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confused with joints because the lateral offset of the fracture faces is not visible in the outcrop or in a specimen. Because of the absence of diagnostic ornamentation or the lack of any discernible movement or offset, they can be indistinguishable from joints. Such fractures occur in planar parallel sets at an angle of 60 degrees and can be of the same size and scale as joints. As a result, some "conjugate joint sets" might actually be shear fractures. Shear fractures are distinguished from joints by the presence of
120:
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either laterally or vertically in response to this pressure. This also causes an increase in pore pressure in preexisting cracks that increases the tensile stress on them perpendicular to the minimum principal stress (the direction in which the rock is being stretched). If the tensile stress exceeds the magnitude of the least principal compressive stress the rock will fail in a brittle manner and these cracks propagate in a process called
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40:
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split a rock body into long, prisms or columns that are typically hexagonal, although 3-, 4-, 5- and 7-sided columns are relatively common. They form as a result of a cooling front that moves from some surface, either the exposed surface of a lava lake or flood basalt flow or the sides of a tabular igneous intrusion into either lava of the lake or lava flow or magma of a dike or sill.
20:
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exceeded as the result of the stretching of rock layers under conditions of elevated pore fluid pressure and directed tectonic stress. Tectonic joints often reflect local tectonic stresses associated with local folding and faulting. Tectonic joints occur as both nonsystematic and systematic joints, including orthogonal and conjugate joint sets.
408:
columns ranges from a few centimeters to several metres. They are often oriented perpendicular to either the upper surface and base of lava flows and the contact of the tabular igneous bodies with the surrounding rock. This type of jointing is typical of thick lava flows and shallow dikes and sills. Columnar jointing is also known as either
354:. Such joints can be classified according to their orientation in respect to the axial planes of the folds as they often commonly form in a predictable pattern with respect to the hinge trends of folded strata. Based upon their orientation to the axial planes and axes of folds, the types of systematic joints are:
555:
and regional distribution, physical character, and origin of joints is a significant part of understanding the geology and geomorphology of an area. Joints often impart a well-develop fracture-induced permeability to bedrock. As a result, joints strongly influence, even control, the natural circulation (
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Some fractures that look like joints are actually shear fractures, which in effect are microfaults. They do not form as the result of the perpendicular opening of a fracture due to tensile stress, but through the shearing of fractures that causes lateral movement of the faces. Shear fractures can be
318:
are planar, parallel, joints that can be traced for some distance, and occur at regularly, evenly spaced distances on the order of centimeters, meters, tens of meters, or even hundreds of meters. As a result, they occur as families of joints that form recognizable joint sets. Typically, exposures or
500:
are columnar joints that result from the cooling of either lava from the exposed surface of a lava lake or flood basalt flow or the sides of a tabular igneous, typically basaltic, intrusion. They exhibit a pattern of joints that join together at triple junctions either at or about 120° angles. They
452:
are formed when pore fluid pressure becomes elevated as a result of vertical gravitational loading. In simple terms, the accumulation of either sediments, volcanic, or other material causes an increase in the pore pressure of groundwater and other fluids in the underlying rock when they cannot move
428:
Joints can be classified according to their origin, under the labels of tectonics, hydraulics, exfoliation, unloading (release), and cooling. Different authors have proposed contradictory hypotheses for the same joint sets and types. And, joints in the same outcrop may form at different times under
191:
a difference that depends on the scale of observation. Faults differ from joints in that they exhibit visible or measurable lateral movement between the opposite surfaces of the fracture ("Mode 2" and "Mode 3" Fractures). Thus a joint may be created by either strict movement of a rock layer or body
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at depth, within bedrock. Thus, joints are important to the economic and safe development of petroleum, hydrothermal, and groundwater resources and the subject of intensive research relative to these resources. Regional and local joint systems exert a strong control on how ore-forming hydrothermal
554:
but also in developing natural resources, in the safe design of structures, and in environmental protection. Joints have a profound control on weathering and erosion of bedrock. As a result, they exert a strong control on how topography and morphology of landscapes develop. Understanding the local
407:
is a distinctive type of joints that join together at triple junctions either at or about 120° angles. These joints split a rock body into long, prisms or columns. Typically, such columns are hexagonal, although 3-, 4-, 5- and 7-sided columns are relatively common. The diameter of these prismatic
440:
are joints formed when the relative displacement of the joint walls is normal to its plane as the result of brittle deformation of bedrock in response to regional or local tectonic deformation of bedrock. Such joints form when directed tectonic stress causes the tensile strength of bedrock to be
488:
arise near the surface when bedded sedimentary rocks are brought closer to the surface during uplift and erosion; when they cool, they contract and become relaxed elastically. A stress builds up which eventually exceeds the tensile strength of the bedrock and results in jointing. In the case of
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consists of fan-shaped fractures varying from a few meters to tens of meters in size that lie sub-parallel to the topography. The vertical, gravitational load of the mass of a mountain-size bedrock mass drives longitudinal splitting and causes outward buckling toward the free air. In addition,
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environments. Often, the specific origin of the stresses that created certain joints and associated joint sets can be quite ambiguous, unclear, and sometimes controversial. The most prominent joints occur in the most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks, such as
267:
joint set. Continued deformation may lead to development of one or more additional joint sets. The presence of the first set strongly affects the stress orientation in the rock layer, often causing subsequent sets to form at a high angle, often 90°, to the first set.
