571:
3076:
3192:
995:
2835:
1145:
560:
3416:
124:
148:
582:
11042:
8479:
11764:
836:
9246:
8503:
10202:
8491:
2947:
3564:
3032:
The bone tools were not manufactured or purposefully shaped for a task. However, since the bones display no weathering (and were not scavenged randomly), and there is a preference displayed for certain bones, raw materials were likely specifically hand-picked. This could indicate a similar cognitive
978:
as the former was only known from fragmentary remains at the time, and dental differences were too minute to serve as justification. In face of calls for subsumation, Leakey and
Robinson continued defending its validity. Various other authors were still unsure until more complete remains were found.
2961:
Oldowan toolkits were uncovered at an excavation site on the Homa
Peninsula in western Kenya. Stone tools called "oldowan toolkits" are used to pound and shape other rocks or plant materials. These tools are thought to be between 2.6 and 3 million years old. The stone tools were found near
2698:
individuals are estimated to have weighed 28 kg (62 lb), 22% about 43 kg (95 lb), and the remaining 43% bigger than the former but less than 54 kg (119 lb). At Member 3, all individuals were about 45 kg (99 lb). Female weight was about the same in
3160:
society due to heightened male–male competition. Males did not seem to have ventured very far from the valley, which could either indicate small home ranges, or that they preferred dolomitic landscapes due to perhaps cave abundance or factors related to vegetation growth.
3111:, where one male has exclusive breeding rights to a group of females, as male-female size disparity is comparable to gorillas (based on facial dimensions), and younger males were less robust than older males (delayed maturity is also exhibited in gorillas).
519:, but there are no modern analogues for australopithecine societies. They are associated with bone tools and contested as the earliest evidence of fire usage. They typically inhabited woodlands, and coexisted with some early human species, namely
3177:
would have been accelerated. Their life history may have mirrored that of gorillas as they have the same brain volume, which (depending on the subspecies) reach physical maturity from 12–18 years and have birthing intervals of 40–70 months.
6703:
4008:(1968). "Sur la decouverte dans le Pleistocene inferieur de la valle de l'Omo (Ethiopie) d'une mandibule d'Australopithecien" [On the discovery in the Lower Pleistocene Omo Valley (Ethiopia) of an Australopithecine Mandible].
2813:; or super-eruption of teeth which occurs when teeth become worn down and have to erupt a bit more in order to maintain a proper bite, and this exposed the root. The latter is most likely, and the exposed root seems to have caused
2664:. The physical similarity implies a similar walking gait. Their modern-humanlike big toe indicates a modern-humanlike foot posture and range of motion, but the more distal ankle joint would have inhibited the modern human toe-off
2859:, thick enamel was more likely used to resist abrasive gritty particles rather than to minimize chipping while eating hard foods. In fact, there is a distinct lack of tooth fractures which would have resulted from such activity.
2769:
and 14% of adult teeth were affected, in comparison to about 6.7% and 4.3%, respectively, in any other tested hominin species. The condition of these holes covering the entire tooth is consistent with the modern human ailment
6314:
Sponheimer, M.; Lee-Thorp, J.; De Ruiter, D.; Codron, D.; Codron, J.; Baugh, A. T.; Thackeray, F. (2005). "Hominins, sedges, and termites: new carbon isotope data from the
Sterkfontein valley and Kruger National Park".
3088:
Given the marked anatomical and physical differences with modern great apes, there may be no modern analogue for australopithecine societies, so comparisons drawn with modern primates will not be entirely accurate.
2887:
forest plants, which could indicate either seasonal shifts in diet or seasonal migration from forest to savanna. In leaner times it may have fallen back on brittle food. It likely also consumed seeds and possibly
2907:, on the other hand, seems to have been largely herbivorous and fed on C4 plants. Its powerful jaws allowed it to consume a wide variety of different plants, though it may have largely preferred nutrient-rich
3251:
Valley—may have served as important refuges for forest-dwelling creatures. Being cut off from the forests of
Central Africa by a savanna corridor, these East African forests would have promoted high rates of
7464:"Meet Your Exotic, Extinct Close Relative: For a million years our likely ancestors in eastern Africa lived alongside creatures so peculiar that scientists today still struggle to make sense of them"
5822:
Macchiarelli R, Bondioli L, Galichon V, Tobias PV (February 1999). "Hip bone trabecular architecture shows uniquely distinctive locomotor behaviour in South
African australopithecines".
946:, it may not have been closely related because it lacked enlarged molars which characterize the genus. Nonetheless, in 2018, independent researcher Johan Nygren recommended moving it to
3247:
implies they could tolerate a range of habitats. During the
Pleistocene, there seem to have been coastal and montane forests in Eastern Africa. More expansive river valleys—namely the
7337:
Njau, J. K.; Blumenschine, R. J. (2012). "Crocodylian and mammalian carnivore feeding traces on hominid fossils from FLK 22 and FLK NN 3, Plio-Pleistocene, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania".
3353:
appear to have had a higher mortality rate than females. It is possible that males were more likely to be kicked out of a group, and these lone males had a higher risk of predation.
3369:, leading to their extinction, but this has been called into question. However, smaller brain size may have been a factor in their extinction along with gracile australopithecines.
3021:, the youngest dating to 1.34 mya, though a great proportion of other bone tools from here have ambiguous attribution. Stone tools from Kromdraai could possibly be attributed to
3118:
preferred a savanna habitat, a multi-male society would have been more productive to better defend the troop from predators in the more exposed environment, much like savanna
3059:
Burnt bones were also associated with the inhabitants of
Swartkrans, which could indicate some of the earliest fire usage. However, these bones were found in Member 3, where
786:. However, this genus was rejected at Mr. Leakey's presentation before the 4th Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, as it was based on a single specimen. The discovery of the
3292:
492:. Despite their robust heads, they had comparatively small bodies. Average weight and height are estimated to be 40 kg (88 lb) at 132 cm (4 ft) for
7285:"Macromammalian faunas, biochronology and palaeoecology of the early Pleistocene Main Quarry hominin-bearing deposits of the Drimolen Palaeocave System, South Africa"
4245:
3342:
2938:
coatings, or both. It is also possible juveniles were less capable of removing grit from dug-up food rather than purposefully seeking out more abrasive foods.
2734:
137 and 124 cm (4 ft 6 in and 4 ft 1 in). However, the latter estimates are problematic as there were no positively identified male
10548:
10490:
10428:
2715:
sites are oddly dominated by small adults, which could be explained as heightened predation or mortality of the larger males of a group. The largest-known
963:
570:
2553:
was once thought to have been an adaptation to resist a high bite force, but is better explained as a byproduct of facial lengthening and nasal anatomy.
2855:
likely preferred soft foods, but would consume tough or hard food during leaner times, and the powerful jaws were used only in the latter situation. In
11268:
10962:
10455:
10421:
10357:
9846:
9584:
9461:
9409:
6852:
Gowlett, J. A. J.; Wrangham, R. W. (2013). "Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis".
8348:
10979:
10587:
9529:
9173:
9063:
8931:
8797:
8661:
4801:
Kullmer, O.; Sandrock, O.; Schrenk, F.; Bromage, T. G. (1999). "The Malawi Rift: Biogeography, Ecology and
Coexistence of Homo and Paranthropus".
11867:
10637:
10483:
10469:
10300:
9475:
9439:
9319:
9054:
8924:
8875:
8755:
8376:
3244:
10844:
10572:
9802:
9631:
9200:
9183:
8959:
8811:
8804:
8783:
8684:
10749:
10364:
9556:
9070:
8910:
8889:
8769:
8762:
8726:
8719:
8712:
8691:
8677:
6890:
Copeland, S. R.; Sponheimmer, M.; de Ruiter, D. J.; Lee-Thorp, J. (2011). "Strontium isotope evidence for landscape use by early hominins".
10476:
9856:
9748:
9641:
9468:
8938:
8917:
8903:
8846:
8839:
8748:
3373:
may have died out due to an arid trend starting 1.45 mya, causing the retreat of woodlands, and more competition with savanna baboons and
10462:
9621:
9029:
9015:
8966:
8882:
8865:
8818:
8776:
8705:
8670:
8224:
3067:, and it is also possible the bones were burned in a wildfire and washed into the cave as it is known the bones were not burned onsite.
9036:
9001:
8945:
8853:
8832:
8790:
8650:
5344:
5323:
4706:"The first bone tools from Kromdraai and stone tools from Drimolen, and the place of bone tools in the South African Earlier Stone Age"
2318:
7514:
4828:
Bobe, R.; Behrensmeyer, A. K.; Chapman, R. E. (2002). "Faunal change, environmental variability and late
Pliocene hominin evolution".
3392:, Ethiopia about 1.4 mya; however, there are no East African sites dated between 1.4 and 1 mya, so it may have persisted until 1 mya.
9395:
9309:
9077:
9043:
9008:
8980:
8952:
7612:
7572:
6419:
Sponheimer, M.; Passey, B. H.; de Ruiter, D. J.; et al. (2006). "Isotopic
Evidence for Dietary Variability in the Early Hominin
2188:
5484:
Allen, J. S.; Damasio, H.; Grabowski, T. J. (2002). "Normal neuroanatomical variation in the human brain: an MRI-volumetric study".
11854:
9454:
9022:
8973:
8464:
8308:
7622:
6253:
3169:
Dental development seems to have followed about the same timeframe as it does in modern humans and most other hominins, but, since
2208:
1577:
7116:
2591:. Modern human brain volume averages 1,270 cm (78 cu in) for men and 1,130 cm (69 cu in) for women.
2694:
50 kg (110 lb) for males and 34 kg (75 lb) for females. At Swartkrans Cave Members 1 and 2, about 35% of the
2587:
The braincase volume averaged about 500 cm (31 cu in), comparable to gracile australopithecines, but smaller than
1125:, which caused the retreat of woodland environments in favor of open savanna, with forests growing only along rivers and lakes.
11943:
11938:
8366:
7617:
2168:
916:
comprised only the mandible. Ferguson's classification is almost universally ignored, and is considered to be synonymous with
8371:
8249:
7627:
7452:
4225:
4191:
3855:
3691:
2730:
are estimated to have stood on average 132 and 110 cm (4 ft 4 in and 3 ft 7 in), respectively, and
8541:
11933:
11913:
8328:
5209:
Wood, B.; Schroer, K. (2012). "Reconstructing the Diet of an Extinct Hominin Taxon: The Role of Extant Primate Models".
2805:. In order for cavity-creating bacteria to reach this area, the individual would have had to have also presented either
2564:
was adapted to grinding food side-to-side (rather than up-and-down in modern humans), which is better at processing the
8437:
7544:
5600:"Humeral anatomy of the KNM-ER 47000 upper limb skeleton from Ileret, Kenya: Implications for taxonomic identification"
2817:
to anchor the tooth in place. The cavity seems to have been healing, which may have been caused by a change in diet or
912:, because he considered the skull's species designation questionable as it comprised the skull whereas the holotype of
8303:
3056:
and modern humans, which could indicate less food processing done by the teeth due to preparation with simple tools.
2915:
may have been able to meet its daily caloric requirements of approximately 9,700 kJ after about 6 hours of foraging.
7463:
6191:"Abrasive, Silica Phytoliths and the Evolution of Thick Molar Enamel in Primates, with Implications for the Diet of
2778:, and have the same severity across individuals, the PEH may have been a genetic condition. It is possible that the
11928:
8495:
3017:
and horn cores have also been found. Bone tools have also been found at Oldawan Gorge and directly associated with
2148:
1033:), as chewing adaptations in hominins evolve very rapidly and multiple times at various points in the family tree (
1017:—is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants—and the argument against monophyly (that the genus is
3318:, and another's leg shows evidence of leopard predation. Other likely Olduvan predators of great apes include the
3075:
825:
also has a notably wide range of variation in skull anatomy, but these features likely have no taxonomic bearing.
8447:
8343:
5283:
Dzialo, C.; Wood, S. A.; Berthaume, M.; et al. (2013). "Functional implications of squamosal suture size in
3239:, known from the Great Rift Valley, may have typically inhabited wetlands along lakes and rivers, wooded or arid
2930:
exposure on juvenile teeth could indicate early weaning, or a more abrasive diet than adults which wore away the
2358:
6008:
8442:
7743:
5026:
4993:
4552:
6821:"What's new is old: comments on (more) archaeological evidence of one-million-year-old fire from South Africa"
2911:
as these are known to thrive in the well-watered woodlands it is thought to have inhabited. Feeding on these,
2851:
cracked open nuts with its powerful teeth, giving OH 5 the nickname "Nutcracker Man". However, like gorillas,
2742:
partial skeleton was estimated to be at least 156 cm (5 ft 1 in) and 50 kg (110 lb).
782:", an ancient Arabic word for the coast of East Africa, and "boisei", referring to their financial benefactor
11923:
7565:
4633:
8313:
8190:
8076:
7536:
6073:
4883:
4303:
4072:
2926:
compared to adults in teeth from Swartkrans Cave, which, in the area, was most likely sourced from tubers.
1798:
1570:
880:
679:, South Africa. By 1988, at least six individuals were unearthed in around the same area, now known as the
4079:; Harris, J. M.; Brown, F. H. (1986). "2.5-Myr Australopithecus boisei from west of Lake Turkana, Kenya".
9954:
8507:
8411:
8229:
7750:
7604:
1547:
147:
5968:"Stretching the time span of hominin evolution at Kromdraai (Gauteng, South Africa): Recent discoveries"
11918:
8269:
8200:
7736:
7729:
7722:
2573:
2251:
1985:
1977:
1969:
1365:
521:
468:
teeth used for grinding. However, they likely preferred soft food over tough and hard food. Typically,
2806:
8452:
8244:
5865:
Susman, R. L.; Brain, T. M. (1988). "New first metatarsal (SKX 5017) from Swartkrans and the gait of
3314:
2865:
were generalist feeders, but diet seems to have ranged dramatically with location. The South African
2754:
2089:
11041:
8234:
7214:"Hominin palaeoecology in late Pliocene Malawi: first insights from isotopes (C, O) in mammal teeth"
6773:
Brain, C. K.; Sillent, A. (1988). "Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for the earliest use of fire".
6337:
4483:
2965:
Bone tools dating between 2.3 and 0.6 mya have been found in abundance in Swartkrans, Kromdraai and
901:, the main argument for separation being the skull seems less adapted for chewing tough vegetation.
8534:
8483:
7786:
7558:
3340:. The carnivore assemblage at the Cradle of Humankind comprises the two sabertooths, and the hyena
994:
7033:
Dean, M. C. (1985). "The eruption pattern of the permanent incisors and first permanent molars in
6373:
Lee-Thorp, J.; Thackeray, J. F.; der Merwe, N. V. (2000). "The hunters and the hunted revisited".
2834:
2580:
as it perhaps did not require them with this kind of chewing strategy. This may have also allowed
1144:
11763:
10799:
10617:
10024:
8421:
8358:
8318:
8205:
7764:
7540:
7518:
7117:"Variation in the social organization of gorillas: Life history and socioecological perspectives"
4241:
3191:
2771:
2690:
may have been 40 kg (88 lb) for males and 32 kg (71 lb) for females; and for
2561:
2059:
1563:
1080:
evolved even earlier, up to 3.3 mya, on the expansive Kenyan floodplains of the time. The oldest
929:
711:
2274:
537:. They were preyed upon by the large carnivores of the time, specifically crocodiles, leopards,
11885:
11822:
11784:
10078:
9782:
9163:
8416:
8391:
8386:
8279:
8195:
7757:
6332:
5907:
Susman, R. L.; de Ruiter, D.; Brain, C. K. (2001). "Recently identified postcranial remains of
3956:
3714:(1964). "Recent discoveries of fossil hominidsin Tanganyika, at Olduvai and near Lake Natron".
