
724:. In the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the
432:
include the presence of certain plant hormones, notably
1768:
1474:"In vitro measurement of pollen tube growth inhibition"
1234:
Ulukapi, Kamile; Nasircilar, Ayse Gul (February 2024).
16:
Process by which an organism grows from a spore or seed
1847:
864:, and a few others, spores germinate into independent
810:
spore germination. This image has been captured using
131:
Germination glass (glass sprouter jar) with a plastic
1248:(1). Polish Society of Horticultural Science: 19–34.
835:
inside gives rise to the emerging sporangiophore. In
461:
The germination index can be used as an indicator of
1708:
831:
the thick-walled zygosporangium cracks open and the
1665:
720:During germination, the tube cell elongates into a
668:Another germination event during the life cycle of
1276:
1064:
1062:
588:), and the section of shoot above the cotyledons (
1666:Roca MG, Arlt J, Jeffree CE, Read ND (May 2005).
1233:
1203:
548:processes are activated to deal with accumulated
3365:
1794:
1792:
1317:
1974:
1735:
1715:J.-M. Ghuysen; R. Hakenbeck (9 February 1994).
1183:. Burlington: Elsevier Science. pp. 5–35.
1122:
908:
705:on the stigma, as well as by the structure and
531:limiting this process. Research carried out on
164:Time-lapse video of mung bean seeds germinating
1762:
1577:
2130:
1789:
1277:Waterworth WM, Bray CM, West CE (June 2015).
3236:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1379:
1338:
1178:
632:and mango, for example, germinate this way.
1882:
1311:
1270:
1095:
937:Although the exact mechanism is not known,
884:, the gametophytes are small, heart-shaped
676:is the germination of a pollen grain after
456:In some definitions, the appearance of the
2137:
2123:
2083:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
790:elongation of the germ tube in the fungus
1951:
1824:
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1634:
1554:
1497:
1421:
1411:
1362:
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1253:
1148:
839:, germination refers to the emergence of
655:
508:describes how many seeds of a particular
469:Germination rate and germination capacity
451:
3180:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1798:
1775:. Encyclopedia Britannica. p. 580.
1592:10.1146/annurev.arplant.56.032604.144249
1571:
1063:Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE (2005).
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1056:
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308:is required by the germinating seed for
200:
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1044:
1042:
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193:. All fully developed seeds contain an
37:seedlings, three days after germination
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1471:
1465:
635:
2118:
2060:Seed Germination: Theory and Practice
2043:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105550
1862:10.1146/annurev-arplant-043015-112252
1451:. New Age International. p. 61.
1444:
1204:Bewley JD, Black M, Halmer P (2006).
689:. Once the pollen grain lands on the
663:
328:In a small number of plants, such as
2102:, a survey of seed sowing techniques
2057:
1229:
1227:
1029:
1025:. Wiley-Blackwell. 2012. p. 10.
755:
559:
1748:. Cengage Learning. pp. 554–.
847:
189:after the union of male and female
13:
2014:
1110:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1962.tb08047.x
436:, which inhibits germination, and
151:
14:
3395:
3185:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
2093:
1885:Plant Physiology and Biochemistry
1527:Environmental Health Perspectives
1224:
818:
181:is a small package produced in a
3348:
3347:
1769:Encyclopedia Britannica (2002).
1364:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04285.x
1968:
1919:
1876:
1841:
1801:"Seed dormancy and germination"
1659:
1614:
1438:
440:, which ends seed dormancy. In
2031:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1850:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1580:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1283:Journal of Experimental Botany
1197:
1172:
1116:
1089:
1015:
794:has been captured in 3D using
750:self-incompatibility in plants
111:
1:
1799:Penfield S (September 2017).
1179:Baskin CC, Baskin JM (2014).
1009:
60:. The term is applied to the
3226:History of plant systematics
2813:Thorns, spines, and prickles
2024:"Seed germination and vigor"
1905:10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.11.012
978:, for germination after fire
909:Light-stimulated germination
198:developing into a seedling.
7:
1721:. Elsevier. pp. 167–.
1684:10.1128/EC.4.5.911-919.2005
1521:Pfahler PL (January 1981).