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is exceeded, it breaks. When this happens the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum principal stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress (the direction in which the rock is being stretched). This leads to the development of a single
322:
Based upon the angle at which joint sets of systematic joints intersect to form a joint system, systematic joints can be subdivided into conjugate and orthogonal joint sets. The angles at which joint sets within a joint system commonly intersect are called
319:
outcrops within a given area or region of study contains two or more sets of systematic joints, each with its own distinctive properties such as orientation and spacing, that intersect to form well-defined joint systems.
602:) circulated within its crust. As a result, understanding their genesis, structure, chronology, and distribution is an important part of finding and profitably developing ore deposits. Finally, joints often form
167:
that lacks visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture ("Mode 1" Fracture). Although joints can occur singly, they most frequently appear as joint sets and systems. A
195:
Joints are among the most universal geologic structures, found in almost every exposure of rock. They vary greatly in appearance, dimensions, and arrangement, and occur in quite different
457:. Hydraulic joints occur as both nonsystematic and systematic joints, including orthogonal and conjugate joint sets. In some cases, joint sets can be a tectonic - hydraulic hybrid.
489:
unloading joints, compressive stress is released either along preexisting structural elements (such as cleavage) or perpendicular to the former direction of tectonic compression.
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perpendicular to the fracture or by varying degrees of lateral displacement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture that remains "invisible" at the scale of observation.
538:, the products of shearing movement parallel to the fracture surface. The slickensides are fine-scale, delicate ridge-in-groove lineations on the surface of fracture surfaces.
473:
paleostress sealed in the granite before the granite was exhumed by erosion and released by exhumation and canyon cutting is also a driving force for the actual spalling.
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is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of their orientations, spacing, and physical properties. A
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23:
Horizontal joints in the sedimentary rocks of the foreground and a more varied set of joints in the granitic rocks in the background. Image from the
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are joints that are so irregular in form, spacing, and orientation that they cannot be readily grouped into distinctive, through-going joint sets.
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are sets of flat-lying, curved, and large joints that are restricted to massively exposed rock faces in a deeply eroded landscape.
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that may have a large influence on the mechanical behavior (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in, for example,
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Origin of
Enigmatic Structures: Field and Geochemical Investigation of Columnar Joints in Sandstones, Island of Bute, Scotland.
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or observed in rock exposures. In terms of geometry, three major types of joints, nonsystematic joints, systematic joints, and
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Within regions that have experienced tectonic deformation, systematic joints are typically associated with either layered or
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and plumose structures are used to determine propagation directions and, in some cases, the principal stress orientations.
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Philosophical
Transactions of The Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences. 371(20120353). 18 pp.
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by structural geologists. When the dihedral angles are nearly 90° within a joint system, the joint sets are known as
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255:, or shrinkage caused by the cooling or desiccation of a rock body or layer whose outside boundaries remained fixed.
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Guerriero V, et al. (2012). "A permeability model for naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs".
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Roadside weathered diorite outcrop along the Baguio-Bua-Itogon Road in the
Philippines showing joints.
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Centre for Ore
Deposit and Exploration Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania. 196 pp.
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375:– Joints which typically occur as conjugate joint sets that trend oblique to the fold axes.
331:. When the dihedral angles are from 30 to 60° within a joint system, the joint sets are known as
251:. This stress may be imposed from outside; for example, by the stretching of layers, the rise of
216:. Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials. Joints infilled by precipitated
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Recent tectonic joint intersects older exfoliation joints in granite gneiss, Lizard Rock,
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Tensile
Fracturing in Rocks: Tectonofractographic and Electromagnetic Radiation Methods.
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Earth structure : an introduction to structural geology and tectonics, 2nd ed.
420:. Rare cases of columnar jointing have also been reported from sedimentary strata.
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The geometry of joints refers to the orientation of joints as either plotted on
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Volcanic
Textures: A guide to the interpretation of textures in volcanic rocks.
381:– Joints which trend parallel to the strike of the axial plane of a fold.