2998:
2520:
2018:
11872:
4215:
4181:
11908:
11880:
10864:
7800:
6704:"Stone Tools Used By Hippo-Eating Human Ancestors Are Millions Of Years Old, Researchers Say"
4758:
Herries, A. I. R.; Curnoe, D.; Adams, J. W. (2009). "A multi-disciplinary seriation of early
3221:
are all known from various overlapping beds in East Africa, such as at Olduvai Gorge and the
3099:, with males notably larger than females, which is commonly correlated with a male-dominated
1790:
1323:
672:
643:
410:
331:
297:
2774:. However, since circular holes in enamel coverage are uniform in size, only present on the
2545:
had adaptations to the skull to resist large bite loads while feeding, namely the expansive
11841:
10098:
8381:
8284:
8185:
8146:
8091:
7996:
7700:
7693:
7522:
7393:
7382:"A New Horned Crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania"
7346:
7254:
7178:
6991:
6782:
6739:
6657:
6591:
6432:
6382:
6324:
6206:
6143:
6027:
5979:
5924:
5831:
5778:
5672:
5611:
5547:
5388:
5257:
5138:
4954:
4898:
4837:
4775:
4717:
4610:
4503:
4449:
4430:
4388:
4340:
4260:
4088:
3774:
3723:
3648:
3500:
3156:). This also discounts the plausibility of a harem society, which would have resulted in a
2627:
2608:
2427:
2228:
2075:
1944:
1929:
1061:
1030:
864:
783:
691:
438:. They lived between approximately 2.9 and 1.2 million years ago (mya) from the end of the
9245:
3528:
3126:
which has a multi-male society, and may not be an accurate indicator of social structure.
821:
filling in cracks naturally formed after death, inflating the perceived size of the bone.
8:
11541:
10922:
10201:
10119:
10064:
8527:
7793:
3421:
680:
559:
7397:
7350:
7258:
7182:
6995:
6786:
6743:
6661:
6595:
6436:
6386:
6328:
6210:
6147:
6031:
5983:
5928:
5835:
5782:
5725:
5676:
5615:
5551:
5392:
5261:
5142:
4958:
4902:
4841:
4779:
4721:
4614:
4507:
4453:
4392:
4344:
4264:
4148:
4092:
3778:
3727:
3652:
3504:
11184:
10374:
10314:
9994:
9910:
9156:
8338:
8180:
8056:
7483:
7416:
7381:
7311:
7284:
7147:
7097:
7015:
6915:
6869:
6798:
6680:
6641:
6614:
6575:
6456:
6296:
6229:
6190:
6166:
6127:
6108:
6051:
5948:
5804:
5734:
5709:
5637:
5570:
5531:
5509:
5461:
5436:
5409:
5368:
5226:
5098:
5065:
4914:
4861:
4810:
4735:
4487:
4465:
4412:
4358:
4330:
4284:
4157:
4132:
4104:
4054:
3879:
3790:
3747:
3664:
3611:
3401:
3365:
had become a specialist feeder, and were inferior to the more adaptable tool-producing
3108:
2884:
2880:
2686:
In comparison to the large, robust head, the body was rather small. Average weight for
2665:
2338:
860:
690:
Cave, in about the same vicinity as Kromdraai, Broom and South African palaeontologist
443:
425:
349:
142:
6976:
5758:
4526:
4491:
4379:; Patterson, B. D. (1951). "Evolutionary Importance of the South African 'Man-apes'".
2405:
10763:
10739:
10412:
9724:
8502:
8457:
8323:
8264:
8254:
8025:
7989:
7843:
7637:
7487:
7448:
7421:
7362:
7316:
7194:
7139:
7054:
7007:
6919:
6907:
6873:
6820:
6755:
6685:
6619:
6551:
6546:
6519:
6448:
6398:
6350:
6288:
6280:
6234:
6171:
6112:
6100:
6043:
5940:
5886:
5847:
5796:
5739:
5690:
5629:
5599:
5575:
5501:
5466:
5414:
5349:
5304:
5150:
5103:
5046:
4970:
4918:
4853:
4739:
4677:
4638:
4576:
4531:
4404:
4376:
4276:
4221:
4187:
4162:
4037:(Primates: Hominidae) from Plio/Pleistocene Deposits West of Lake Turkana in Kenya".
4001:
3983:
3933:
3829:
3739:
3687:
3603:
3130:
3096:
2818:
2572:
may have chewed in a front-to-back direction instead, and had less exaggerated (less
2504:
1157:
1122:
959:
848:
814:
795:
363:
259:
7151:
7101:
7019:
6460:
6300:
6055:
5952:
5808:
5641:
5513:
5230:
4865:
4362:
4353:
4058:
3883:
3794:
2511:
exhibited sexual dimorphism, with males notably larger than females. They had large
11671:
11315:
11208:
10891:
10674:
10610:
10580:
10517:
9604:
9520:
9365:
8333:
8086:
7903:
7865:
7712:
7475:
7411:
7401:
7354:
7306:
7296:
7266:
7262:
7225:
7186:
7131:
7089:
7046:
6999:
6955:
6899:
6861:
6832:
6802:
6790:
6747:
6675:
6665:
6609:
6599:
6541:
6531:
6491:
6440:
6390:
6342:
6272:
6224:
6214:
6161:
6151:
6092:
6035:
5987:
5932:
5878:
5839:
5786:
5729:
5721:
5680:
5619:
5565:
5555:
5493:
5456:
5448:
5404:
5396:
5339:
5296:
5265:
5218:
5186:
5146:
5093:
5085:
5038:
5005:
4962:
4906:
4845:
4783:
4725:
4669:
4628:
4618:
4597:
Joordens, J. C. A.; Feibel, C. S.; Vonhof, H. B.; Schulp, A. S.; Kroon, D. (2019).
4568:
4521:
4511:
4469:
4457:
4416:
4396:
4348:
4288:
4268:
4152:
4144:
4108:
4096:
4046:
3975:
3952:
3923:
3907:
3871:
3821:
3782:
3751:
3731:
3668:
3656:
3615:
3593:
3508:
3431:
3326:
3283:
2546:
2010:
1959:
1117:
538:
430:
7169:
maxilla and other newly-discovered hominid fossils from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania".
7072:
Kelley, J.; Schwartz, G. T. (2012). "Life-History Inference in the Early Hominins
6960:
6939:
3808:
Silverman, N.; Richmond, B.; Wood, B. (2001). "Testing the taxonomic integrity of
3243:, and semiarid woodlands, though their presence in the savanna-dominated Malawian
11594:
11563:
11555:
11439:
11339:
11194:
11164:
10781:
10627:
10564:
10394:
10344:
10330:
10323:
10277:
10071:
9866:
9536:
9489:
9423:
8738:
8140:
8113:
8011:
7969:
7581:
7406:
7358:
7190:
6865:
6837:
6670:
6346:
6219:
6156:
6039:
5966:
Braga, J.; Thackeray, J. F.; Bruxelles, L.; Dumoncel, J.; Fourvel, J.-P. (2017).
5791:
5685:
5656:
5624:
5560:
4966:
4787:
4730:
4705:
4623:
4598:
4555:; Brown, C. C.; McHenry, L. J. (2007). "Fossil hominin ulnae and the forelimb of
4030:
3384:
appear to have outlasted their East African counterparts. The youngest record of
3138:
2814:
2043:
1812:
1768:
1394:
1060:
is the earliest member of the genus, with the oldest remains, from the Ethiopian
905:
787:
632:
7230:
7213:
4599:"Relevance of the eastern African coastal forest for early hominin biogeography"
11720:
11681:
11612:
11469:
11459:
11429:
11406:
11396:
11386:
11298:
11247:
11232:
11217:
11154:
11133:
11123:
10790:
10770:
10385:
10112:
10089:
9547:
7960:
7664:
7650:
7589:
6584:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5992:
5967:
4207:
4076:
3459:
3445:
3174:
2623:
2500:
1864:
1851:
1781:
1755:
1282:
1193:
1029:
evolved similar gorilla-like heads independently of each other by coincidence (
971:
893:
884:
813:
It is debated whether the wide range of variation in jaw size indicates simply
461:
323:
7093:
5369:"On the relationship between maxillary molar root shape and jaw kinematics in
5222:
3786:
3684:
Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest for Humankind's Beginnings
1045:, the first discovered ulna of the species, which was markedly different from
504:
females, and 34 kg (75 lb) at 124 cm (4 ft 1 in) for
123:
11902:
11807:
11699:
11534:
11525:
11254:
11224:
11174:
11144:
10986:
10952:
10884:
10806:
10756:
10715:
10694:
10293:
10253:
9974:
9937:
9893:
9886:
9836:
9812:
9432:
9355:
9122:
8128:
7981:
7671:
6284:
4246:"New species from Ethiopia further expands Middle Pliocene hominin diversity"
3319:
3222:
3123:
2779:
2383:
2051:
934:
751:
664:
652:
74:
7050:
7003:
6751:
6604:
6444:
5882:
5042:
5009:
4673:
4516:
3312:) from Olduvai Gorge seems to have been bitten off by a crocodile, possibly
11660:
11571:
11548:
11496:
11479:
11449:
11291:
11239:
11093:
10874:
10827:
10732:
10667:
10657:
10647:
10557:
10439:
10401:
10286:
10133:
10126:
10034:
9772:
9758:
9691:
9570:
9340:
9298:
9096:
8635:
8134:
8122:
8064:
7938:
7886:
7851:
7683:
7479:
7425:
7366:
7320:
7198:
7143:
7011:
6911:
6689:
6623:
6555:
6536:
6496:
6475:
6452:
6402:
6394:
6354:
6292:
6238:
6175:
6104:
6047:
5944:
5936:
5851:
5843:
5800:
5743:
5694:
5633:
5579:
5505:
5470:
5452:
5418:
5308:
5269:
5191:
5170:
5107:
5089:
4974:
4857:
4849:
4642:
4580:
4535:
4408:
4280:
4166:
4005:
3987:
3937:
3833:
3743:
3707:
3632:
3607:
3484:
3438:
3275:
3141:
3082:
2935:
2758:
2516:
2033:
2000:
1914:
1838:
1825:
1237:
1229:
1215:
1018:
1014:
876:
868:
852:
763:
639:
635:
611:
581:
367:
303:
288:
279:
7501:
7058:
6759:
6009:"A probable genetic origin for pitting enamel hypoplasia on the molars of
5890:
5353:
5345:
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199707)103:3<375::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-P
5050:
4681:
2977:
is also known from these caves, their remains are comparatively scarce to
11833:
11816:
11637:
10820:
10701:
10684:
10448:
10054:
9964:
9829:
9792:
9712:
9651:
9372:
8825:
8018:
7945:
7917:
7910:
7858:
7508:
5437:"Pattern and process in hominin brain size evolution are scale-dependent"
4882:
Parins-Fukuchi, C.; Greiner, E.; MacLatchy, L. M.; Fisher, D. C. (2019).
4211:
3711:
3336:
2922:
may have relied more on tubers than adults, given the elevated levels of
2875:
2869:
appears to have been an omnivore, with a diet similar to contemporaneous
2810:
2786:
2775:
2512:
2362:
2105:
1729:
1112:
939:
747:
496:
males, 50 kg (110 lb) at 137 cm (4 ft 6 in) for
465:
379:
49:
7283:
Adams, J. W.; Rovinsky, D. S.; Herries, A. I. R.; Menter, C. G. (2016).
6975:
Lockwood, C. A.; Menter, C. G.; Moggi-Cecchi, J.; Keyser, A. W. (2007).
6903:
5530:
Domínguez-Rodrigo, M.; Rayne, T. R.; Baquedano, E.; et al. (2013).
5400:
4910:
4814:
4272:
2782:
concerned with thickening enamel also left them more vulnerable to PEH.
500:
males, 32 kg (71 lb) at 110 cm (3 ft 7 in) for
11859:
11113:
10905:
10232:
10219:
10169:
10105:
10044:
9947:
9930:
9822:
9765:
9738:
9701:
9671:
9661:
9386:
9112:
8994:
8698:
8643:
8595:
8550:
8003:
7924:
7301:
7245:
Bobe, R. (2006). "The evolution of arid ecosystems in eastern Africa".
7135:
6276:
6096:
5497:
5300:
4572:
4050:
3928:
3875:
3397:
3278:
were also seemingly abundant megafauna. Other known primates are early
3271:
3217:
3157:
3153:
3100:
2908:
2798:
2766:
2674:
1442:
1180:
818:
687:
533:
527:
516:
512:
485:
209:
94:
59:
32:
7380:
Brochu, C. A.; Njau, J.; Blumenschine, R. J.; Densmore, L. D. (2010).
3979:
3825:
3040:
Bone tools may have been used to cut or process vegetation, or dig up
1092:
changed remarkably little over its nearly one-million-year existence.
835:
11582:
11512:
11486:
11355:
11305:
10942:
10932:
10855:
10708:
10598:
10497:
10263:
10017:
9920:
9134:
8896:
8612:
8070:
7975:
6889:
6794:
5064:
Olejniczak, A. J.; Smith, T. M.; Skinner, M. M.; et al. (2008).
4461:
4400:
4100:
3735:
3660:
3598:
3581:
3513:
3488:
3330:
3264:
3248:
3240:
3196:
3122:. Further, among primates, delayed maturity is also exhibited in the
3006:
3002:
2994:
2923:
2802:
2612:
2443:
2120:
1418:
1306:
1034:
942:, Ethiopia. They noted that, though it shares many similarities with
817:
or a grounds for identifying a new species. It could be explained as
742:
416:
339:
239:
229:
159:
133:
99:
43:
36:
11778:
5029:(1991). "Femoral lengths and stature in Plio-Pleistocene hominids".
4881:
11801:
11648:
11624:
11417:
11376:
11322:
11261:
10834:
9984:
9877:
9577:
9502:
9402:
8987:
8627:
8568:
7931:
7896:
7873:
7594:
4335:
3287:
3253:
3010:
2966:
2931:
2794:
2531:), possibly adaptations to processing abrasive foods. The teeth of
2294:
1742:
1716:
1379:
1167:
1134:
1065:
984:
755:
719:
676:
477:
439:
249:
179:
89:
84:
69:
64:
54:
7550:
6313:
6254:"Behavioral inferences from the high levels of dental chipping in
5821:
4884:"Phylogeny, ancestors and anagenesis in the hominin fossil record"
3636:
2726:
length and using the dimensions of modern humans, male and female
1121:. This may have occurred during a drying trend 2.8–2.5 mya in the
722:. By 1988, several specimens from Swartkrans had been placed into
464:
along the midline—which suggest strong chewing muscles—and broad,
11709:
11602:
11329:
10969:
10898:
10150:
10143:
10005:
9900:
9682:
9563:
9509:
9329:
9190:
9147:
8580:
8081:
7657:
3452:
3145:
3045:
3009:
from medium- to large-sized mammals, but tools made sourced from
2990:
2893:
2524:
2496:
1899:
1891:
1877:
1701:
668:
457:
405:
401:
312:
199:
104:
79:
11846:
6974:
5757:
Ryan, T. M.; Carlson, K. J.; Gordon, A. D.; et al. (2018).
5244:
Ramirez-Rozzi, F. V. (1993). "Tooth development in East African
4937:
Wood, B.; Strait, D. (2004). "Patterns of resource use in early
3569:. Paleoantropologia. Vol. III. Museo Arqueológico Regional.
11279:
11103:
10912:
10813:
10534:
9731:
9447:
9277:
9264:
9216:
8574:
8562:
7211:
6730:
from Member 1, Swartkrans: fossil evidence for tool behavior".
5965:
5529:
3207:
preferred to inhabit wooded, riverine landscapes. The teeth of
3119:
3107:
may have had a harem society similar to modern forest-dwelling
2927:
2616:
2565:
2550:
1085:
489:
453:
219:
189:
169:
7379:
7212:
Bocherens, H.; Sandrock, O.; Kullmer, O.; Schrenk, F. (2011).
5066:"Three-dimensional molar enamel distribution and thickness in
8606:
8519:
8156:
8047:
8037:
6574:
Cerling, T. E.; Mbua, E.; Kirera, F. M.; et al. (2011).
5121:
Ungar, P. S.; Grine, F. E. (1991). "Incisor size and wear in
4800:
3389:
3041:
2950:
2897:
2889:
2723:
2649:
2528:
2495:
had a massively built, tall and flat skull, with a prominent
1002:
595:
484:
seems to have been herbivorous, possibly preferring abundant
397:
6473:
4996:(1991). "Petite bodies of the "robust" australopithecines".
4240:
11689:
10722:
7815:
6520:"Evidence of termite foraging by Swartkrans early hominids"
6474:
Constantino, P. J.; Borrero-Lopez, O.; Lawn, B. R. (2018).
