2017:
4098:
4514:
4646:
Stalin's paranoia and used terror to enhance their own position. Peter
Whitewood examines the first purge, directed at the Army, and comes up with a third interpretation that Stalin and other top leaders believing that they were always surrounded by capitalist enemies, always worried about the vulnerability and loyalty of the Red Army. It was not a ploy—Stalin truly believed it. "Stalin attacked the Red Army because he seriously misperceived a serious security threat"; thus "Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign‐backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army." The purge hit deeply from June 1937 and November 1938, removing 35,000; many were executed. Experience in carrying out the purge facilitated purging other key elements in the wider Soviet polity. Historians often cite the disruption as factors in the Red Army's disastrous military performance during the German invasion.
4442:
3891:
3902:
4542:
4309:
1926:. The assassination, in December 1934, led to an investigation that revealed a network of party members supposedly working against Stalin, including several of Stalin's rivals. Many of those arrested after Kirov's murder, high-ranking party officials among them, also confessed plans to kill Stalin himself. The validity of these confessions is debated by historians, but there is consensus that Kirov's death was the flashpoint at which Stalin decided to take action and begin the purges. Some later historians came to believe that Stalin arranged the murder, or at least that there was sufficient evidence to reach such a conclusion. Kirov was a staunch Stalin loyalist, but Stalin may have viewed him as a potential rival because of his emerging popularity among the moderates. The
4474:
587:
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sometimes gave instructions concerning certain individuals. In one instance, he told Yezhov "Isn't it time to squeeze this gentleman and force him to report on his dirty little business? Where is he: in a prison or a hotel?" In another, while reviewing one of Yezhov's lists, he added to M. I. Baranov's name, "beat, beat!" Stalin also signed 357 lists in 1937 and 1938 authorizing executions of some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot, this was 7.4% of those executed legally. While reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the
4202:
4356:, Serdyuk, Mironov, Rudenko, and Semichastny. The hard work resulted in two massive reports, which detailed the mechanism of falsification of the show-trials against Bukharin, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and many others. The commission based its findings in large part on eyewitness testimonies of former NKVD workers and victims of repressions, and on many documents. The commission recommended rehabilitating every accused with the exceptions of Radek and Yagoda, because Radek's materials required some further checking, and Yagoda was a criminal and one of the falsifiers of the trials (though most of the charges against him had to be dropped too, he was not a "spy", etc.). The commission stated:
4226:
1806:
4494:
6636:"Despite the fact that the combined firepower of the Red Army was greater than that of the Germans, the Purges had effectively crippled it by destroying the officer corps. This was the decisive element which persuaded Hitler to attack in 1941. At the Nuremberg trial, Marshal Keitel testified that many German generals had warned Hitler not to attack Russia, arguing that the Red Army was a formidable opponent. Rejecting these Hitler gave Keitel his main reason 'The first-class high-ranking officers were wiped out by Stalin in 1937, and the new generation cannot yet provide the brains they need.'"
4530:
4110:
1895:
2464:) and civilian Communist Party members. Seeking to fulfill the quotas, the police rounded up people in markets and train stations, with the purpose of arresting "social outcasts". Local units of the NKVD, in order to meet their "casework minimums" and force confessions out of arrestees worked long uninterrupted shifts during which they interrogated, tortured and beat the prisoners. In many cases those arrested were forced to sign blank pages which were later filled in with a fabricated confession by the interrogators.
4454:
3450:
red-blue-and-yellow bruises with the strap and the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas. I howled and wept from the pain. I incriminated myself in the hope that by telling them lies I could end the ordeal. When I lay down on the cot and fell asleep, after 18 hours of interrogation, in order to go back in an hour's time for more, I was woken up by my own groaning and because I was jerking about like a patient in the last stages of typhoid fever.
12840:
1463:
2202:
2753:
2741:
12852:
11665:
4589:"The present purge draws between Bolshevism and Stalinism not simply a bloody line but a whole river of blood. The annihilation of all the older generation of Bolsheviks, an important part of the middle generation which participated in the civil war, and that part of the youth that took up most seriously the Bolshevik traditions, shows not only a political but a thoroughly physical incompatibility between Bolshevism and Stalinism. How can this not be seen?".
1753:
3837:
4129:
confessions extracted by torture. Khrushchev later claimed in his memoirs that he had initiated the process, overcoming objections and protests from the rest of Party leadership, but the transcripts belie this, although they show differences of opinion regarding the contents. Starting from 1954, some of the convictions were overturned. Mikhail
Tukhachevsky and other generals convicted in the Trial of Red Army Generals were declared innocent ("
3116:
2770:
3686:
2587:
3143:
3080:
4198:
point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions." According to historian
Corrina Kuhr, 700,000 people were executed during the Great Purge out of the 2.5 million who were arrested. Professor Nérard François-Xavier estimates the same number of people who were sentenced to death; however, he states that 1.3 million people were arrested.
3675:
2828:
2428:
1802:, as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin's and generally Soviet perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. Stalin began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical "fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies."