961:Lily seed germination types
953:
891:
868:. In the bryophytes (e.g.,
622:
418:
52:is the process by which an
10:
3400:
3042:Alternation of generations
2144:
595:
18:
3343:
3291:
3255:
3192:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3155:Biological classification
3145:
3018:
2934:
2830:
2780:
2505:
2435:
2378:
2340:
2314:
2250:
2170:
2152:
1826:10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.050
1645:10.1017/S0953756204000838
876:), spores germinate into
3052:Evolutionary development
896:Bacterial spores can be
799:fusion between conidia.
728:where it discharges the
96:, and the growth of the
88:, such as the spores of
19:Not to be confused with
2703:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1772:Encyclopedia britannica
1472:Martin FW (June 1972).
1413:10.1073/pnas.1608829113
1255:10.2478/fhort-2024-0002
3318:by author abbreviation
3242:Plant taxonomy systems
3160:Botanical nomenclature
2106:Germination time-lapse
913:As mentioned earlier,
815:
656:Precocious germination
569:
493:
452:Seedling establishment
415:
220:
165:
149:
136:
124:
46:
38:
3325:Botanical expeditions
2062:. State College, PA.
1944:10.1104/pp.106.093435
1098:Physiologia Plantarum
805:
567:
476:
409:
253:ecological conditions
204:
163:
142:
130:
119:
56:grows from a seed or
44:
33:
3057:Evolutionary history
3047:Double fertilization
2899:Cellular respiration
1623:Mycological Research
806:3D-visualization of
740:Self-incompatibility
540:Repair of DNA damage
521:germination capacity
489:after three days of
423:Some live seeds are
410:Malted (germinated)
312:. Oxygen is used in
2276:Non-vascular plants
1989:2015PlBio..17.1104S
1897:2018PlPB..123..204L
1817:2017CBio...27.R874P
1718:Bacterial Cell Wall
1490:10.1104/pp.49.6.924
1404:2016PNAS..113.9647W
1241:Folia Horticulturae
636:Monocot germination
601:Epigeal germination
366:Most common annual
314:aerobic respiration
145:Brassica campestris
2781:Surface structures
2576:Flower development
1296:10.1093/jxb/erv080
1141:10.1093/aob/mcn121
997:Urban horticulture
966:Oldest viable seed
816:
764:and the growth of
664:Pollen germination
570:
494:
416:
292:hydrolytic enzymes
221:
191:reproductive cells
166:
150:
137:
125:
80:, the growth of a
47:
39:
3361:
3360:
3000:Herbaceous plants
2826:
2825:
1997:10.1111/plb.12356
1811:(17): R874–R878.
1782:978-0-85229-787-2
1755:978-0-538-74125-5
1728:978-0-08-086087-9
1629:(Pt 11): 1320–6.
1458:978-81-224-0065-6
1448:Plant propagation
1445:Sadhu MK (1989).
1351:The Plant Journal
1217:978-0-85199-723-0
1082:978-0-7167-1007-3
1067:Biology of Plants
808:Aspergillus niger
792:Aspergillus niger
783:and some plants.
756:Spore germination
736:of these plants.
560:Dicot germination
383:Light or darkness
320:that is found in
217:are unfolded (3).
161:
148:germinating seeds
3391:
3384:Plant physiology
3351:
3350:
3330:Individual trees
3005:Secondary growth
2976:Succulent plants
2964:Prostrate shrubs
2847:Apical dominance
2832:Plant physiology
2793:Epicuticular wax
2338:
2337:
2331:
2322:Plant morphology
2139:
2132:
2125:
2116:
2115:
2088:
2082:
2074:
2058:Deno NC (1980).