6372:
6128:"Dental Microwear and Diet of the Plio-Pleistocene Hominin
5598:
Lague, M. R.; Chirchir, H.; Green, D. J.; Mbua, E. (2019).
2841:
2793:, indicating a rate similar to modern humans. A molar from
1460:
1151:
1038:
779:
759:
603:
7282:
5435:
Du, A.; Zipkin, A. M.; Hatala, K. G.; et al. (2018).
4596:
11072:
11059:
11009:
6708:
6418:
5366:
3014:
2568:
abrasive foods that likely made up the bulk of its diet.
2476:
1009:
There is currently no clear consensus on the validity of
806:. However, as more specimens were found, the combination
794:
in 1964, but in 1967, South African palaeoanthropologist
6252:
Towle, Ian; Irish, Joel D.; Groote, Isabelle De (2017).
4704:
Stammers, R. C.; Caruana, M.; Herries, A. I. R. (2018).
3404:), though more likely the younger side of the estimate.
3152:
females were more likely to leave their place of birth (
1096:
had spread into South Africa by 2 mya with the earliest
730:
as the two populations do not seem to be very distinct.
6072:
Towle, I.; Riga, A.; Irish, J. D.; et al. (2019).
4827:
4071:
2946:
2707:
were on average 13 kg (28.7 lb) heavier than
2630:, which is also associated with suspensory behavior. A
5597:
5063:
4703:
4217:
Origins Reconsidered: In Search of what Makes Us Human
2719:
individual was estimated at 54 kg (119 lb).
2678:
may have achieved about the same grade of bipedality.
863:, Ethiopia (Omo 18). In 1976, American anthropologist
7445:
Evolutionary History of the Robust Australopithecines
6642:"Baboon Feeding Ecology Informs the Dietary Niche of
5483:
5367:
Kupczik, K.; Toro-Ibacache, V.; Macho, G. A. (2018).
4010:
Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences
3807:
1068:. It is sometimes regarded as the direct ancestor of
671:, was discovered by schoolboy Gert Terblanche at the
11727:
11716:
11705:
11695:
11677:
11667:
11656:
11608:
11590:
11522:
11492:
11475:
11465:
11455:
11445:
11435:
11425:
11402:
11392:
11382:
11372:
11335:
11311:
11287:
11205:
11190:
11180:
11170:
11160:
11150:
11140:
11129:
11119:
11109:
11099:
11089:
10975:
10958:
10948:
10938:
10928:
10918:
10880:
10870:
10840:
10745:
10728:
10690:
10680:
10663:
10653:
10643:
10633:
10623:
10606:
10545:
10530:
10370:
10341:
10311:
10274:
10259:
10249:
10139:
10060:
10050:
10040:
10030:
10013:
9990:
9980:
9970:
9960:
9943:
9926:
9916:
9906:
9862:
9852:
9842:
9818:
9808:
9798:
9788:
9778:
9754:
9744:
9720:
9697:
9667:
9657:
9647:
9637:
9627:
9617:
9486:
9420:
9383:
9352:
9336:
9325:
9315:
9305:
9294:
9196:
9179:
9169:
9129:
9118:
9108:
8608:
6517:
5906:
3411:
2634:
ulna, on the other hand, shows more similarities to
6126:Ungar, P. S.; Grine, F. E.; Teaford, M. F. (2008).
5532:"First Partial Skeleton of a 1.34-Million-Year-Old
5282:
4551:
4244:; Gilbert, L.; Melillo, S. M.; et al. (2015).
2985:-attribution unlikely. The tools also cooccur with
2957:
skull known until the description of DNH155 in 2020
1542:
424:is contested, and it is sometimes considered to be
8060:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)
6977:"Extended male growth in a fossil hominin species"
5328:: Examination of alternative developmental models"
4757:
4655:
3849:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3256:, especially during times of climatic volatility.
2761:formation is spotty instead of mostly uniform. In
897:. There is debate whether this is synonymous with
6573:
6414:
6412:
6125:
5756:
5654:
4634:20.500.11820/6c1ee960-79ba-45df-9e12-3350c768a497
4375:
3767:Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa
3554:
3552:
3550:
3489:"The Pleistocene Anthropoid Apes of South Africa"
3001:. The bone tools were typically sourced from the
2607:were heavily built, which might suggest habitual
950:based on dental and presumed dietary similarity.
698:based on a subadult jaw, SK 6. He believed later
11900:
7336:
6251:
5525:
5523:
4000:
2507:used in chewing. Like other australopithecines,
726:. However, this has since been synonymised with
6933:
6931:
6929:
6885:
6883:
6851:
6524:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6513:
6511:
6509:
6507:
6188:
5164:
5162:
5160:
5021:
5019:
4988:
4986:
4984:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4693:
4691:
4592:
4590:
4496:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4482:
4183:Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution
4025:
4023:
3905:
3853:
3840:
3558:
3308:specimen (though perhaps actually belonging to
1013:. The argument rests upon whether the genus is
7114:
7071:
6569:
6567:
6565:
6409:
6071:
5434:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4547:
4545:
3547:
908:reclassified KNM WT 17000 into a new species,
8535:
7566:
6721:
6719:
5902:
5900:
5655:Green, D. J.; Chirchir, H.; Mbua, E. (2018).
5520:
5243:
4877:
4875:
3961:: a developmental and functional perspective"
3950:
1571:
1137:environment. However, the classifications of
790:made the Leakeys reclassify their species as
770:because he believed it differed greatly from
675:, about 70 km (43 mi) southwest of
7461:
6926:
6880:
6814:
6812:
6772:
6635:
6633:
6504:
6067:
6065:
5710:"Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology"
5707:
5593:
5591:
5589:
5157:
5016:
4981:
4688:
4656:Wood, B.; Wood, C.; Konigsberg, L. (1994). "
4587:
4133:"Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology"
4130:
4020:
3706:
3627:
3625:
2738:femurs at the time. In 2013, a 1.34 Ma male
2656:and modern humans. The pelvis is similar to
875:. In 1986, after the discovery of the skull
631:was first erected by Scottish-South African
8045:
7332:
7330:
6562:
5864:
5208:
5204:
5202:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4746:
4542:
4206:
4186:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 298–299.
4126:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4118:
3901:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3479:
3477:
3263:is known from, was mainly dominated by the
3052:incisors appear to be intermediate between
702:were morphologically distinct from earlier
472:species were generalist feeders, but while
9275:
8542:
8528:
7573:
7559:
7373:
6716:
6368:
6366:
6364:
6006:
5897:
5120:
4936:
4872:
1578:
1564:
122:
11070:
11008:
10230:
10168:
7415:
7405:
7310:
7300:
7229:
7205:
7039:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
6959:
6854:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
6836:
6818:
6809:
6766:
6679:
6669:
6630:
6613:
6603:
6545:
6535:
6495:
6336:
6265:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
6228:
6218:
6165:
6155:
6085:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
6062:
5991:
5959:
5871:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
5790:
5733:
5684:
5623:
5586:
5569:
5559:
5486:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
5460:
5430:
5428:
5408:
5343:
5332:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
5289:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
5190:
5097:
5031:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4998:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4766:bearing palaeocaves in southern Africa".
4729:
4662:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4632:
4622:
4561:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4525:
4515:
4352:
4334:
4156:
3968:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
3927:
3814:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
3622:
3597:
3566:Miscelanea en Homenaje a Emiliano Aguirre
3559:Constantino, P. J.; Wood, B. A. (2004). "
3512:
2652:, and their hips, legs and feet resemble
859:" based on a toothless mandible from the
8465:Human evolutionary developmental biology
7462:Wood, Bernard; Williams, Alexis (2020).
7327:
7278:
7276:
7035:Australopithecus (Paranthropus) robustus
6937:
6580:in the early Pleistocene of East Africa"
5321:
5199:
5168:
4925:
4429:
4115:
4029:
3890:
3854:Constantino, P. J.; Wood, B. A. (2007).
3474:
3190:
3074:
2945:
2833:
2753:seems to have had notably high rates of
1143:
993:
932:and colleagues described the 3.5–3.2 Ma
928:In 2015, Ethiopian palaeoanthropologist
834:
7115:Robbins, M. M.; Robbins, A. M. (2018).
6361:
5324:"Palatal thickening and facial form in
5025:
4992:
4660:: an example of evolutionary stasis?".
3912:: Fifty Years of Evidence and Analysis"
3765:Wood, B. (2005). "A tale of two taxa".
3400:until Member 3 dated to 1–0.6 mya (the
3259:The Cradle of Humankind, the only area
2797:, South Africa, showed a cavity on the
2785:There have been 10 identified cases of
2594:
2503:along the midline which anchored large
792:Australopithecus (Zinjanthropus) boisei
11901:
7164:
6725:
6518:Backwell, L. R.; d'Errico, F. (2001).
5425:
4301:
4295:
3681:
3631:
2472:
1049:ulnae, which could suggest paraphyly.
11783:
11782:
11057:
10217:
9262:
8593:
8523:
8250:Evolutionary models of human drug use
7554:
7442:
7273:
6639:
6189:Rabenold, D.; Pearson, O. M. (2011).
5915:from Swartkrans Cave, South Africa".
5536:from Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania"
4312:was caused by introgression from the
3579:
3483:
3396:, on the other hand, was recorded in
2969:caves, and are often associated with
2821:, or the loss of the adjacent molar.
1556:
1064:, dated to 2.6 mya at the end of the
8490:
7244:
7082:International Journal of Primatology
7032:
5211:International Journal of Primatology
4179:
4033:(1989). "A New Species of the Genus
3764:
3582:"Another new type of fossil ape-man"
3173:molars are markedly larger, rate of
2896:. A high cavity rate could indicate
2809:, which is commonly associated with
2722:According to a 1991 study, based on
2681:
2660:, but the hip joints are smaller in
2415:
2393:
2371:
2347:
2327:
2307:
2283:
2263:
2240:
2217:
2197:
2177:
2157:
2137:
1545:
904:In 1989, palaeoartist and zoologist
706:in the cave—that is, the Swartkrans
7580:
6944:societies - one-male or multimale?"
5726:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x
4149:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x
3070:
1084:remains date to about 2.3 mya from
434:. They are also referred to as the
404:which contains two widely accepted
18:Contested extinct genus of hominins
13:
7545:National Museum of Natural History
7436:
6245:
5441:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
4220:. Anchor Books. pp. 132–133.
4131:Wood, B.; Richmond, B. G. (2000).
3906:Wood, B.; Constantino, J. (2007).
3033:ability to contemporary Stone Age
2873:and nearly identical to the later
958:In 1951, American anthropologists
659:beside or alongside; and άνθρωπος
14:
11955:
7495:
5759:"Human-like hip joint loading in
5708:Wood B, Richmond BG (July 2000).
3916:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology
3810:Paranthropus boisei sensu stricto
3637:"A New Fossil Skull from Olduvai"
2584:to better process tougher foods.
938:based on three jawbones from the
847:In 1968, French palaeontologists
828:
11762:
11040:
10200:
9244:
8501:
8489:
8478:
8477:
7218:South African Journal of Science
6948:South African Journal of Science
6825:South African Journal of Science
6007:Towle, I.; Irish, J. D. (2019).
3414:
3377:for alternative food resources.
3181:
2824:
580:
569:
558:
146:
47:
9263:
7238:
7158:
7108:
7065:
7026:
6968:
6845:
6726:Susman, R. L. (1988). "Hand of
6696:
6476:"Mechanisms of Tooth Damage in
6467:
6307:
6182:
6119:
6000:
5858:
5815:
5750:
5701:
5648:
5477:
5360:
5315:
5276:
5237:
5114:
5057:
4821:
4794:
4649:
4476:
4423:
4369:
4354:10.7287/peerj.preprints.27130v3
4234:
4200:
4173:
4065:
3994:
3944:
3233:also appear to have coexisted.
3164:
3148:, but unlike other great apes,
2535:developed faster than those of
1103:It is sometimes suggested that
966:were the first to suggest that
857:Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus
11058:
10218:
8594:
8549:
7267:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.010
5175:from Swartkrans, South Africa"
3801:
3758:
3700:
3675:
3573:
3521:
3144:Valley found that, like other
2801:, a rare occurrence in fossil
2136:
1538:
620:
1:
11944:Fossil taxa described in 1938
11939:Pleistocene genus extinctions
5771:Journal of Human Anthropology
4492:"Genera of the human lineage"
4440:and the Australopithecines".
3467:
3356:
3203:It is generally thought that
2941:
1041:forearm bone was assigned to
983:is sometimes classified as a
7537:Human Timeline (Interactive)
7407:10.1371/journal.pone.0009333
7359:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.05.008
7247:Journal of Arid Environments
7191:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.11.007
6866:10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754
6671:10.1371/journal.pone.0084942
6347:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.11.008
6220:10.1371/journal.pone.0028379
6157:10.1371/journal.pone.0002044
6040:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.01.002
5792:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.03.008
5686:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.06.013
5625:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.06.011
5561:10.1371/journal.pone.0080347
5151:10.1016/0047-2484(91)90013-L
4967:10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.11.004
4788:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.05.017
4731:10.1016/j.quaint.2018.04.026
4624:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.012
3535:. Merriam–Webster Dictionary
3299:
2745:
1052:
733:
7:
8508:Evolutionary biology Portal
6961:10.17159/sajs.2016/20150165
6484:Biosurface and Biotribology
3957:"Craniodental variation in
3686:. Touchstone. p. 193.
3407:
3029:have been found there yet.
2576:) anatomical features than
2527:(similar in size to modern
2523:), and comparatively small
2473:
1695:
1160:according to a 2019 study:
1129:evolved in the former, and
953:
544:
452:is characterised by robust
420:. However, the validity of
10:
11960:
11934:Cenozoic mammals of Africa
11914:Prehistoric primate genera
7447:. Transaction Publishers.
7339:Journal of Human Evolution
7171:Journal of Human Evolution
6838:10.4102/sajs.v108i5/6.1250
6375:Journal of Human Evolution
6317:Journal of Human Evolution
6078:third molar from Drimolen"
6020:Journal of Human Evolution
5993:10.1016/j.crpv.2016.03.003
5917:Journal of Human Evolution
5824:Journal of Human Evolution
5761:Australopithecus africanus
5665:Journal of Human Evolution
5604:Journal of Human Evolution
5381:Royal Society Open Science
5371:Australopithecus africanus
5250:Journal of Human Evolution
5131:Journal of Human Evolution
5123:Australopithecus africanus
4947:Journal of Human Evolution
4830:Journal of Human Evolution
4603:Journal of Human Evolution
3293:Cercopithecoides williamsi
3186:
2879:, and subsisted on mainly
879:by English anthropologist
867:and Breton anthropologist
718:and the former eventually
549:
11791:
11759:
11647:
11632:
11623:
11581:
11521:
11510:
11416:
11368:
11364:
11353:
11278:
11204:
11085:
11081:
11066:
11053:
11038:
11004:
10854:
10789:
10780:
10597:
10544:
10526:
10515:
10438:
10411:
10384:
10352:
10340:
10310:
10273:
10245:
10241:
10226:
10213:
10198:
10164:
10088:
10004:
9876:
9711:
9681:
9613:
9602:
9546:
9519:
9497:
9485:
9419:
9382:
9351:
9290:
9286:
9271:
9258:
9241:
9215:
9146:
9104:
9095:
9091:
9053:
8863:
8736:
8660:
8622:
8602:
8589:
8557:
8473:
8453:Evolutionary anthropology
8430:
8404:
8357:
8295:
8214:
8173:
8166:
8112:
8036:
7959:
7884:
7838:
7831:
7814:
7774:
7710:
7681:
7645:
7636:
7603:
7588:
7231:10.4102/sajs.v107i3/4.331
7165:Clarke, R. J. (2012). "A
7124:Evolutionary Anthropology
7094:10.1007/s10764-012-9607-2
6942:Australopithecus robustus
6819:Pickering, T. R. (2012).
5223:10.1007/s10764-012-9602-7
5171:"Dietary proclivities of
3864:Evolutionary Anthropology
3787:10.1080/00359190509520483
3361:It was once thought that
3315:Crocodylus anthropophagus
2755:pitting enamel hypoplasia
1456:
1439:
1432:
1415:
1408:
1391:
1384:
1362:
1355:
1320:
1303:
1296:
1279:
1272:
1260:
1234:
1212:
1205:
1198:
1178:
1171:
1037:). In 1999, a chimp-like
923:
778:. The name derives from "
436:robust australopithecines
355:
348:
318:
311:
294:
287:
143:Scientific classification
141:
130:
121:
25:
6938:Kaszycka, K. A. (2016).