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Fracture surface markings in
Liassic limestone at Lavernock Point, South Wales
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Evolving fracture patterns: columnar joints, mud cracks and polygonal terrain.
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Joints are classified by their geometry or by the processes that formed them.
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Australian
Landforms: Understanding a Low, Flat, Arid and Old Landscape.
830:(5th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia, American Geological Institute. 779 pp.
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Joints are important not only in understanding the local and regional
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When tensional stresses stretch a body or layer of rock such that its
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Geological
Society, London, Special Publications; v. 92; p. 175-186]
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W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, New York. 672 pp. 10110
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369:– Joints which are approximately perpendicular to fold axes.
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Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl Jr., and J.A. Jackson, eds. (2005)
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Rosenberg
Publishing Pty. Ltd. Revised edition, 2005. P. 140.
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Plumose structure on a fracture surface in sandstone, Arizona
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construction. As a result, joints are an important part of
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Joint propagation can be studied through the techniques of
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19:
387:– Joints which cut across the axial plane of a fold.
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728:: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New york, New York. 864 pp.
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fractured along existing joints possibly by mechanical
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Journal of Geophysical Research. B113:B10203, 18 pp.
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866:Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions (2nd ed.).
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726:Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions (3rd ed.)
176:consists of two or more intersecting joint sets.
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724:Davis, G.H., S.J. Reynolds, and C. Kluth (2012)
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952:Bahat, D., A. Rabinovitch, and V. Frid (2005)
675:Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany. 221 pp.
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786:van der Pluijm, B.A. , and S. Marshak (2004)
1047:, Stanford University, Stanford, California.
1032:, Stanford University, Stanford, California.
1017:, Stanford University, Stanford, California.
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868:New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 776 p.
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749:Encyclopedia of Geomorphology volume 2 J–Z.
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806:McPhie, J., M. Doyle, and R. Allen (1993)
598:, and NaCl — which formed most of Earth's
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139:beds shows increase with bed thickness,
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135:Joint spacing in mechanically stronger
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864:Davis, G.H., and S.J. Reynolds (1996)
751:Routledge New York, New York. 578 pp.
521:in which characteristic marks such as
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909:Scaling of columnar joints in basalt.
907:Goehring, L., and S.W. Morris (2008)
673:Rock Joints: The Mechanical Genesis.
1316:List of tectonic plate interactions
850:Journal of Geology. 116(5):527-536.
179:The distinction between joints and
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956:Springer-Verlag Berlin. 569 pp.
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224:and joints filled by solidified
1037:Patterns of Multiple Joint Sets
1035:Aydin, A., and J. Zhong (ndb)
1020:Aydin, A., and J. Zhong (ndb)
1005:Aydin, A., and J. Zhong (nda)
989:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.11.002
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584:fluids (consisting largely of
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68:City of Rocks National Reserve
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108:Columnar jointing in basalt,
976:Marine and Petroleum Geology
887:, and E.M. Campbell (2005)
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1045:Rock Fracture Knowledgebase
1030:Rock Fracture Knowledgebase
1015:Rock Fracture Knowledgebase
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97:Columnar jointed basalt in
66:Joints in the Almo Pluton,
43:Orthogonal joint sets on a
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247:of a rock or layer due to
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1007:Non-orthogonal Joint Sets
1406:Thin-skinned deformation
1182:Stereographic projection
620:geotechnical engineering
581:hydrothermal circulation
271:
16:Type of fracture in rock
1172:Orthographic projection
1155:Measurement conventions
1101:Lamé's stress ellipsoid
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429:varied circumstances.
342:strata that have been
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1683:Paleostress inversion
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1246:Extensional tectonics
1226:Continental collision
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933:Roberts, J.C. (1995)
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329:orthogonal joint sets
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1261:Fold and thrust belt
920:Goehring, L. (2013)
747:Goudie, A.S. (2004)
642:Tessellated pavement
632:Basalt fan structure
470:Exfoliation jointing
455:hydraulic fracturing
333:conjugate joint sets
305:Nonsystematic joints
183:hinges on the terms
1760:Geology terminology
1693:Section restoration
1569:Rock microstructure
1231:Convergent boundary
1131:Strain partitioning
1116:Overburden pressure
1106:Mohr–Coulomb theory
1041:Multiple Joint Sets
1026:Multiple Joint Sets
1011:Multiple Joint Sets
846:Young, G.M. (2008)
828:Glossary of Geology
637:Exfoliating granite
385:Cross-strike joints
361:Longitudinal joints
253:pore fluid pressure
1770:Structural geology
1670:Kinematic analysis
1326:Mountain formation
1241:Divergent boundary
1206:Accretionary wedge
1082:Structural geology
559:) of fluids, e.g.