2054:
2028:
2009:
2008:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1955:
1932:Plant Physiology
1923:
1917:
1916:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1828:
1796:
1787:
1786:
1766:
1760:
1759:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1695:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1638:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1558:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1501:
1478:Plant Physiology
1469:
1463:
1462:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1425:
1415:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1366:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1298:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1257:
1231:
1222:
1221:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1152:
1129:Annals of Botany
1120:
1114:
1113:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1070:
1060:
1027:
1026:
1019:
848:Ferns and mosses
734:microgametophyte
674:flowering plants
506:germination rate
177:. The seed of a
162:
3399:
3398:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3339:
3308:Botanical terms
3301:
3287:
3251:
3197:Citrus taxonomy
3175:Author citation
3141:
3035:
3014:
2936:
2930:
2926:Turgor pressure
2834:
2822:
2776:
2591:Floral symmetry
2509:
2501:
2431:
2420:Vascular bundle
2415:Vascular tissue
2374:
2334:
2325:
2324:
2310:
2281:Vascular plants
2246:
2242:Plant pathology
2166:
2148:
2143:
2096:
2091:
2076:
2075:
2026:
2017:
2015:Further reading
2012:
1973:
1969:
1924:
1920:
1881:
1877:
1846:
1842:
1805:Current Biology
1797:
1790:
1783:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1713:
1709:
1672:Eukaryotic Cell
1664:
1660:
1636:10.1.1.463.3369
1619:
1615:
1576:
1572:
1539:10.2307/3429260
1519:
1515:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1443:
1439:
1398:(34): 9647–52.
1384:
1380:
1343:
1339:
1320:Folia Biologica
1316:
1312:
1289:(12): 3549–58.
1275:
1271:
1232:
1225:
1218:
1210:. p. 203.
1202:
1198:
1191:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1161:
1121:
1117:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1061:
1030:
1023:Forensic Botany
1021:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1007:
956:
911:
894:
850:
821:
775:from spores in
758:
742:
717:or test tube).
693:of a receptive
666:
658:
638:
625:
613:apical meristem
598:
562:
542:
477:Germination of
471:
454:
421:
400:digestive tract
318:atmospheric gas
257:natural habitat
218:
152:
114:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3397:
3387:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3310:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3298:Related topics
3296:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3247:Taxonomic rank
3244:
3239:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3199:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3165:Botanical name
3157:
3151:
3149:
3147:Plant taxonomy
3143:
3142:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3123:Megasporangium
3120:
3119:
3118:
3111:Microsporangia
3103:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3028:
3022:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2966:
2956:
2951:
2949:Cushion plants
2940:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2896:
2886:
2884:Plant hormones
2881:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2867:Photosynthesis
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2838:
2836:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2586:Floral formula
2583:
2581:Floral diagram
2578:
2573:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2534:
2524:
2519:
2513:
2511:
2510:(incl. Flower)
2503:
2502:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2470:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2412:
2410:Storage organs
2407:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2390:
2384:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2346:
2344:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2296:Spermatophytes
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2266:Archaeplastida
2263:
2257:
2255:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2220:Phytogeography
2217:
2215:Phytochemistry
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2176:
2174:
2172:Subdisciplines
2168:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2142:
2141:
2134:
2127:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2103:
2095:
2094:External links
2092:
2090:
2089:
2055:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2010:
1983:(6): 1104–12.
1967:
1938:(3): 1173–88.
1918:
1875:
1840:
1788:
1781:
1761:
1754:
1734:
1727:
1707:
1658:
1613:
1570:
1513:
1464:
1457:
1437:
1378:
1337:
1310:
1269:
1223:
1216:
1196:
1189:
1171:
1135:(2): 181–196.
1115:
1104:(3): 437–444.
1088:
1081:
1028:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1005:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
973:
968:
963:
957:
955:
952:
910:
907:
893:
890:
849:
846:
825:resting spores
820:
819:Resting spores
817:
812:holotomography
796:holotomography
762:resting spores
757:
754:
741:
738:
680:. Like seeds,
665:
662:
657:
654:
637:
634:
624:
621:
597:
594:
561:
558:
541:
538:
470:
467:
453:
450:
420:
417:
404:
403:
390:
364:
363:
351:stratification
339:
338:
337:
303:
300:photosynthesis
243:and sometimes
179:vascular plant
113:
110:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3396:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3354:
3346:
3345:
3342:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3290:
3284:
3283:Phytochemical
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3136:
3133:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3063:
3060:
3059:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2921:Transpiration
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2733:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2708:Inflorescence
2706:
2704:
2701:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2428:
2425:
2421:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2393:Ground tissue
2391:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2329:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:Plant anatomy
2313:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2237:Plant ecology
2235:
2233:
2232:Plant anatomy
2230:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2180:Archaeobotany
2178:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2140:
2135:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2086:
2080:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2020:
2019:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1977:Plant Biology
1971:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1795:
1793:
1784:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1765:
1757:
1751:
1747:
1746:
1738:
1730:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1711:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1586:(1): 467–89.