5322:McCollum, M. A. (1998).
5169:Williams, F. L. (2015).
4768:Quaternary International
4710:Quaternary International
3323:Chasmaporthetes nitidula
2515:with a relatively thick
2487:
1588:
1141:species is problematic.
11929:Pleistocene extinctions
8359:Origin of modern humans
7519:Smithsonian Institution
7515:"Early Human Phylogeny"
7051:10.1002/ajpa.1330670310
7004:10.1126/science.1149211
6752:10.1126/science.3129783
6605:10.1073/pnas.1104627108
6480:Dietary Reconstruction"
6445:10.1126/science.1133827
5883:10.1002/ajpa.1330770103
5043:10.1002/ajpa.1330850204
5010:10.1002/ajpa.1330860402
4674:10.1002/ajpa.1330950202
4517:10.1073/pnas.0832372100
3063:remains are rarer than
2829:
2772:amelogenesis imperfecta
2460:P a r a n t h r o p u s
2319:Dispersal beyond Africa
970:should be considered a
930:Yohannes Haile-Selassie
712:reproductively isolated
7480:10.1511/2020.108.6.348
6537:10.1073/pnas.021551598
6497:10.1049/bsbt.2018.0017
6395:10.1006/jhev.2000.0436
5972:Comptes Rendus Palevol
5937:10.1006/jhev.2001.0510
5844:10.1006/jhev.1998.0267
5453:10.1098/rspb.2017.2738
5270:10.1006/jhev.1993.1030
5192:10.1515/anre-2015-0001
5179:Anthropological Review
5090:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0223
4850:10.1006/jhev.2001.0535
3343:Lycyaenops silberbergi
3270:, but other antelope,
3200:
3085:
2958:
2844:
2521:post-canine megadontia
1591:−10 —
1154:
1076:. It is possible that
1006:
844:
488:. Paranthropoids were
11881:Paleobiology Database
8367:Recent African origin
7605:Last common ancestors
7443:Grine, F. E. (2007).
6728:Paranthropus robustus
6640:Macho, G. M. (2014).
6421:Paranthropus robustus
6076:Paranthropus robustus
6011:Paranthropus robustus
5867:Paranthropus robustus
5765:Paranthropus robustus
5657:"Scapular anatomy of
5375:Paranthropus robustus
5173:Paranthropus robustus
5127:Paranthropus robustus
3194:
3078:
2949:
2837:
2628:infraspinatus muscles
1681:−1 —
1671:−2 —
1661:−3 —
1651:−4 —
1641:−5 —
1631:−6 —
1621:−7 —
1611:−8 —
1601:−9 —
1147:
1115:, both evolving from
997:
838:
810:became more popular.
673:Kromdraai fossil site
298:Paranthropus robustus
11924:Pleistocene primates
8382:Behavioral modernity
8372:Multiregional origin
8152:archaic Homo sapiens
8147:Homo heidelbergensis
8092:Red Deer Cave people
3858:Zinjanthropus boisei
2962:Paranthropus teeth.
2953:, the most complete
2847:It was once thought
2609:suspensory behaviour
2595:Limbs and locomotion
2549:. The notably thick
2275:Earliest stone tools
1062:Omo Kibish Formation
1031:convergent evolution
865:Francis Clark Howell
784:Charles Watson Boise
768:Zinjanthropus boisei
692:John Talbot Robinson
667:, a male braincase,
590:From top to bottom,
10923:Paradolichopithecus
8019:H. neanderthalensis
7939:H. e. tautavelensis
7502:Reconstructions of
7398:2010PLoSO...5.9333B
7351:2012JHumE..63..408N
7259:2006JArEn..66..564B
7183:2012JHumE..63..418C
6996:2007Sci...318.1443L
6990:(5855): 1443–1446.
6904:10.1038/nature10149
6787:1988Natur.336..464B
6744:1988Sci...240..781S
6662:2014PLoSO...984942M
6644:Paranthropus boisei
6596:2011PNAS..108.9337C
6578:Paranthropus boisei
6437:2006Sci...314..980S
6387:2000JHumE..39..565L
6329:2005JHumE..48..301S
6211:2011PLoSO...628379R
6193:Paranthropus boisei
6148:2008PLoSO...3.2044U
6130:Paranthropus boisei
6032:2019JHumE.129...54T
5984:2017CRPal..16...58B
5929:2001JHumE..41..607S
5836:1999JHumE..36..211M
5783:2018JHumE.121...12R
5677:2018JHumE.125..181G
5661:from Ileret, Kenya"
5659:Paranthropus boisei
5616:2019JHumE.126...24L
5552:2013PLoSO...880347D
5534:Paranthropus boisei
5401:10.1098/rsos.180825
5393:2018RSOS....580825K
5285:Paranthropus boisei
5262:1993JHumE..24..429R
5143:1991JHumE..20..313U
4959:2004JHumE..46..119W
4911:10.1017/pab.2019.12
4903:2019Pbio...45..378P
4842:2002JHumE..42..475B
4780:2009QuInt.202...14H
4722:2018QuInt.495...87S
4658:Paranthropus boisei
4615:2019JHumE.131..176J
4508:2003PNAS..100.7684C
4454:1965Natur.205..121R
4393:1951Natur.167..650W
4345:2018arXiv180806307N
4304:"The speciation of
4302:Nygren, J. (2018).
4273:10.1038/nature14448
4265:2015Natur.521..483H
4093:1986Natur.322..517W
3959:Paranthropus boisei
3910:Paranthropus boisei
3779:2005TRSSA..60...91W
3728:1964Natur.202....5L
3682:Morell, V. (2011).
3653:1959Natur.184..491L
3505:1938Natur.142..377B
3422:Paleontology portal
3304:The left foot of a
3109:silverback gorillas
2883:savanna plants and
2807:alveolar resportion
887:classified it into
871:reclassified it as
808:Paranthropus boisei
681:Cradle of Humankind
511:They were possibly
456:, with a prominent
359:Paraustralopithecus
10549:Victoriapithecidae
10491:Plesiopliopithecus
10429:Platodontopithecus
8206:Self-domestication
7997:H. heidelbergensis
7946:H. e. yuanmouensis
7911:H. e. lantianensis
7638:Australopithecines
7468:American Scientist
7302:10.7717/peerj.1941
7136:10.1002/evan.21721
6277:10.1002/ajpa.23250
6097:10.1002/ajpa.23891
6074:"Root caries on a
5714:Journal of Anatomy
5498:10.1002/ajpa.10092
5447:(1873): 20172738.
5301:10.1002/ajpa.22427
4573:10.1002/ajpa.20656
4259:(14448): 483–488.
4242:Haile-Selassie, Y.
4137:Journal of Anatomy
4051:10.1007/BF02381307
3929:10.1002/ajpa.20732
3876:10.1002/evan.20130
3856:"The Evolution of
3580:Broom, R. (1948).
3402:Middle Pleistocene
3286:, and the extinct
3201:
3086:
2959:
2845:
2603:, the forearms of
2505:temporalis muscles
2076:H. heidelbergensis
1155:
1007:
964:Bruce D. Patterson
861:Shungura Formation
845:
746:was discovered by
638:in 1938, with the
444:Middle Pleistocene
11919:Pliocene primates
11896:
11895:
11785:Taxon identifiers
11776:
11775:
11772:
11771:
11757:
11756:
11753:
11752:
11749:
11748:
11745:
11744:
11741:
11740:
11506:
11505:
11349:
11348:
11049:
11048:
11036:
11035:
11032:
11031:
11028:
11027:
11000:
10999:
10996:
10995:
10511:
10510:
10507:
10506:
10413:Dionysopithecidae
10315:Propliopithecidae
10209:
10208:
10196:
10195:
10192:
10191:
10188:
10187:
10160:
10159:
9598:
9597:
9594:
9593:
9254:
9253:
9239:
9238:
9235:
9234:
9211:
9210:
9087:
9086:
8517:
8516:
8458:Paleoanthropology
8400:
8399:
8377:Archaic admixture
8255:Stoned ape theory
8191:Endurance running
8108:
8107:
8104:
8103:
8100:
8099:
7955:
7954:
7918:H. e. nankinensis
7874:H. tsaichangensis
7810:
7809:
7454:978-0-202-36596-1
6781:(6198): 464–466.
6738:(4853): 781–784.
6431:(5801): 980–982.
4502:(13): 7684–7689.
4484:Cela-Conde, C. J.
4448:(4967): 121–124.
4387:(4251): 650–651.
4227:978-0-385-46792-6
4193:978-1-4443-4247-5
4180:Wood, B. (2011).
4087:(6079): 517–522.
3980:10.1002/ajpa.1097
3826:10.1002/ajpa.1066
3693:978-1-4391-4387-2
3647:(4685): 491–493.
3499:(3591): 377–379.
3327:sabertoothed cats
3131:strontium isotope
3097:sexual dimorphism
2903:The East African
2682:Height and weight
2547:squamosal sutures
2485:
2484:
2477:million years ago
2436:
2435:
2414:
2413:
2392:
2391:
2384:Earliest rock art
2370:
2369:
2346:
2345:
2339:Earliest language
2326:
2325:
2306:
2305:
2282:
2281:
2262:
2261:
2252:Earliest sign of
2239:
2238:
2229:Earliest sign of
2216:
2215:
2196:
2195:
2176:
2175:
2156:
2155:
1799:Ou. macedoniensis
1535:
1534:
1526:
1525:
1517:
1516:
1508:
1507:
1499:
1498:
1490:
1489:
1481:
1480:
1472:
1471:
1344:
1343:
1335:
1334:
1249:
1248:
1230:A. anamensis
1158:Evolutionary tree
1123:Great Rift Valley
960:Sherwood Washburn
849:Camille Arambourg
815:sexual dimorphism
798:subsumed it into
796:Phillip V. Tobias
539:sabertoothed cats
389:
388:
383:
371:
283:
260:Australopithecina
11951:
11889:
11888:
11876:
11875:
11863:
11862:
11850:
11849:
11837:
11836:
11827:
11826:
11825:
11812:
11811:
11810:
11780:
11779:
11767:
11766:
11729:
11718:
11707:
11697:
11679:
11672:Australopithecus
11669:
11658:
11630:
11629:
11610:
11592:
11524:
11519:
11518:
11494:
11477:
11467:
11457:
11447:
11437:
11427:
11404:
11394:
11384:
11374:
11366:
11365:
11362:
11361:
11337:
11313:
11289:
11209:Dendropithecidae
11207:
11192:
11182:
11172:
11162:
11152:
11142:
11131:
11121:
11111:
11101:
11091:
11083:
11082:
11079:
11078:
11068:
11067:
11055:
11054:
11044:
11006:
11005:
10977:
10960:
10950:
10940:
10930:
10920:
10882:
10872:
10842:
10787:
10786:
10747:
10730:
10692:
10682:
10665:
10655:
10645:
10635:
10625:
10611:Cercopithecoides
10608:
10581:Victoriapithecus
10547:
10532:
10524:
10523:
10518:Cercopithecoidea
10372:
10350:
10349:
10343:
10313:
10276:
10261:
10251:
10243:
10242:
10239:
10238:
10228:
10227:
10215:
10214:
10204:
10166:
10165:
10141:
10062:
10052:
10042:
10032:
10015:
9992:
9982:
9972:
9962:
9945:
9928:
9918:
9908:
9864:
9854:
9844:
9820:
9810:
9800:
9790:
9780:
9756:
9746:
9722:
9699:
9669:
9659:
9649:
9639:
9629:
9619:
9611:
9610:
9521:Proteopithecidae
9495:
9494:
9488:
9422:
9385:
9354:
9338:
9327:
9317:
9307:
9296:
9288:
9287:
9284:
9283:
9273:
9272:
9260:
9259:
9249:
9248:
9198:
9181:
9171:
9131:
9120:
9110:
9102:
9101:
9093:
9092:
8620:
8619:
8610:
8604:
8603:
8591:
8590:
8544:
8537:
8530:
8521:
8520:
8505:
8493:
8492:
8481:
8480:
8417:Human prehistory
8392:Recent evolution
8387:Early migrations
8329:Thermoregulation
8230:Expensive tissue
8201:Sexual selection
8171:
8170:
8043:
8042:
7925:H. e. pekinensis
7836:
7835:
7829:
7828:
7744:A. bahrelghazali
7713:Australopithecus
7643:
7642:
7613:Chimpanzee–human
7601:
7600:
7575:
7568:
7561:
7552:
7551:
7533:
7531:
7530:
7521:. Archived from
7491:
7458:
7430:
7429:
7419:
7409:
7377:
7371:
7370:
7334:
7325:
7324:
7314:
7304:
7280:
7271:
7270:
7242:
7236:
7235:
7233:
7209:
7203:
7202:
7162:
7156:
7155:
7121:
7112:
7106:
7105:
7088:(6): 1332–1363.
7074:Australopithecus
7069:
7063:
7062:
7030:
7024:
7023:
6981:
6972:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6954:(1–2): 124–131.
6935:
6924:
6923:
6887:
6878:
6877:
6849:
6843:
6842:
6840:
6816:
6807:
6806:
6795:10.1038/336464a0
6770:
6764:
6763:
6723:
6714:
6713:
6700:
6694:
6693:
6683:
6673:
6637:
6628:
6627:
6617:
6607:
6571:
6560:
6559:
6549:
6539:
6530:(4): 1358–1363.
6515:
6502:
6501:
6499:
6471:
6465:
6464:
6416:
6407:
6406:
6370:
6359:
6358:
6340:
6311:
6305:
6304:
6262:
6249:
6243:
6242:
6232:
6222:
6186:
6180:
6179:
6169:
6159:
6123:
6117:
6116:
6082:
6069:
6060:
6059:
6017:
6004:
5998:
5997:
5995:
5963:
5957:
5956:
5904:
5895:
5894:
5862:
5856:
5855:
5819:
5813:
5812:
5794:
5754:
5748:
5747:
5737:
5705:
5699:
5698:
5688:
5652:
5646:
5645:
5627:
5595:
5584:
5583:
5573:
5563:
5527:
5518:
5517:
5481:
5475:
5474:
5464:
5432:
5423:
5422:
5412:
5364:
5358:
5357:
5347:
5319:
5313:
5312:
5280:
5274:
5273:
5241:
5235:
5234:
5206:
5197:
5196:
5194:
5166:
5155:
5154:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5101:
5068:Australopithecus
5061:
5055:
5054:
5023:
5014:
5013:
4990:
4979:
4978:
4934:
4923:
4922:
4888:
4879:
4870:
4869:
4825:
4819:
4818:
4798:
4792:
4791:
4755:
4744:
4743:
4733:
4701:
4686:
4685:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4636:
4626:
4594:
4585:
4584:
4549:
4540:
4539:
4529:
4519:
4480:
4474:
4473:
4462:10.1038/205121a0
4439:
4427:
4421:
4420:
4401:10.1038/167650a0
4373:
4367:
4366:
4356:
4338:
4320:
4306:Australopithecus
4299:
4293:
4292:
4250:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4160:
4128:
4113:
4112:
4101:10.1038/322517a0
4069:
4063:
4062:
4035:Australopithecus
4027:
4018:
4017:
3998:
3992:
3991:
3965:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3931:
3903:
3888:
3887:
3851:
3838:
3837:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3736:10.1038/202005a0
3708:Leakey, L. S. B.