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466:Exfoliation joints
418:prismatic jointing
410:columnar structure
240:Joints arise from
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1429:Columnar jointing
1089:Underlying theory
681:978-3-540-24553-7
671:Mandl, G. (2005)
405:Columnar jointing
400:Columnar jointing
316:Systematic joints
294:columnar jointing
29:Balkhash District
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1512:Transfer zone
1510:
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1111:Mohr's circle
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894:
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881:
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861:
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837:
836:0-922152-76-4
833:
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816:9780859015226
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552:geomorphology
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379:Strike joints
377:
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368:
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349:
345:
341:
336:
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326:
320:
317:
308:
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300:Nonsystematic
297:
295:
291:
290:rose-diagrams
287:
277:
269:
266:
261:
256:
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243:
233:
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207:
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143:Bay, Somerset
142:
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126:
121:
115:
111:
106:
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95:
89:
85:
80:
73:
69:
64:
58:
54:
50:
46:
41:
34:
30:
26:
21:
1507:Thrust fault
1448:
1196:Large-scale
1167:Inclinometer
1141:Stress field
980:
974:
968:
953:
935:
929:
921:
916:
908:
903:
888:
880:
865:
847:
842:
827:
822:
807:
802:
787:
748:
725:
672:
600:ore deposits
557:hydrogeology
545:
536:slickensides
532:
519:fractography
516:
505:Fractography
497:
496:
485:
481:
480:
465:
464:
449:
448:
437:
436:
427:
424:By formation
417:
413:
409:
404:
403:
384:
378:
372:
367:Cross-joints
366:
360:
337:
332:
328:
324:
321:
315:
314:
304:
303:
283:
275:
265:sub-parallel
257:
239:
194:
188:
184:
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174:joint system
173:
169:
159:is a break (
156:
154:
110:Marte Vallis
1688:Paleostress
1574:Slickenside
1549:Crenulation
1502:Fault trace
1497:Fault scarp
1487:Disturbance
1472:Cataclasite
1361:Rift valley
1281:Half-graben
1251:Fault block
1236:DĂ©collement
983:: 115–134.
561:groundwater
461:Exfoliation
280:By geometry
228:are called
220:are called
189:measurable,
125:Parra Wirra
1754:Categories
1716:Pure shear
1703:Shear zone
1660:Competence
1544:Compaction
1421:Fracturing
1216:Autochthon
1211:Allochthon
648:References
612:foundation
577:reservoirs
565:pollutants
542:Importance
348:anticlines
311:Systematic
286:stereonets
82:A rock in
49:flagstones
33:Kazakhstan
1765:Petrology
1652:Boudinage
1632:Monocline
1627:Homocline
1607:Anticline
1589:Tectonite
1579:Stylolite
1554:Fissility
1531:lineation
1527:Foliation
1391:Syneclise
1336:Obduction
1306:Inversion
1198:tectonics
573:petroleum
477:Unloading
445:Hydraulic
352:synclines
236:Formation
210:quartzite
206:limestone
202:sandstone
170:joint set
137:limestone
53:Caithness
47:plane in
1739:Category
1711:Mylonite
1642:Vergence
1637:Syncline
1539:Cleavage
1464:Faulting
626:See also
569:aquifers
433:Tectonic
394:Columnar
245:fracture
218:minerals
197:tectonic
161:fracture
141:Lilstock
57:Scotland
1612:Chevron
1599:Folding
1444:Fissure
1396:Terrane
1341:Orogeny
1321:MĂ©lange
1256:Fenster
1146:Tension
567:within
548:geology
523:hackles
493:Cooling
242:brittle
214:granite
185:visible
45:bedding
1386:Suture
1371:Saddle
1311:Klippe
1276:Graben
1136:Stress
1126:Strain
960:
895:
872:
834:
814:
794:
755:
732:
679:
608:tunnel
579:, and
344:folded
340:bedded
212:, and
181:faults
99:Turkey
84:Abisko
1721:Shear
1449:Joint
1331:Nappe
1291:Horst
1286:Horse
616:slope
614:, or
416:, or
346:into
272:Types
230:dikes
226:magma
222:veins
157:joint
72:Idaho
1622:Dome
1529:and
1454:Vein
1434:Dike
1366:Rift
1177:Rake
958:ISBN
893:ISBN
870:ISBN
832:ISBN
812:ISBN
792:ISBN
753:ISBN
730:ISBN
677:ISBN
594:, CO
563:and
550:and
350:and
288:and
165:rock
114:Mars
1013:,
985:doi
575:in
484:or
187:or
27:in
1756::
1043:,
1039:,
1028:,
1024:,
1009:,
981:40
979:.
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855:^
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740:^
687:^
656:^
610:,
571:,
412:,
335:.
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35:.
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