1585:
1581:
1574:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1517:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1468:
1460:
1454:
1450:
1449:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1357:(5): 848–60.
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1242:
1237:
1230:
1228:
1219:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1192:
1190:9780124166837
1186:
1182:
1175:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1084:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1068:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1024:
1018:
1014:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
958:
951:
949:
948:abscisic acid
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
916:
906:
903:
899:
889:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
845:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
813:
809:
804:
800:
797:
793:
788:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
767:
763:
753:
751:
747:
737:
735:
731:
727:
723:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
697:(or a female
696:
692:
688:
683:
679:
675:
671:
661:
653:
651:
647:
643:
633:
631:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
593:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
566:
557:
555:
551:
547:
537:
534:
530:
524:
522:
518:
514:
511:
507:
503:
499:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
466:
464:
463:phytotoxicity
459:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
434:abscisic acid
430:
429:Seed dormancy
426:
413:
408:
401:
396:
395:
394:Scarification
391:
388:
384:
381:
380:
379:
377:
373:
369:
361:
357:
356:Ranunculaceae
352:
348:
347:vernalization
343:
340:
335:
331:
327:
326:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
304:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
266:
265:
264:
262:
261:seed dormancy
258:
255:of a plant's
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
216:
212:
208:
203:
199:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
147:
146:
141:
134:
129:
123:
118:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
43:
36:
32:
26:
25:Germanization
22:
3278:Horticulture
3268:Floriculture
3170:Correct name
3073:
3020:Reproduction
3010:Woody plants
2935:Plant growth
2894:Gas Exchange
2879:Phytomelanin
2757:Plant embryo
2507:Reproductive
2355:Phragmoplast
2100:Sowing Seeds
2071:
2059:
2034:
2030:
1980:
1976:
1970:
1935:
1931:
1921:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1808:
1804:
1771:
1764:
1744:
1737:
1717:
1710:
1678:(5): 911–9.
1675:
1671:
1661:
1626:
1622:
1616:
1583:
1579:
1573:
1530:
1526:
1516:
1484:(6): 924–5.
1481:
1477:
1467:
1447:
1440:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1354:
1350:
1340:
1323:
1319:
1313:
1286:
1282:
1272:
1245:
1239:
1206:
1199:
1180:
1174:
1162:. Retrieved
1132:
1128:
1118:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1066:
1022:
1017:
942:
939:nitric oxide
936:
912:
895:
866:gametophytes
851:
822:
807:
791:
785:
759:
743:
719:
710:
667:
659:
639:
626:
604:
599:
571:
543:
525:
520:
505:
495:
481:raised from
455:
422:
392:
387:photoblastic
382:
365:
341:
305:
267:
226:
222:
209:(1) and the
167:
143:
102:pollen grain
49:
48:
3374:Germination
3094:Pollen tube
3089:Pollinators
3079:Pollination
3074:Germination
2889:Respiration
2872:Chlorophyll
2718:Pedicellate
2652:Gametophyte
2571:Aestivation
2522:Antheridium
2517:Archegonium
2365:Plasmodesma
2342:Plant cells
2205:Paleobotany
2200:Ethnobotany
2185:Astrobotany
1891:: 204–212.
1326:(2): 50–4.
943:Arabidopsis
932:gibberellin
920:phytochrome
878:protonemata
837:slime molds
829:zygomycetes
814:microscopy.
722:pollen tube
678:pollination
670:gymnosperms
498:agriculture
438:gibberellin
360:forest fire
342:Temperature
229:temperature
112:Seed plants
98:pollen tube
50:Germination
3368:Categories
3116:Microspore
3106:Sporangium
3084:Artificial
2772:Sporophyte
2767:Sporophyll
2762:Receptacle
2657:Gynandrium
2527:Androecium
2436:Vegetative
2306:Angiosperm
2301:Gymnosperm
2195:Dendrology
2037:: 507–33.