3704:
3698:
3697:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3661:10.1038/184491a0
3629:
3620:
3619:
3601:
3599:10.1038/163057a0
3577:
3571:
3570:
3556:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3525:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3514:10.1038/142377a0
3481:
3432:Australopithecus
3424:
3419:
3418:
3417:
3284:hamadryas baboon
3268:Antidorcas recki
3071:Social structure
2819:mouth microbiome
2699:contemporaneous
2465:
2463:
2462:
2448:
2446:
2430:
2421:
2416:
2408:
2406:Earliest clothes
2399:
2394:
2386:
2377:
2372:
2353:
2348:
2333:
2328:
2313:
2308:
2295:Earliest sign of
2289:
2284:
2269:
2264:
2254:Australopithecus
2246:
2241:
2223:
2218:
2209:Earliest bipedal
2203:
2198:
2189:Chimpanzee split
2183:
2178:
2163:
2158:
2143:
2138:
2124:
2123:
2109:
2108:
2092:
2078:
2064:
2036:
2023:
2003:
1990:
1962:
1960:Australopithecus
1949:
1934:
1917:
1904:
1880:
1867:
1854:
1841:
1828:
1815:
1803:
1784:
1771:
1758:
1746:
1732:
1719:
1706:
1704:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1580:
1573:
1566:
1560:
1550:
1549:Hominin timeline
1543:
1435:
1434:
1411:
1410:
1387:
1386:
1358:
1357:
1299:
1298:
1275:
1274:
1263:
1262:
1208:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1174:
1173:
1164:
1163:
1139:Australopithecus
1118:Australopithecus
989:Australopithecus
976:Australopithecus
800:Australopithecus
776:Australopithecus
584:
573:
562:
431:Australopithecus
378:
362:
278:
271:
151:
150:
126:
116:
46:
31:Temporal range:
23:
22:
11959:
11958:
11954:
11953:
11952:
11950:
11949:
11948:
11899:
11898:
11897:
11892:
11884:
11879:
11871:
11866:
11858:
11853:
11845:
11840:
11832:
11830:
11821:
11820:
11815:
11806:
11805:
11800:
11787:
11777:
11768:
11761:
11737:
11643:
11619:
11595:Chororapithecus
11577:
11564:Pierolapithecus
11556:Hispanopithecus
11515:
11502:
11440:Gigantopithecus
11412:
11358:
11345:
11340:Yuanmoupithecus
11274:
11269:Turkanapithecus
11200:
11195:Samburupithecus
11165:Nacholapithecus
11075:
11062:
11045:
11024:
10992:
10963:Procynocephalus
10850:
10782:Cercopithecinae
10776:
10628:Dolichopithecus
10593:
10565:Nsungwepithecus
10540:
10520:
10503:
10456:Barberapithecus
10434:
10422:Dionysopithecus
10407:
10395:Epipliopithecus
10380:
10358:Krishnapithecus
10345:Pliopithecoidea
10336:
10331:Propliopithecus
10324:Aegyptopithecus
10306:
10278:Oligopithecidae
10269:
10235:
10222:
10205:
10184:
10156:
10084:
10000:
9872:
9847:Proteropithecia
9707:
9677:
9607:
9590:
9585:Ucayalipithecus
9542:
9515:
9490:Parapithecoidea
9481:
9462:Myanmarpithecus
9424:Amphipithecidae
9415:
9410:Phenacopithecus
9378:
9347:
9280:
9267:
9250:
9243:
9231:
9207:
9142:
9083:
9049:
8859:
8739:Anaptomorphinae
8732:
8656:
8616:
8598:
8585:
8553:
8548:
8518:
8513:
8469:
8426:
8412:Human evolution
8396:
8353:
8297:
8291:
8270:Cooperative eye
8215:Specific models
8210:
8162:
8141:Homo antecessor
8096:
8032:
8026:H. rhodesiensis
7990:H. floresiensis
7951:
7932:H. e. soloensis
7904:H. e. georgicus
7880:
7844:H. gautengensis
7819:
7817:
7806:
7770:
7706:
7677:
7632:
7623:Orangutan–human
7592:
7584:
7582:Human evolution
7579:
7528:
7526:
7513:
7498:
7455:
7439:
7437:Further reading
7434:
7433:
7378:
7374:
7335:
7328:
7281:
7274:
7243:
7239:
7210:
7206:
7163:
7159:
7119:
7113:
7109:
7070:
7066:
7031:
7027:
6979:
6973:
6969:
6936:
6927:
6898:(7349): 76–78.
6888:
6881:
6850:
6846:
6817:
6810:
6771:
6767:
6724:
6717:
6702:
6701:
6697:
6638:
6631:
6590:(23): 9337–41.
6572:
6563:
6516:
6505:
6472:
6468:
6417:
6410:
6371:
6362:
6338:10.1.1.421.8468
6312:
6308:
6260:
6250:
6246:
6187:
6183:
6124:
6120:
6080:
6070:
6063:
6015:
6005:
6001:
5964:
5960:
5905:
5898:
5863:
5859:
5820:
5816:
5755:
5751:
5706:
5702:
5653:
5649:
5596:
5587:
5528:
5521:
5482:
5478:
5433:
5426:
5365:
5361:
5320:
5316:
5281:
5277:
5242:
5238:
5207:
5200:
5167:
5158:
5119:
5115:
5078:Biology Letters
5062:
5058:
5024:
5017:
4991:
4982:
4935:
4926:
4886:
4880:
4873:
4826:
4822:
4799:
4795:
4756:
4747:
4702:
4689:
4654:
4650:
4595:
4588:
4550:
4543:
4481:
4477:
4437:
4431:Robinson, J. T.
4428:
4424:
4377:Washburn, S. L.
4374:
4370:
4323:PeerJ Preprints
4318:
4300:
4296:
4248:
4239:
4235:
4228:
4205:
4201:
4194:
4178:
4174:
4143:(Pt 1): 34–38.
4129:
4116:
4070:
4066:
4031:Ferguson, W. W.
4028:
4021:
3999:
3995:
3963:
3949:
3945:
3904:
3891:
3852:
3841:
3806:
3802:
3763:
3759:
3705:
3701:
3694:
3680:
3676:
3630:
3623:
3578:
3574:
3563:Paleobiology".
3557:
3548:
3538:
3536:
3527:
3526:
3522:
3482:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3420:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3359:
3302:
3189:
3184:
3167:
3137:teeth from the
3095:had pronounced
3073:
2944:
2832:
2827:
2815:hypercementosis
2765:, about 47% of
2748:
2684:
2626:indicates long
2597:
2490:
2481:
2480:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2444:H o m i n i d s
2442:
2440:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2419:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2397:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2375:
2366:
2365:
2351:
2342:
2341:
2331:
2322:
2321:
2311:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2287:
2278:
2277:
2267:
2258:
2257:
2244:
2235:
2234:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2201:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2172:
2171:
2161:
2152:
2151:
2141:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2056:
2048:
2040:
2039:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2015:
2007:
2006:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1982:
1974:
1966:
1965:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1950:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1876:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1863:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1850:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1824:
1819:
1818:
1817:
1813:Chororapithecus
1811:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1795:
1787:
1786:
1780:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1769:Samburupithecus
1767:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1754:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1740:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1728:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1715:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1702:
1700:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1558:
1552:
1548:
1541:
1536:
1527:
1518:
1509:
1500:
1491:
1482:
1473:
1395:H. floresiensis
1345:
1336:
1250:
1055:
956:
926:
906:Walter Ferguson
833:
788:Peninj Mandible
762:). Her husband
738:
714:from Kromdraai
651:" derives from
633:palaeontologist
625:
618:
617:
616:
615:
587:
586:
585:
576:
575:
574:
565:
564:
563:
552:
547:
377:
361:
307:
301:
277:
269:
145:
117:
115:
114:
113:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
41:
40:
29:
19:
12:
11:
5:
11957:
11947:
11946:
11941:
11936:
11931:
11926:
11921:
11916:
11911:
11894:
11893:
11891:
11890:
11877:
11864:
11851:
11838:
11828:
11813:
11797:
11795:
11789:
11788:
11774:
11773:
11770:
11769:
11760:
11758:
11755:
11754:
11751:
11750:
11747:
11746:
11743:
11742:
11739:
11738:
11736:
11735:
11725:
11721:Sahelanthropus
11714:
11703:
11693:
11686:
11682:Graecopithecus
11675:
11665:
11653:
11651:
11645:
11644:
11642:
11641:
11633:
11627:
11621:
11620:
11618:
11617:
11613:Nakalipithecus
11606:
11599:
11587:
11585:
11579:
11578:
11576:
11575:
11568:
11560:
11552:
11545:
11538:
11530:
11528:
11516:
11511:
11508:
11507:
11504:
11503:
11501:
11500:
11490:
11483:
11473:
11470:Lufengpithecus
11463:
11460:Khoratpithecus
11453:
11443:
11433:
11430:Ankarapithecus
11422:
11420:
11414:
11413:
11411:
11410:
11407:Ouranopithecus
11400:
11397:Nakalipithecus
11390:
11387:Graecopithecus
11380:
11369:
11359:
11354:
11351:
11350:
11347:
11346:
11344:
11343:
11333:
11326:
11319:
11309:
11302:
11295:
11284:
11282:
11276:
11275:
11273:
11272:
11265:
11258:
11251:
11248:Rangwapithecus
11244:
11236:
11233:Nyanzapithecus
11229:
11221:
11218:Dendropithecus
11213:
11211:
11202:
11201:
11199:
11198:
11188:
11178:
11168:
11158:
11155:Morotopithecus
11148:
11138:
11134:Kamoyapithecus
11127:
11124:Griphopithecus
11117:
11107:
11097:
11086:
11076:
11071:
11064:
11063:
11051:
11050:
11047:
11046:
11039:
11037:
11034:
11033:
11030:
11029:
11026:
11025:
11023:
11022:
11021:
11020:
11014:
11012:
11002:
11001:
10998:
10997:
10994:
10993:
10991:
10990:
10983:
10980:Soromandrillus
10973:
10966:
10956:
10946:
10936:
10926:
10916:
10909:
10902:
10895:
10888:
10878:
10868:
10860:
10858:
10852:
10851:
10849:
10848:
10838:
10831:
10824:
10817:
10810:
10803:
10800:Allenopithecus
10795:
10793:
10791:Cercopithecini
10784:
10778:
10777:
10775:
10774:
10771:Trachypithecus
10767:
10760:
10753:
10743:
10736:
10726:
10719:
10712:
10705:
10698:
10688:
10678:
10671:
10661:
10651:
10641:
10631:
10621:
10614:
10603:
10601:
10595:
10594:
10592:
10591:
10588:Zaltanpithecus
10584:
10577:
10569:
10561:
10553:
10551:
10542:
10541:
10539:
10538:
10527:
10521:
10516:
10513:
10512:
10509:
10508:
10505:
10504:
10502:
10501:
10494:
10487:
10480:
10473:
10466:
10459:
10452:
10444:
10442:
10436:
10435:
10433:
10432:
10425:
10417:
10415:
10409:
10408:
10406:
10405:
10398:
10390:
10388:
10386:Pliopithecidae
10382:
10381:
10379:
10378:
10368:
10361:
10353:
10347:
10338:
10337:
10335:
10334:
10327:
10319:
10317:
10308:
10307:
10305:
10304:
10297:
10290:
10282:
10280:
10271:
10270:
10268:
10267:
10257:
10246:
10236:
10231:
10224:
10223:
10211:
10210:
10207:
10206:
10199:
10197:
10194:
10193:
10190:
10189:
10186:
10185:
10183:
10182:
10181:
10180:
10174:
10172:
10162:
10161:
10158:
10157:
10155:
10154:
10147:
10137:
10130:
10127:Leontopithecus
10123:
10116:
10109:
10102:
10094:
10092:
10090:Callitrichidae
10086:
10085:
10083:
10082:
10075:
10068:
10058:
10048:
10038:
10028:
10021:
10010:
10008:
10002:
10001:
9999:
9998:
9988:
9978:
9968:
9958:
9951:
9941:
9934:
9924:
9914:
9904:
9897:
9890:
9882:
9880:
9874:
9873:
9871:
9870:
9860:
9850:
9840:
9833:
9826:
9816:
9806:
9796:
9786:
9776:
9769:
9762:
9752:
9742:
9735:
9728:
9717:
9715:
9709:
9708:
9706:
9705:
9695:
9687:
9685:
9679:
9678:
9676:
9675:
9665:
9655:
9645:
9635:
9625:
9614:
9608:
9603:
9600:
9599:
9596:
9595:
9592:
9591:
9589:
9588:
9581:
9574:
9567:
9560:
9552:
9550:
9548:Parapithecidae
9544:
9543:
9541:
9540:
9533:
9530:Proteopithecus
9525:
9523:
9517:
9516:
9514:
9513:
9506:
9498:
9492:
9483:
9482:
9480:
9479:
9472:
9465:
9458:
9451:
9444:
9436:
9428:
9426:
9417:
9416:
9414:
9413:
9406:
9399:
9391:
9389:
9380:
9379:
9377:
9376:
9369:
9361:
9359:
9349:
9348:
9346:
9345:
9334:
9323:
9313:
9303:
9291:
9281:
9276:
9269:
9268:
9256:
9255:
9252:
9251:
9242:
9240:
9237:
9236:
9233:
9232:
9230:
9229:
9228:
9227:
9221:
9219:
9213:
9212:
9209:
9208:
9206:
9205:
9194:
9187:
9177:
9174:Hesperotarsius
9167:
9160:
9152:
9150:
9144:
9143:
9141:
9140:
9127:
9116:
9105:
9099:
9089:
9088:
9085:
9084:
9082:
9081:
9074:
9067:
9059:
9057:
9051:
9050:
9048:
9047:
9040:
9033:
9026:
9019:
9012:
9005:
8998:
8991:
8984:
8977:
8970:
8963:
8956:
8949:
8942:
8935:
8932:Gunnelltarsius
8928:
8921:
8914:
8907:
8900:
8893:
8886:
8879:
8871:
8869:
8861:
8860:
8858:
8857:
8850:
8843:
8836:
8829:
8822:
8815:
8808:
8801:
8798:Pseudotetonius
8794:
8787:
8780:
8773:
8766:
8759:
8752:
8744:
8742:
8734:
8733:
8731:
8730:
8723:
8716:
8709:
8702:
8695:
8688:
8681:
8674:
8666:
8664:
8662:Microchoerinae
8658:
8657:
8655:
8654:
8647:
8640:
8632:
8623:
8617:
8607:
8600:
8599:
8587:
8586:
8584:
8583:
8577:
8571:
8565:
8558:
8555:
8554:
8547:
8546:
8539:
8532:
8524:
8515:
8514:
8512:
8511:
8499:
8487:
8474:
8471:
8470:
8468:
8467:
8462:
8461:
8460:
8450:
8445:
8440:
8434:
8432:
8428:
8427:
8425:
8424:
8422:Human timeline
8419:
8414:
8408:
8406:
8402:
8401:
8398:
8397:
8395:
8394:
8389:
8384:
8379:
8374:
8369:
8363:
8361:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8331:
8326:
8321:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8300:
8298:
8293:
8292:
8290:
8289:
8288:
8287:
8282:
8274:
8273:
8272:
8267:
8259:
8258:
8257:
8252:
8247:
8245:Drunken monkey
8239:
8238:
8237:
8232:
8227:
8218:
8216:
8212:
8211:
8209:
8208:
8203:
8198:
8193:
8188:
8183:
8177:
8175:
8174:General models
8168:
8164:
8163:
8161:
8160:
8118:
8116:
8110:
8109:
8106:
8105:
8102:
8101:
8098:
8097:
8095:
8094:
8089:
8084:
8079:
8074:
8067:
8062:
8053:
8051:
8040:
8034:
8033:
8031:
8030:
8022:
8015:
8008:
8000:
7993:
7986:
7978:
7973:
7965:
7963:
7961:Archaic humans
7957:
7956:
7953:
7952:
7950:
7949:
7942:
7935:
7928:
7921:
7914:
7907:
7900:
7892:
7890:
7882:
7881:
7879:
7878:
7870:
7866:H. rudolfensis
7862:
7855:
7848:
7839:
7833:
7826:
7812:
7811:
7808:
7807:
7805:
7804:
7797:
7790:
7787:P. aethiopicus
7782:
7780:
7772:
7771:
7769:
7768:
7761:
7754:
7747:
7740:
7733:
7726:
7718:
7716:
7708:
7707:
7705:
7704:
7697:
7689:
7687:
7679:
7678:
7676:
7675:
7668:
7665:Sahelanthropus
7661:
7654:
7651:Nakalipithecus
7646:
7640:
7634:
7633:
7631:
7630:
7625:
7620:
7615:
7609:
7607:
7598:
7586:
7585:
7578:
7577:
7570:
7563:
7555:
7549:
7548:
7547:(August 2016).
7534:
7511:
7497:
7496:External links
7494:
7493:
7492:
7459:
7453:
7438:
7435:
7432:
7431:
7372:
7345:(2): 408–417.
7326:
7272:
7253:(3): 564–584.
7237:
7204:
7177:(2): 418–428.
7157:
7130:(5): 218–233.
7107:
7064:
7045:(3): 251–257.
7025:
6967:
6925:
6879:
6844:
6808:
6765:
6715:
6695:
6629:
6561:
6503:
6466:
6408:
6381:(6): 565–576.
6360:
6323:(3): 301–312.
6306:
6271:(1): 184–192.
6244:
6205:(12): e28379.
6181:
6118:
6091:(2): 319–323.
6061:
5999:
5958:
5923:(6): 607–629.
5896:
5857:
5814:
5749:
5700:
5647:
5585:
5546:(12): e80347.
5519:
5492:(4): 341–358.
5476:
5424:
5359:
5338:(3): 375–392.
5314:
5295:(2): 260–268.
5275:
5256:(6): 429–454.
5236:
5217:(3): 716–742.
5198:
5156:
5137:(4): 313–340.
5113:
5084:(4): 406–410.
5056:
5037:(2): 149–158.
5027:McHenry, H. M.
5015:
5004:(4): 445–454.
4994:McHenry, H. M.
4980:
4953:(2): 119–162.
4924:
4897:(2): 378–393.
4871:
4836:(4): 475–497.
4820:
4809:(3): 221–231.
4793:
4774:(1–2): 14–28.
4745:
4687:
4668:(2): 117–136.
4648:
4586:
4567:(2): 209–218.
4553:McHenry, H. M.
4541:
4475:
4422:
4368:
4294:
4233:
4226:
4199:
4192:
4172:
4114:
4064:
4045:(2): 223–232.
4019:
3993:
3943:
3889:
3839:
3820:(2): 167–178.
3800:
3757:
3699:
3692:
3674:
3621:
3572:
3546:
3520:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3460:Sahelanthropus
3456:
3449:
3446:Graecopithecus
3442:
3435:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3409:
3406:
3380:South African
3358:
3355:
3301:
3298:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3175:tooth eruption
3166:
3163:
3080:P. aethiopicus
3072:
3069:
3048:, The form of
2943:
2940:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2747:
2744:
2683:
2680:
2668:. By 1.8 mya,
2632:P. aethiopicus
2624:shoulder blade
2596:
2593:
2533:P. aethiopicus
2501:sagittal crest
2489:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2474:
2470:
2469:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2412:
2411:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2390:
2389:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2368:
2367:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2344:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2324:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2304:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2280:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2260:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2237:
2236:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2214:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2194:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2174:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2154:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2135:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2011:H. rudolfensis
1996:
1995:
1994:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1887:
1886:
1885:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1865:Graecopithecus
1861:
1860:
1859:
1852:Sahelanthropus
1848:
1847:
1846:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1782:Ouranopithecus
1778:
1777:
1776:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1756:Nakalipithecus
1752:
1751:
1750:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1691:0 —
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1582:
1575:
1568:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1390:
1385:
1383:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1361:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1302:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1283:P. aethiopicus
1278:
1273:
1271:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1233:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1194:Sahelanthropus
1189:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1172:
1170:
1162:
1133:in the latter
1078:P. aethiopicus
1058:P. aethiopicus
1054:
1051:
972:junior synonym
955:
952:
925:
922:
918:P. aethiopicus
914:P. aethiopicus
894:P. aethiopicus
885:Richard Leakey
832:
830:P. aethiopicus
827:
737:
732:
624:
619:
608:P. aethiopicus
589:
588:
579:
578:
577:
568:
567:
566:
557:
556:
555:
554:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
476:was likely an
462:sagittal crest
387:
386:
385:
384:
372:
353:
352:
346:
345:
344:
343:
335:
327:
324:P. aethiopicus
316:
315:
309:
308:
302:
292:
291:
285:
284:
267:
263:
262:
257:
253:
252:
247:
243:
242:
237:
233:
232:
227:
223:
222:
217:
213:
212:
207:
203:
202:
197:
193:
192:
187:
183:
182:
177:
173:
172:
167:
163:
162:
157:
153:
152:
139:
138:
128:
127:
119:
118:
110:
109:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
30:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11956:
11945:
11942:
11940:
11937:
11935:
11932:
11930:
11927:
11925:
11922:
11920:
11917:
11915:
11912:
11910:
11907:
11906:
11904:
11887:
11882:
11878:
11874:
11869:
11865:
11861:
11856:
11852:
11848:
11843:
11839:
11835:
11829:
11824:
11818:
11814:
11809:
11803:
11799:
11798:
11796:
11794:
11790:
11786:
11781:
11765:
11734:
11733:
11726:
11723:
11722:
11715:
11712:
11711:
11704:
11702:
11701:
11700:Kenyanthropus
11694:
11692:
11691:
11687:
11684:
11683:
11676:
11674:
11673:
11666:
11663:
11662:
11655:
11654:
11652:
11650:
11646:
11640:
11639:
11635:
11634:
11631:
11628:
11626:
11622:
11615:
11614:
11607:
11605:
11604:
11600:
11597:
11596:
11589:
11588:
11586:
11584:
11580:
11574:
11573:
11569:
11566:
11565:
11561:
11558:
11557:
11553:
11551:
11550:
11546:
11544:
11543:
11539:
11537:
11536:
11535:Anoiapithecus
11532:
11531:
11529:
11527:
11526:Dryopithecini
11520:
11517:
11514:
11509:
11499:
11498:
11491:
11489:
11488:
11484:
11482:
11481:
11474:
11472:
11471:
11464:
11462:
11461:
11454:
11452:
11451:
11444:
11442:
11441:
11434:
11432:
11431:
11424:
11423:
11421:
11419:
11415:
11409:
11408:
11401:
11399:
11398:
11391:
11389:
11388:
11381:
11379:
11378:
11371:
11370:
11367:
11363:
11360:
11357:
11352:
11342:
11341:
11334:
11332:
11331:
11327:
11325:
11324:
11320:
11318:
11317:
11310:
11308:
11307:
11303:
11301:
11300:
11296:
11294:
11293:
11286:
11285:
11283:
11281:
11277:
11271:
11270:
11266:
11264:
11263:
11259:
11257:
11256:
11255:Rukwapithecus
11252:
11250:
11249:
11245:
11242:
11241:
11237:
11235:
11234:
11230:
11227:
11226:
11225:Micropithecus
11222:
11220:
11219:
11215:
11214:
11212:
11210:
11203:
11197:
11196:
11189:
11187:
11186:
11179:
11177:
11176:
11175:Otavipithecus
11169:
11167:
11166:
11159:
11157:
11156:
11149:
11147:
11146:
11145:Kenyapithecus
11139:
11136:
11135:
11128:
11126:
11125:
11118:
11116:
11115:
11108:
11106:
11105:
11098:
11096:
11095:
11088:
11087:
11084:
11080:
11077:
11074:
11069:
11065:
11061:
11056:
11052:
11043:
11018:
11017:
11016:
11015:
11013:
11011:
11007:
11003:
10989:
10988:
10987:Theropithecus
10984:
10982:
10981:
10974:
10972:
10971:
10967:
10965:
10964:
10957:
10955:
10954:
10953:Procercocebus
10947:
10945:
10944:
10937:
10935:
10934:
10927:
10925:
10924:
10917:
10915:
10914:
10910:
10908:
10907:
10903:
10901:
10900:
10896:
10894:
10893:
10889:
10887:
10886:
10885:Gorgopithecus
10879:
10877:
10876:
10869:
10867:
10866:
10862:
10861:
10859:
10857:
10853:
10847:
10846:
10839:
10837:
10836:
10832:
10830:
10829:
10825:
10823:
10822:
10818:
10816:
10815:
10814:Cercopithecus
10811:
10809:
10808:
10807:Allochrocebus
10804:
10802:
10801:
10797:
10796:
10794:
10792:
10788:
10785:
10783:
10779:
10773:
10772:
10768:
10766:
10765:
10761:
10759:
10758:
10757:Semnopithecus
10754:
10752:
10751:
10744:
10742:
10741:
10740:Rhinopithecus
10737:
10735:
10734:
10727:
10725:
10724:
10720:
10718:
10717:
10713:
10711:
10710:
10706:
10704:
10703:
10699:
10697:
10696:
10695:Parapresbytis
10689:
10687:
10686:
10679:
10677:
10676:
10672:
10670:
10669:
10662:
10660:
10659:
10652:
10650:
10649:
10642:
10640:
10639:
10638:Kuseracolobus
10632:
10630:
10629:
10622:
10620:
10619:
10615:
10613:
10612:
10605:
10604:
10602:
10600:
10596:
10590:
10589:
10585:
10583:
10582:
10578:
10575:
10574:
10570:
10567:
10566:
10562:
10560:
10559:
10555:
10554:
10552:
10550:
10543:
10537:
10536:
10529:
10528:
10525:
10522:
10519:
10514:
10500:
10499:
10495:
10493:
10492:
10488:
10486:
10485:
10484:Laccopithecus
10481:
10479:
10478:
10474:
10472:
10471:
10470:Egarapithecus
10467:
10465:
10464:
10460:
10458:
10457:
10453:
10451:
10450:
10446:
10445:
10443:
10441:
10437:
10431:
10430:
10426:
10424:
10423:
10419:
10418:
10416:
10414:
10410:
10404:
10403:
10399:
10397:
10396:
10392:
10391:
10389:
10387:
10383:
10377:
10376:
10369:
10367:
10366:
10362:
10360:
10359:
10355:
10354:
10351:
10348:
10346:
10339:
10333:
10332:
10328:
10326:
10325:
10321:
10320:
10318:
10316:
10309:
10303:
10302:
10301:Talahpithecus
10298:
10296:
10295:
10294:Oligopithecus
10291:
10289:
10288:
10284:
10283:
10281:
10279:
10272:
10266:
10265:
10258:
10256:
10255:
10254:Micropithecus
10248:
10247:
10244:
10240:
10237:
10234:
10229:
10225:
10221:
10216:
10212:
10203:
10178:
10177:
10176:
10175:
10173:
10171:
10167:
10163:
10153:
10152:
10148:
10146:
10145:
10138:
10136:
10135:
10131:
10129:
10128:
10124:
10122:
10121:
10117:
10115:
10114:
10110:
10108:
10107:
10103:
10101:
10100:
10096:
10095:
10093:
10091:
10087:
10081:
10080:
10076:
10074:
10073:
10069:
10067:
10066:
10059:
10057:
10056:
10049:
10047:
10046:
10039:
10037:
10036:
10029:
10027:
10026:
10022:
10020:
10019:
10012:
10011:
10009:
10007:
10003:
9997:
9996:
9989:
9987:
9986:
9979:
9977:
9976:
9975:Protopithecus
9969:
9967:
9966:
9959:
9957:
9956:
9952:
9950:
9949:
9942:
9940:
9939:
9935:
9933:
9932:
9925:
9923:
9922:
9915:
9913:
9912:
9905:
9903:
9902:
9898:
9896:
9895:
9891:
9889:
9888:
9884:
9883:
9881:
9879:
9875:
9869:
9868:
9861:
9859:
9858:
9851:
9849:
9848:
9841:
9839:
9838:
9837:Plecturocebus
9834:
9832:
9831:
9827:
9825:
9824:
9817:
9815:
9814:
9813:Miocallicebus
9807:
9805:
9804:
9797:
9795:
9794:
9787:
9785:
9784:
9777:
9775:
9774:
9770:
9768:
9767:
9763:
9761:
9760:
9753:
9751:
9750:
9743:
9741:
9740:
9736:
9734:
9733:
9729:
9727:
9726:
9719:
9718:
9716:
9714:
9710:
9704:
9703:
9696:
9694:
9693:
9689:
9688:
9686:
9684:
9680:
9674:
9673:
9666:
9664:
9663:
9656:
9654:
9653:
9646:
9644:
9643:
9636:
9634:
9633:
9626:
9624:
9623:
9616:
9615:
9612:
9609:
9606:
9601:
9587:
9586:
9582:
9580:
9579:
9575:
9573:
9572:
9568:
9566:
9565:
9561:
9559:
9558:
9554:
9553:
9551:
9549:
9545:
9539:
9538:
9534:
9532:
9531:
9527:
9526:
9524:
9522:
9518:
9512:
9511:
9507:
9505:
9504:
9500:
9499:
9496:
9493:
9491:
9484:
9478:
9477:
9476:Siamopithecus
9473:
9471:
9470:
9466:
9464:
9463:
9459:
9457:
9456:
9452:
9450:
9449:
9445:
9442:
9441:
9440:Bugtipithecus
9437:
9435:
9434:
9433:Amphipithecus
9430:
9429:
9427:
9425:
9418:
9412:
9411:
9407:
9405:
9404:
9400:
9398:
9397:
9393:
9392:
9390:
9388:
9381:
9375:
9374:
9370:
9368:
9367:
9363:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9356:Afrotarsiidae
9350:
9343:
9342:
9335:
9332:
9331:
9324:
9322:
9321:
9320:Aseanpithecus
9314:
9312:
9311:
9304:
9301:
9300:
9293:
9292:
9289:
9285:
9282:
9279:
9274:
9270:
9266:
9261:
9257:
9247:
9225:
9224:
9223:
9222:
9220:
9218:
9214:
9203:
9202:
9195:
9193:
9192:
9188:
9186:
9185:
9178:
9176:
9175:
9168:
9166:
9165:
9164:Cephalopachus
9161:
9159:
9158:
9154:
9153:
9151:
9149:
9145:
9138:
9136:
9128:
9125:
9124:
9123:Afrotarsiidae
9117:
9115:
9114:
9107:
9106:
9103:
9100:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9080:
9079:
9075:
9073:
9072:
9068:
9066:
9065:
9061:
9060:
9058:
9056:
9055:Tarkadectinae
9052:
9046:
9045:
9041:
9039:
9038:
9034:
9032:
9031:
9027:
9025:
9024:
9020:
9018:
9017:
9013:
9011:
9010:
9006:
9004:
9003:
8999:
8997:
8996:
8992:
8990:
8989:
8985:
8983:
8982:
8978:
8976:
8975:
8971:
8969:
8968:
8964:
8962:
8961:
8957:
8955:
8954:
8950:
8948:
8947:
8943:
8941:
8940:
8936:
8934:
8933:
8929:
8927:
8926:
8925:Ekwiiyemakius
8922:
8920:
8919:
8915:
8913:
8912:
8908:
8906:
8905:
8901:
8899:
8898:
8894:
8892:
8891:
8887:
8885:
8884:
8880:
8878:
8877:
8876:Ageitodendron
8873:
8872:
8870:
8867:
8862:
8856:
8855:
8851:
8849:
8848:
8844:
8842:
8841:
8837:
8835:
8834:
8830:
8828:
8827:
8823:
8821:
8820:
8816:
8814:
8813:
8809:
8807:
8806:
8802:
8800:
8799:
8795:
8793:
8792:
8788:
8786:
8785:
8781:
8779:
8778:
8774:
8772:
8771:
8767:
8765:
8764:
8760:
8758:
8757:
8756:Anaptomorphus
8753:
8751:
8750:
8746:
8745:
8743:
8740:
8735:
8729:
8728:
8724:
8722:
8721:
8717:
8715:
8714:
8710:
8708:
8707:
8703:
8701:
8700:
8696:
8694:
8693:
8689:
8687:
8686:
8682:
8680:
8679:
8675:
8673:
8672:
8668:
8667:
8665:
8663:
8659:
8653:
8652:
8648:
8646:
8645:
8641:
8638:
8637:
8633:
8630:
8629:
8625:
8624:
8621:
8618:
8614:
8605:
8601:
8597:
8592:
8588:
8582:
8578:
8576:
8572:
8570:
8566:
8564:
8560:
8559:
8556:
8552:
8545:
8540:
8538:
8533:
8531:
8526:
8525:
8522:
8510:
8509:
8504:
8500:
8498:
8497:
8488:
8486:
8485:
8476:
8475:
8472:
8466:
8463:
8459:
8456:
8455:
8454:
8451:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8435:
8433:
8429:
8423:
8420:
8418:
8415:
8413:
8410:
8409:
8407:
8403:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8375:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8364:
8362:
8360:
8356:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8310:
8307:
8305:
8302:
8301:
8299:
8294:
8286:
8283:
8281:
8278:
8277:
8276:Life history
8275:
8271:
8268:
8266:
8263:
8262:
8260:
8256:
8253:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8242:
8240:
8236:
8233:
8231:
8228:
8226:
8223:
8222:
8220:
8219:
8217:
8213:
8207:
8204:
8202:
8199:
8197:
8194:
8192:
8189:
8187:
8184:
8182:
8179:
8178:
8176:
8172:
8169:
8165:
8159:
8158:
8153:
8149:
8148:
8143:
8142:
8137:
8136:
8131:
8130:
8129:Homo ergaster
8125:
8124:
8120:
8119:
8117:
8115:
8111:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8085:
8083:
8080:
8078:
8075:
8073:
8072:
8068:
8066:
8063:
8061:
8059:
8058:H. s. sapiens
8055:
8054:
8052:
8050:
8049:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8038:Modern humans
8035:
8028:
8027:
8023:
8021:
8020:
8016:
8014:
8013:
8012:H. luzonensis
8009:
8006:
8005:
8001:
7999:
7998:
7994:
7992:
7991:
7987:
7984:
7983:
7979:
7977:
7974:
7972:
7971:
7970:H. antecessor
7967:
7966:
7964:
7962:
7958:
7948:
7947:
7943:
7941:
7940:
7936:
7934:
7933:
7929:
7927:
7926:
7922:
7920:
7919:
7915:
7913:
7912:
7908:
7906:
7905:
7901:
7899:
7898:
7897:H. e. erectus
7894:
7893:
7891:
7889:
7888:
7883:
7876:
7875:
7871:
7868:
7867:
7863:
7861:
7860:
7856:
7854:
7853:
7849:
7846:
7845:
7841:
7840:
7837:
7834:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7823:
7813:
7803:
7802:
7798:
7796:
7795:
7791:
7789:
7788:
7784:
7783:
7781:
7779:
7778:
7773:
7767:
7766:
7762:
7760:
7759:
7755:
7753:
7752:
7751:A. deyiremeda
7748:
7746:
7745:
7741:
7739:
7738:
7734:
7732:
7731:
7727:
7725:
7724:
7720:
7719:
7717:
7715:
7714:
7709:
7703:
7702:
7698:
7696:
7695:
7691:
7690:
7688:
7686:
7685:
7680:
7674:
7673:
7672:Kenyanthropus
7669:
7667:
7666:
7662:
7660:
7659:
7655:
7653:
7652:
7648:
7647:
7644:
7641:
7639:
7635:
7629:
7626:
7624:
7621:
7619:
7618:Gorilla–human
7616:
7614:
7611:
7610:
7608:
7606:
7602:
7599:
7596:
7591:
7587:
7583:
7576:
7571:
7569:
7564:
7562:
7557:
7556:
7553:
7546:
7542:
7538:
7535:
7525:on 2005-11-02
7524:
7520:
7516:
7512:
7510:
7506:
7505:
7500:
7499:
7489:
7485:
7481:
7477:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7460:
7456:
7450:
7446:
7441:
7440:
7427:
7423:
7418:
7413:
7408:
7403:
7399:
7395:
7391:
7387:
7383:
7376:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7348:
7344:
7340:
7333:
7331:
7322:
7318:
7313:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7286:
7279:
7277:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7241:
7232:
7227:
7223:
7219:
7215:
7208:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7168:
7161:
7153:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7137:
7133:
7129:
7125:
7118:
7111:
7103:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7087:
7083:
7079:
7075:
7068:
7060:
7056:
7052:
7048:
7044:
7040:
7036:
7029:
7021:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7005:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6978:
6971:
6962:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6943:
6934:
6932:
6930:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6886:
6884:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6848:
6839:
6834:
6830:
6826:
6822:
6815:
6813:
6804:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6788:
6784:
6780:
6776:
6769:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6737:
6733:
6729:
6722:
6720:
6712:. 2023-02-09.