1856:: 513–37.
1533:: 125–32.
1010:References
902:endospores
874:liverworts
858:bryophytes
746:inbreeding
715:petri dish
707:physiology
650:coleoptile
646:coleorhiza
609:cotyledons
582:cotyledons
550:DNA damage
487:eucalyptus
368:vegetables
334:coleoptile
310:metabolism
276:imbibition
272:metabolism
215:cotyledons
106:seed plant
78:gymnosperm
74:angiosperm
21:Gemination
3313:Botanists
3231:Herbarium
3128:Megaspore
3026:Evolution
2969:Subshrubs
2937:and habit
2862:Nutrition
2857:Cellulose
2852:Bulk flow
2835:Materials
2798:Epidermis
2662:Gynoecium
2643:Endosperm
2638:Dispersal
2554:Staminode
2490:Sessility
2478:Cataphyll
2398:Mesophyll
2350:Cell wall
2291:Lycophyte
2271:Bryophyte
2225:Geobotany
2210:Phycology
2079:cite book
2068:918148836
1631:CiteSeerX
992:Sprouting
982:Seed tray
976:Pyrophyte
898:exospores
886:prothalli
833:zygospore
766:sporeling
703:hydration
687:tube cell
630:chickpeas
605:hypocotyl
586:hypocotyl
529:glutamine
502:gardening
479:seedlings
398:animal's
296:chemicals
213:(2); the
100:from the
92:, ferns,
82:sporeling
62:sprouting
35:Sunflower
3353:Category
3273:Forestry
3263:Agronomy
3256:Practice
3207:Cultivar
3202:Cultigen
3062:timeline
2954:Rosettes
2842:Aleurone
2818:Trichome
2735:Perianth
2547:Filament
2405:Meristem
2328:glossary
2190:Bryology
2051:22136565
2005:26095078
1962:17220360
1913:29248678
1870:26905653
1835:28898656
1702:15879525
1653:15587065
1600:15862104
1508:16658085
1432:27503884
1373:20584150
1332:11321247
1305:25750428
1264:19887643
1164:27 March
1159:18660495
1002:Vivipary
987:Seedling
971:Pot farm
954:See also
892:Bacteria
856:such as
841:amoeboid
711:in vitro
623:Hypogeal
590:epicotyl
419:Dormancy
372:radishes
284:proteins
249:darkness
94:bacteria
66:seedling
54:organism
3031:Ecology
2788:Cuticle
2618:Capsule
2608:Anatomy
2559:Tapetum
2483:Petiole
2458:Rhizome
2453:Rhizoid
2380:Tissues
2370:Vacuole
2360:Plastid
2162:Outline
2157:History
2110:YouTube
1985:Bibcode
1953:1820924
1893:Bibcode
1813:Bibcode
1745:Biology
1693:1140100
1608:1196223
1565:7460877
1556:1568653
1547:3429260
1423:5003248
1400:Bibcode
1150:2707302
1073:504–508
787:Conidia
642:monocot
596:Epigeal
574:radicle
513:species
458:radicle
442:brewing
425:dormant
376:spinach
211:plumule
207:radicle
175:plumule
171:radicle
84:from a
68:from a
3335:Plants
3238:(IAPT)
2991:Lianas
2959:Shrubs
2911:Starch
2803:Nectar
2723:Raceme
2689:Stigma
2677:Locule
2667:Carpel
2628:Pyrena
2566:Flower
2542:Anther
2537:Stamen
2532:Pollen
2254:groups
2146:Botany
2066:
2049:
2003:
1960:
1950:
1911:
1868:
1833:
1779:
1752:
1725:
1700:
1690:
1651:
1633:
1606:
1598:
1563:
1553:
1545:
1506:
1499:366081
1496:
1455:
1430:
1420:
1371:
1330:
1303:
1262:
1214:
1187:
1157:
1147:
1079:
870:mosses
854:plants
773:thalli
769:hyphae
713:(in a
695:flower
691:stigma
682:pollen
546:repair
517:sowing
504:, the
491:sowing
414:grains
412:barley
306:Oxygen
280:starch
237:oxygen
195:embryo
72:of an
3379:Seeds
3295:Lists
3212:Group
3135:Spore
3069:Flora
2986:Vines
2981:Trees
2944:Habit
2916:Sugar
2808:Stoma
2750:Sepal
2745:Petal
2740:Tepal
2728:Umbel
2713:Bract
2694:Style
2682:Ovule
2672:Ovary
2613:Berry
2603:Fruit
2596:Whorl
2463:Shoot
2261:Algae
2252:Plant
2027:(PDF)
1604:S2CID
1543:JSTOR
1260:S2CID
915:light
882:ferns
862:ferns
781:algae
777:fungi
730:sperm
726:ovule
617:Beans
578:shoot
533:onion
510:plant
483:seeds
286:, or
268:Water
245:light
233:water
183:fruit
133:sieve
122:plugs
104:of a
90:fungi
86:spore
64:of a
58:spore
3217:Grex
3099:Self
2633:Seed
2495:Stem
2473:Leaf
2448:Root
2443:Bulb
2427:Wood
2388:Cork
2286:Fern
2085:link
2064:OCLC
2047:PMID
2001:PMID
1958:PMID
1909:PMID
1866:PMID
1831:PMID
1777:ISBN
1750:ISBN
1723:ISBN
1698:PMID
1649:PMID
1596:PMID
1561:PMID
1504:PMID
1453:ISBN
1428:PMID
1369:PMID
1328:PMID
1301:PMID
1212:ISBN
1185:ISBN
1166:2022
1155:PMID
1077:ISBN
928:PIF1
924:PHYB
872:and
699:cone
672:and
648:and
611:and
500:and
446:malt
330:rice
322:soil
288:oils
187:cone
173:and
135:-lid
70:seed
2906:Sap
2623:Nut
2468:Bud
2039:doi
1993:doi
1948:PMC
1940:doi
1936:143
1901:doi
1889:123
1858:doi
1821:doi
1688:PMC
1680:doi
1641:doi
1627:108
1588:doi
1551:PMC
1535:doi
1494:PMC
1486:doi
1418:PMC
1408:doi
1396:113
1359:doi
1291:doi
1250:doi
1145:PMC
1137:doi
1133:103
1106:doi
922:B (
900:or
852:In
823:In
771:or
640:In
554:ATM
496:In
485:of
374:or
247:or
241:air
239:or
185:or
76:or
23:or
3370::
2081:}}
2077:{{
2070:.
2045:.
2035:63
2033:.
2029:.
1999:.
1991:.
1981:17
1979:.
1956:.
1946:.
1934:.
1930:.
1907:.
1899:.
1887:.
1864:.
1854:67
1852:.
1829:.
1819:.
1809:27
1807:.
1803:.
1791:^
1696:.
1686:.
1674:.
1670:.
1647:.
1639:.
1625:.
1602:.
1594:.
1584:56
1582:.
1559:.
1549:.
1541:.
1531:37
1529:.
1525:.
1502:.
1492:.
1482:49
1480:.
1476:.
1426:.
1416:.
1406:.
1394:.
1390:.
1367:.
1355:63
1353:.
1349:.
1324:47
1322:.
1299:.
1287:66
1285:.
1281:.
1258:.
1246:36
1244:.
1238:.
1226:^
1153:.
1143:.
1131:.
1127:.
1102:15
1100:.
1075:.
1031:^
860:,
779:,
523:.
448:.
282:,
263:.
235:,
231:,
108:.
2330:)
2326:(
2138:e
2131:t
2124:v
2087:)
2053:.
2041::
2007:.
1995::
1987::
1964:.
1942::
1915:.
1903::
1895::
1872:.
1860::
1837:.
1823::
1815::
1785:.
1758:.
1731:.
1704:.
1682::
1676:4
1655:.
1643::
1610:.
1590::
1567:.
1537::
1510:.
1488::
1461:.
1434:.
1410::
1402::
1375:.
1361::
1334:.
1307:.
1293::
1266:.
1252::
1220:.
1193:.
1168:.
1139::
1112:.
1108::
1085:.
27:.
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