6711:
6710:
6705:
6699:
6691:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6663:
6659:
6656:(1): e84942.
6655:
6651:
6647:
6645:
6636:
6634:
6625:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6581:
6579:
6570:
6568:
6566:
6557:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6538:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6514:
6512:
6510:
6508:
6498:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6479:
6470:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6442:
6438:
6434:
6430:
6426:
6422:
6415:
6413:
6404:
6400:
6396:
6392:
6388:
6384:
6380:
6376:
6369:
6367:
6365:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6322:
6318:
6310:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6259:
6257:
6248:
6240:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6194:
6185:
6177:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6131:
6122:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6079:
6077:
6068:
6066:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6014:
6012:
6003:
5994:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5962:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5903:
5901:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5861:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5830:(2): 211–32.
5829:
5825:
5818:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5766:
5762:
5753:
5745:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5704:
5696:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5660:
5651:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5594:
5592:
5590:
5581:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5535:
5526:
5524:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5480:
5472:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5431:
5429:
5420:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5387:(8): 180825.
5386:
5382:
5378:
5376:
5372:
5363:
5355:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5327:
5318:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5286:
5279:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5240:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5205:
5203:
5193:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5174:
5165:
5163:
5161:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5117:
5109:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5060:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5022:
5020:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4989:
4987:
4985:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4933:
4931:
4929:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4885:
4878:
4876:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4824:
4816:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4803:Anthropologie
4797:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4754:
4752:
4750:
4741:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4700:
4698:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4652:
4644:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4593:
4591:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4548:
4546:
4537:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4479:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4436:
4435:Homo 'habilis
4432:
4426:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4372:
4364:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4298:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4247:
4243:
4237:
4229:
4223:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4203:
4195:
4189:
4185:
4184:
4176:
4168:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4127:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4077:Leakey, R. E.
4074:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4026:
4024:
4015:
4012:(in French).
4011:
4007:
4003:
4002:Arambourg, C.
3997:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3962:
3960:
3954:
3953:Lieberman, D.
3947:
3939:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3911:
3902:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3894:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3859:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3844:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3761:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3722:(4927): 5–7.
3721:
3717:
3713:
3712:Leakey, M. B.
3709:
3703:
3695:
3689:
3685:
3678:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3628:
3626:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3576:
3568:
3567:
3562:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3534:
3532:
3524:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3478:
3473:
3462:
3461:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3443:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3423:
3412:
3405:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3354:
3352:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3339:
3338:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3320:hunting hyena
3317:
3316:
3311:
3307:
3297:
3295:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3255:
3250:
3246:
3245:Chiwondo Beds
3242:
3238:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3223:Turkana Basin
3220:
3219:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3198:
3193:
3182:Palaeoecology
3179:
3176:
3172:
3162:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3125:
3124:rhesus monkey
3121:
3117:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3081:
3077:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3038:
3036:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2993:and possibly
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2963:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2901:
2900:consumption.
2899:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2843:
2840:
2836:
2825:Palaeobiology
2822:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2757:(PEH), where
2756:
2752:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2592:
2590:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2478:
2471:
2464:
2461:
2447:
2445:
2429:
2428:Modern humans
2423:
2418:
2417:
2407:
2401:
2396:
2395:
2385:
2379:
2374:
2373:
2364:
2360:
2359:Earliest fire
2355:
2350:
2349:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2329:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2309:
2300:
2299:
2291:
2286:
2285:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2256:
2255:
2248:
2243:
2242:
2233:
2232:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2199:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2179:
2170:
2169:Gorilla split
2165:
2160:
2159:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2139:
2122:
2107:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2079:
2077:
2063:
2061:
2055:
2053:
2047:
2045:
2044:H. antecessor
2038:
2037:
2035:
2022:
2020:
2014:
2012:
2005:
2004:
2002:
1989:
1987:
1986:Au. anamensis
1981:
1979:
1978:Au. afarensis
1973:
1971:
1970:Au. africanus
1964:
1963:
1961:
1948:
1946:
1933:
1931:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1903:
1901:
1900:O. tugenensis
1895:
1893:
1881:
1879:
1868:
1866:
1855:
1853:
1842:
1840:
1829:
1827:
1816:
1814:
1802:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1785:
1783:
1772:
1770:
1759:
1757:
1745:
1744:
1733:
1731:
1720:
1718:
1707:
1705:
1587:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1562:
1561:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1531:
1530:
1522:
1521:
1513:
1512:
1504:
1503:
1495:
1494:
1486:
1485:
1477:
1476:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1454:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1437:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1413:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1389:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1380:A. garhi
1377:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1360:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1339:
1331:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1318:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1308:
1301:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1277:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1210:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1159:
1153:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
990:
986:
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
951:
949:
945:
941:
937:
936:
935:A. deyiremeda
931:
921:
919:
915:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
842:
839:Locations of
837:
831:
826:
824:
820:
816:
811:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
752:Olduvai Gorge
749:
745:
744:
736:
731:
729:
725:
724:P. crassidens
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
696:P. crassidens
693:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
665:type specimen
662:
658:
654:
653:Ancient Greek
650:
646:
645:
641:
637:
634:
630:
623:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
583:
572:
561:
542:
540:
536:
535:
530:
529:
524:
523:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
432:
427:
423:
419:
418:
413:
412:
407:
403:
399:
395:
394:
381:
376:
375:Zinjanthropus
373:
369:
365:
360:
357:
356:
354:
351:
347:
342:
341:
336:
334:
333:
328:
326:
325:
320:
319:
317:
314:
310:
305:
300:
299:
293:
290:
286:
281:
276:
275:
268:
265:
264:
261:
258:
255:
254:
251:
248:
245:
244:
241:
238:
235:
234:
231:
228:
225:
224:
221:
218:
215:
214:
211:
208:
205:
204:
201:
198:
195:
194:
191:
188:
185:
184:
181:
178:
175:
174:
171:
168:
165:
164:
161:
158:
155:
154:
149:
144:
140:
136:
135:
129:
125:
120:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
45:
42:2.9–1.2
38:
34:
28:
24:
21:
16:
11909:Paranthropus
11823:Paranthropus
11793:Paranthropus
11792:
11732:Paranthropus
11731:
11730:
11719:
11708:
11698:
11688:
11680:
11670:
11661:Ardipithecus
11659:
11636:
11611:
11601:
11593:
11572:Rudapithecus
11570:
11562:
11554:
11549:Dryopithecus
11547:
11540:
11533:
11497:Sivapithecus
11495:
11485:
11480:Meganthropus
11478:
11468:
11458:
11450:Indopithecus
11448:
11438:
11428:
11405:
11395:
11385:
11375:
11338:
11330:Symphalangus
11328:
11321:
11314:
11304:
11297:
11292:Bunopithecus
11290:
11267:
11260:
11253:
11246:
11240:Oreopithecus
11238:
11231:
11223:
11216:
11193:
11183:
11173:
11163:
11153:
11143:
11132:
11122:
11112:
11102:
11094:Afropithecus
11092:
10985:
10978:
10968:
10961:
10951:
10941:
10931:
10921:
10911:
10904:
10897:
10890:
10883:
10875:Dinopithecus
10873:
10863:
10845:Nanopithecus
10843:
10833:
10828:Erythrocebus
10826:
10819:
10812:
10805:
10798:
10769:
10762:
10755:
10748:
10738:
10733:Rhinocolobus
10731:
10721:
10714:
10707:
10702:Piliocolobus
10700:
10693:
10683:
10673:
10668:Microcolobus
10666:
10658:Mesopithecus
10656:
10648:Libypithecus
10646:
10636:
10626:
10616:
10609:
10586:
10579:
10573:Prohylobates
10571:
10563:
10558:Noropithecus
10556:
10533:
10496:
10489:
10482:
10475:
10468:
10461:
10454:
10447:
10440:Crouzeliidae
10427:
10420:
10402:Pliopithecus
10400:
10393:
10373:
10363:
10356:
10329:
10322:
10299:
10292:
10287:Catopithecus
10285:
10262:
10252:
10149:
10142:
10132:
10125:
10118:
10111:
10104:
10097:
10077:
10070:
10063:
10053:
10043:
10035:Dolichocebus
10033:
10023:
10016:
9993:
9983:
9973:
9963:
9953:
9946:
9936:
9929:
9919:
9909:
9899:
9892:
9885:
9865:
9855:
9845:
9835:
9828:
9821:
9811:
9803:Mazzonicebus
9801:
9791:
9781:
9771:
9764:
9759:Cebupithecia
9757:
9747:
9737:
9730:
9725:Antillothrix
9723:
9700:
9690:
9670:
9660:
9650:
9640:
9632:Perupithecus
9630:
9620:
9583:
9576:
9571:Parapithecus
9569:
9562:
9555:
9535:
9528:
9508:
9501:
9474:
9467:
9460:
9453:
9446:
9438:
9431:
9408:
9401:
9394:
9371:
9364:
9341:Phileosimias
9339:
9328:
9318:
9308:
9299:Altiatlasius
9297:
9201:Xanthorhysis
9199:
9189:
9184:Oligotarsius
9182:
9172:
9162:
9155:
9132:
9121:
9111:
9097:Tarsiiformes
9076:
9069:
9062:
9042:
9035:
9028:
9021:
9014:
9007:
9000:
8993:
8986:
8979:
8972:
8965:
8960:Macrotarsius
8958:
8951:
8944:
8937:
8930:
8923:
8916:
8909:
8902:
8895:
8888:
8881:
8874:
8852:
8845:
8838:
8831:
8824:
8817:
8812:Strigorhysis
8810:
8805:Sphacorhysis
8803:
8796:
8789:
8784:Chlororhysis
8782:
8775:
8768:
8761:
8754:
8747:
8725:
8718:
8711:
8704:
8697:
8690:
8685:Microchoerus
8683:
8676:
8669:
8649:
8642:
8636:Altiatlasius
8634:
8626:
8506:
8494:
8482:
8349:Gender roles
8344:Intelligence
8157:Homo sapiens
8155:
8151:
8145:
8139:
8135:Homo erectus
8133:
8127:
8123:Homo habilis
8121:
8082:Manot people
8071:H. s. idaltu
8069:
8065:Jebel Irhoud
8057:
8048:Homo sapiens
8046:
8024:
8017:
8010:
8002:
7995:
7988:
7980:
7968:
7944:
7937:
7930:
7923:
7916:
7909:
7902:
7895:
7887:Homo erectus
7885:
7872:
7864:
7857:
7850:
7842:
7832:Proto-humans
7821:
7818:proto-humans
7799:
7792:
7785:
7777:Paranthropus
7776:
7775:
7763:
7756:
7749:
7742:
7737:A. anamensis
7735:
7730:A. africanus
7728:
7723:A. afarensis
7721:
7711:
7699:
7692:
7684:Ardipithecus
7682:
7670:
7663:
7656:
7649:
7628:Gibbon–human
7527:. Retrieved
7523:the original
7503:
7471:
7467:
7444:
7392:(2): e9333.
7389:
7385:
7375:
7342:
7338:
7292:
7288:
7250:
7246:
7240:
7224:(3–4): 1–6.
7221:
7217:
7207:
7174:
7170:
7167:Homo habilis
7166:
7160:
7127:
7123:
7110:
7085:
7081:
7078:Paranthropus
7077:
7073:
7067:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7028:
6987:
6983:
6970:
6951:
6947:
6941:
6895:
6891:
6860:(1): 16–17.
6857:
6853:
6847:
6831:(5–6): 1–2.
6828:
6824:
6778:
6774:
6768:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6707:
6698:
6653:
6649:
6643:
6587:
6583:
6577:
6527:
6523:
6490:(3): 73–78.
6487:
6483:
6478:Paranthropus
6477:
6469:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6378:
6374:
6320:
6316:
6309:
6268:
6264:
6255:
6247:
6202:
6198:
6192:
6184:
6142:(4): e2044.
6139:
6135:
6129:
6121:
6088:
6084:
6075:
6023:
6019:
6010:
6002:
5978:(1): 58–70.
5975:
5971:
5961:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5909:Paranthropus
5908:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5860:
5827:
5823:
5817:
5774:
5770:
5764:
5760:
5752:
5720:(1): 19–60.
5717:
5713:
5703:
5668:
5664:
5658:
5650:
5607:
5603:
5543:
5539:
5533:
5489:
5485:
5479:
5444:
5440:
5384:
5380:
5374:
5370:
5362:
5335:
5331:
5326:Paranthropus
5325:
5317:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5278:
5253:
5249:
5246:Paranthropus
5245:
5239:
5214:
5210:
5182:
5178:
5172:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5116:
5081:
5077:
5072:Paranthropus
5071:
5067:
5059:
5034:
5030:
5001:
4997:
4950:
4946:
4943:Paranthropus
4942:
4938:
4894:
4891:Paleobiology
4890:
4833:
4829:
4823:
4806:
4802:
4796:
4771:
4767:
4764:Paranthropus
4763:
4759:
4713:
4709:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4651:
4606:
4602:
4564:
4560:
4557:Paranthropus
4556:
4499:
4495:
4488:Ayala, F. J.
4478:
4445:
4441:
4434:
4425:
4384:
4380:
4371:
4329:: e27130v3.
4326:
4322:
4313:
4310:Paranthropus
4309:
4305:
4297:
4256:
4252:
4236:
4216:
4202:
4182:
4175:
4140:
4136:
4084:
4080:
4067:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4013:
4009:
3996:
3974:(1): 13–25.
3971:
3967:
3958:
3946:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3870:(2): 49–62.
3867:
3863:
3857:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3773:(2): 91–94.
3770:
3766:
3760:
3719:
3715:
3702:
3683:
3677:
3644:
3640:
3592:(4132): 57.
3589:
3585:
3575:
3565:
3561:Paranthropus
3560:
3537:. Retrieved
3531:Paranthropus
3530:
3523:
3496:
3492:
3458:
3451:
3444:
3439:Ardipithecus
3437:
3430:
3393:
3385:
3382:Paranthropus
3381:
3379:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3363:Paranthropus
3362:
3360:
3350:
3348:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3322:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3303:
3291:
3279:
3267:
3260:
3258:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3216:
3212:
3209:Paranthropus
3208:
3205:Paranthropus
3204:
3202:
3171:Paranthropus
3170:
3168:
3165:Life history
3149:
3142:Sterkfontein
3134:
3128:
3115:
3114:However, if
3113:
3104:
3093:Paranthropus
3092:
3091:
3087:
3083:KNM WT 17000
3079:
3064:
3061:Paranthropus
3060:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3039:
3034:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:
2989:-associated
2986:
2982:
2979:Paranthropus
2978:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2919:
2917:
2912:
2904:
2902:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2863:Paranthropus
2862:
2861:
2856:
2853:Paranthropus
2852:
2848:
2846:
2838:
2790:
2784:
2762:
2759:tooth enamel
2751:Paranthropus
2750:
2749:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2721:
2717:Paranthropus
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2685:
2673:
2670:Paranthropus
2669:
2661:
2658:A. afarensis
2657:
2654:A. afarensis
2653:
2646:Paranthropus
2645:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2620:
2604:
2600:
2598:
2588:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2569:
2557:
2555:
2543:Paranthropus
2542:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2517:tooth enamel
2509:Paranthropus
2508:
2493:Paranthropus
2492:
2491:
2459:
2456:
2441:
2297:
2253:
2231:Ardipithecus
2230:
2149:Earlier apes
2106:Neanderthals
2090:Homo sapiens
2087:
2086:
2073:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2031:
2030:
2016:
2008:
1998:
1997:
1983:
1975:
1967:
1957:
1956:
1942:
1927:
1915:Ardipithecus
1912:
1911:
1897:
1889:
1875:
1862:
1849:
1839:Sivapithecus
1836:
1826:Oreopithecus
1823:
1810:
1796:
1788:
1779:
1766:
1753:
1741:
1727:
1714:
1699:
1459:
1457:
1441:
1440:
1417:
1416:
1393:
1392:
1378:
1366:A. africanus
1364:
1363:
1322:
1321:
1305:
1304:
1281:
1280:
1268:Paranthropus
1267:
1266:
1238:A. afarensis
1236:
1235:
1228:
1216:Ardipithecus
1214:
1213:
1192:
1179:
1156:
1148:
1138:
1131:Paranthropus
1130:
1126:
1116:
1108:
1105:Paranthropus
1104:
1102:
1097:
1094:Paranthropus
1093:
1089:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1057:
1056:
1046:
1042:
1026:
1022:
1021:) says that
1019:paraphyletic
1015:monophyletic
1011:Paranthropus
1010:
1008:
998:
988:
981:Paranthropus
980:
975:
968:Paranthropus
967:
957:
948:Paranthropus
947:
944:Paranthropus
943:
933:
927:
917:
913:
909:
903:
898:
892:
889:Paranthropus
888:
877:KNM WT 17000
873:A. africanus
872:
869:Yves Coppens
856:
853:Yves Coppens
846:
841:Paranthropus
840:
829:
822:
812:
807:
803:
799:
791:
775:
772:Paranthropus
771:
767:
741:
739:
734:
727:
723:
716:Paranthropus
715:
708:Paranthropus
707:
704:Paranthropus
703:
700:Paranthropus
699:
695:
686:In 1948, at
685:
660:
656:
649:Paranthropus
648:
642:
640:type species
636:Robert Broom
629:Paranthropus
628:
626:
621:
612:KNM WT 17000
607:
599:
591:
541:and hyenas.
532:
526:
522:A. africanus
520:
510:
505:
501:
497:
493:
481:
473:
470:Paranthropus
469:
450:Paranthropus
449:
448:
435:
429:
422:Paranthropus
421:
415:
409:
393:Paranthropus
392:
391:
390:
374:
358:
338:
330:
322:
296:
289:Type species
274:Paranthropus
273:
272:
216:Infraorder:
137:(MGL 95211)
132:
27:Paranthropus
26:
20:
15:
11817:Wikispecies
11280:Hylobatidae
10970:Rungwecebus
10835:Miopithecus
10821:Chlorocebus
10750:Sawecolobus
10685:Paracolobus
10449:Anapithecus
10365:Paidopithex
10120:Leontocebus
10055:Panamacebus
9965:Paralouatta
9901:Brachyteles
9793:Insulacebus
9713:Pitheciidae
9652:Canaanimico
9605:Platyrrhini
9557:Abuqatrania
9373:Afrotarsius
9278:Simiiformes
9265:Simiiformes
9217:Simiiformes
9071:Tarkadectes
8911:Diablomomys
8890:Brontomomys
8826:Teilhardina
8770:Arapahovius
8763:Anemorhysis
8727:Vectipithex
8720:Quercyloris
8713:Pseudoloris
8692:Nannopithex
8678:Melaneremia
8280:Grandmother
8235:Shore-based
8196:Aquatic ape
8087:Tam Pa Ling
7982:H. ergaster
7801:P. robustus
7541:Smithsonian
7509:John Gurche
6256:Homo naledi
5877:(1): 7–15.
5671:: 181–192.
5185:(1): 1–19.
4609:: 176–202.
4006:Coppens, Y.
3922:: 106–132.
3539:19 December
3394:P. robustus
3388:comes from
3351:P. robustus
3337:Megantereon
3261:P. robustus
3227:P. robustus
3195:Modern-day
3150:P. robustus
3135:P. robustus
3116:P. robustus
3105:P. robustus
3050:P. robustus
3023:P. robustus
2997:stone tool
2971:P. robustus
2955:P. robustus
2920:P. robustus
2909:bulbotubers
2876:H. ergaster
2867:P. robustus
2811:gum disease
2791:P. robustus
2776:molar teeth
2763:P. robustus
2728:P. robustus
2713:P. robustus
2709:P. robustus
2703:, but male
2696:P. robustus
2688:P. robustus
2662:P. robustus
2601:P. robustus
2582:P. robustus
2570:P. robustus
2052:H. ergaster
1945:Ar. ramidus
1930:Ar. kadabba
1892:O. praegens
1730:Pleistocene
1559:This box:
1539:Description
1324:P. robustus
1113:sister taxa
1098:P. robustus
1074:P. robustus
1047:P. robustus
1023:P. robustus
999:P. robustus
940:Afar Region
881:Alan Walker
855:described "
748:Mary Leakey
728:P. robustus
644:P. robustus
622:P. robustus
592:P. robustus
502:P. robustus
494:P. robustus
486:bulbotubers
474:P. robustus
466:herbivorous
411:P. robustus
400:of extinct
332:P. robustus
236:Subfamily:
220:Simiiformes
11903:Categories
11114:Equatorius
11073:Hominoidea
11060:Hominoidea
11019:see below↓
11010:Hominoidea
10906:Mandrillus
10892:Lophocebus
10865:Cercocebus
10716:Procolobus
10477:Fanchangia
10233:Catarrhini
10220:Catarrhini
10179:see below↓
10170:Catarrhini
10106:Callithrix
10045:Killikaike
9948:Mohanamico
9931:Chilecebus
9857:Soriacebus
9823:Nuciruptor
9783:Homunculus
9773:Chiropotes
9766:Cheracebus
9749:Carlocebus
9739:Callicebus
9702:Tremacebus
9672:Lagonimico
9662:Branisella
9642:Szalatavus
9469:Pondaungia
9387:Eosimiidae
9226:see below↓
9113:Archicebus
8995:Shoshonius
8939:Hemiacodon
8918:Dyseolemur
8904:Chumashius
8847:Trogolemur
8840:Tetonoides
8749:Absarokius
8699:Necrolemur
8644:Bownomomys
8596:Haplorhini
8551:Haplorhini
8319:Skin color
8304:Bipedalism
8265:Killer ape
8077:Cro-Magnon
7976:Denisovans
7852:H. habilis
7816:Humans and
7701:A. ramidus
7694:A. kadabba
7529:2006-09-14
7474:(6): 348.
5911:and Early
4716:: 87–101.
4336:1808.06307
4208:Leakey, R.
4073:Walker, A.
4016:: 589–590.
3951:Wood, B.;
3633:Leakey, L.
3468:References
3398:Swartkrans
3357:Extinction
3325:, and the
3310:H. habilis
3241:shrublands
3231:H. erectus
3218:H. erectus
3213:H. habilis
3158:matrilocal
3154:patrilocal
3101:polygamous
3065:H. erectus
3054:H. erectus
3007:long bones
2999:industries
2942:Technology
2803:great apes
2799:tooth root
2780:coding-DNA
2767:baby teeth
2705:H. erectus
2701:H. erectus
2675:H. habilis
2666:gait cycle
2613:orangutans
2121:Denisovans
2060:Au. sediba
2034:H. erectus
2001:H. habilis
1791:Ou. turkae
1443:H. habilis
1181:Chimpanzee
1088:, Malawi.
819:groundmass
758:(specimen
694:described
688:Swartkrans
627:The genus
534:H. erectus
528:H. habilis
517:patrilocal
513:polygamous
426:synonymous
256:Subtribe:
210:Haplorhini
206:Suborder:
33:Piacenzian
11583:Gorillini
11513:Homininae
11356:Hominidae
11306:Hylobates
11185:Proconsul
10943:Pliopapio
10933:Parapapio
10856:Papionini
10723:Pygathrix
10709:Presbytis
10599:Colobinae
10498:Pliobates
10463:Crouzelia
10264:Saadanius
10099:Callimico
10018:Acrecebus
9995:Stirtonia
9938:Lagothrix
9921:Cartelles
9867:Xenothrix
9622:Parvimico
9148:Tarsiidae
9135:Omomyidae
9030:Washakius
9016:Uintanius
8967:Nesomomys
8897:Chipetaia
8883:Asiomomys
8866:Omomyinae
8819:Tatmanius
8777:Aycrossia
8706:Paraloris
8671:Indusomys
8613:Omomyidae
8561:Kingdom:
8438:Theorists
8405:Timelines
8285:Patriarch
8261:Behavior
8186:Gathering
8114:Ancestors
7859:H. naledi
7794:P. boisei
7765:A. sediba
7504:P. boisei
7488:241348079
7295:: e1941.
6920:205225222
6874:163033909
6576:"Diet of
6333:CiteSeerX
6285:1096-8644
6113:195786562
6026:: 54–61.
5777:: 12–24.
5610:: 24–38.
4919:196659329
4740:135196415
4433:(1965). "
4212:Lewin, R.
3485:Broom, R.
3386:P. boisei
3371:P. boisei
3331:Dinofelis
3306:P. boisei
3300:Predators
3276:elephants
3265:springbok
3249:Omo River
3237:P. boisei
3197:Omo River
3133:study of
3103:society.
3019:P. boisei
3011:mandibles
2995:Acheulian
2981:, making
2973:. Though
2924:strontium
2918:Juvenile
2913:P. boisei
2905:P. boisei
2857:P. boisei
2849:P. boisei
2839:P. boisei
2746:Pathology
2740:P. boisei
2736:P. boisei
2732:P. boisei
2692:P. boisei
2640:P. boisei
2621:P. boisei
2605:P. boisei
2578:P. boisei
2562:jaw hinge
2558:P. boisei
2537:P. boisei
2519:coating (
2019:Au. garhi
1419:A. sediba
1307:P. boisei
1149:P. boisei
1100:remains.
1090:P. boisei
1082:P. boisei
1070:P. boisei
1053:Evolution
1043:P. boisei
1035:homoplasy
1027:P. boisei
899:P. boisei
823:P. boisei
804:A. boisei
766:named it
743:P. boisei
740:In 1959,
735:P. boisei
720:speciated
663:man. The
661:ánthropos
600:P. boisei
508:females.
506:P. boisei
498:P. boisei
482:P. boisei
417:P. boisei
364:Arambourg
340:P. boisei
240:Homininae
230:Hominidae
166:Kingdom:
160:Eukaryota
134:P. boisei
131:Skull of
37:Chibanian
11831:BioLib:
11802:Wikidata
11649:Hominina
11625:Hominini
11542:Danuvius
11418:Ponginae
11377:Buronius
11323:Nomascus
11262:Simiolus
10151:Saguinus
10113:Cebuella
10065:Patasola
9985:Solimoea
9887:Alouatta
9878:Atelidae
9830:Pithecia
9578:Qatrania
9503:Arsinoea
9403:Eosimias
9037:Wyomomys
9002:Steinius
8988:Rooneyia
8946:Jemezius
8854:Walshina
8833:Tetonius
8791:Gazinius
8651:Kohatius
8628:Altanius
8581:Primates
8575:Mammalia
8569:Chordata
8567:Phylum:
8563:Animalia
8484:Category
8339:Language
8309:Skeleton
8004:H. longi
7758:A. garhi
7595:Hominins
7590:Taxonomy
7426:20195356
7386:PLOS ONE
7367:21937084
7321:27114884
7199:22561056
7152:53100488
7144:30325554
7102:16288970
7020:32900905
7012:18048687
6912:21637256
6690:24416315
6650:PLOS ONE
6624:21536914
6556:11171955
6461:22291574
6453:17095699
6403:11102267
6355:15737395
6301:24296825
6293:28542710
6239:22163299
6199:PLOS ONE
6176:18446200
6136:PLOS ONE
6105:31265762
6056:85502058
6048:30904040
5953:26326715
5945:11782111
5852:10068067
5809:14060188
5801:29706230
5744:10999270
5695:30502893
5642:58607106
5634:30583842
5580:24339873
5540:PLOS ONE
5514:21705705
5506:12124914
5471:29467267
5419:30225074
5309:24242913
5231:15983306
5108:18522924
4975:14871560
4866:26032638
4858:11908957
4815:26294888
4643:31182201
4581:17596856
4536:12794185
4490:(2003).
4409:14826894
4363:52054499
4316:lineage"
4281:26017448
4214:(1993).
4167:10999270
4059:28642451
4039:Primates
3988:11536113
3955:(2001).
3938:18046746
3884:53574805
3834:11385603
3795:83659439
3744:14166721
3635:(1959).
3608:18106151
3487:(1938).
3408:See also
3288:colobine
3272:giraffes
3254:endemism
3146:hominins
3139:dolomite
3046:termites
3025:, as no
2967:Drimolen
2932:cementum
2894:termites
2795:Drimolen
2787:cavities
2525:incisors
1743:Hominini
1717:Pliocene
1168:Hominini
1135:riparian
1066:Pliocene
985:subgenus
954:Validity
756:Tanzania
677:Pretoria
545:Taxonomy
478:omnivore
440:Pliocene
350:Synonyms
250:Hominini
226:Family:
200:Primates
190:Mammalia
180:Chordata
176:Phylum:
170:Animalia
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35:–
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