10206:
3104:
2653:
2304:
3092:
138:
2927:, 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union were liquidated during the Stalinist terror, and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than had died in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, the majority of whom were Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo from Stalin's administration. Many Jewish figures such as
36:
3492:. (Stalin received lessons twice a week from 1925 to 1928, but he found it difficult to master even some of the basic ideas. Stalin developed enduring hostility toward German idealistic philosophy, which he called "the aristocratic reaction to the French Revolution".) Sten eventually became a member of an underground opposition group, and this group later joined the
4279:
begun. Stalin may have failed to anticipate the catastrophic excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov. Stalin also objected to the large numbers of people that Yezhov was purging. For example, when Yezhov announced that 200,000 party members were expelled, Stalin interrupted him, said that they were "very many" and suggested instead to only expel 30,000 and 600 former
4162:, and 2,000 unofficially killed in non-article 58 shootings; whereas the total estimate of deaths brought about by Soviet repression during the Great Purge ranges from 950,000 to 1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention and those who died shortly after being released from the Gulag, as a result of their treatment therein. There were also
2228:, is the most famous of the Soviet show trials, because of persons involved and the scope of charges which tied together all loose threads from earlier trials. Meant to be the culmination of previous trials, it included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites", supposedly led by Nikolai Bukharin, the former chairman of the
1779:(USSR). Various established figures in Lenin's government attempted to succeed him. By 1928, Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, had triumphed over his opponents and gained control of the party. Initially, Stalin's leadership was widely accepted; his main political adversary, Trotsky, was forced into exile in 1929, and Stalin's doctrine of "
2513:
2536:. The women were sentenced to forced labour for 5 or 10 years. Their minor children were put in orphanages. All possessions were confiscated. Extended families were purposely left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well, affecting up to 200,000–250,000 people of Polish background depending on the size of their families.
1942:, participants in the repression as members of the Politburo, maintained this justification throughout the purge; they each signed many death lists. Stalin believed war was imminent, threatened both by an explicitly hostile Germany and an expansionist Japan. The Soviet press portrayed the country as threatened from within by fascist spies.
2186:
friends, and intellectual friendship is stronger than other friendships. I knew that
Bukharin was in the same state of upheaval as myself. That is why I did not want to deliver him bound hand and foot to the People's Commissariat of Home Affairs. Just as in relation to our other cadres, I wanted Bukharin himself to lay down his arms.
2016:
2295:, the Bukharin trial marked their final break with communism, and even turned the first three into fervent anti-communists eventually. To them, Bukharin's confession symbolized the depredations of communism, which not only destroyed its sons but also conscripted them in self-destruction and individual abnegation.
4060:
also reported on the executions. He called them in 1941 "the great purges", and described how over four years they affected "the top fourth or fifth, to estimate it conservatively, of the Party itself, of the Army, Navy, and Air Force leaders and then of the new
Bolshevik intelligentsia, the foremost
3748:
Political prisoners already serving a sentence in the Gulag camps were also executed in large numbers. NKVD Order no. 00447 also targeted "the most vicious and stubborn anti-Soviet elements in camps", they were all "to be put into the first category"—that is, shot. NKVD Order no. 00447 decreed 10,000
3481:
In early 1937, poet Pavel
Nikolayevich Vasiliev is said to have defended Nikolai Bukharin as "a man of the highest nobility and the conscience of peasant Russia" at the time of his denunciation at the Pyatakov Trial (Second Moscow Trial) and damned other writers then signing the routine condemnations
2707:
At first, it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most of those purged were merely
2349:
The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. One observer noted that after disproving several charges against him, Bukharin "proceeded to demolish or rather showed he could very easily
2328:
and
Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured, but it is now known that his interrogators were given the order "beating permitted", and were under great pressure to extract confession out of the "star" defendant. Bukharin initially held out for three months, but threats to his
1870:
In the new form of Party organization, the
Politburo, and Stalin in particular, were the sole dispensers of ideology. This required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious "old guard" of revolutionaries. As the purges began, the government (through
4635:
According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research pokes "rather large holes in the traditional story" weaved by
Conquest and others. His findings, while not exonerating Stalin or the Soviet state, dispel the notion that the bloodletting was merely the result of Stalin attempting to
4344:
should be abandoned, it failed to fully rehabilitate the victims of the three Moscow trials, although the final report does contain an admission that the accusations have not been proven during the trials and "evidence" had been produced by lies, blackmail, and "use of physical influence". Bukharin,
3419:
to spy for France. In the final interrogation, he retracted his confession and wrote letters to the prosecutor's office stating that he had implicated innocent people, but to no avail. Babel was tried before an NKVD troika and convicted of simultaneously spying for the French, Austrians and
Trotsky,
2637:
and believe that representatives of these minorities were killed not because of their ethnicity, but because of their possible relations to countries hostile to the USSR and fear of disloyalty in the case of an invasion. Nevertheless, little proof exists to suggest that Russia's and Stalin's alleged
1957:
By 1929, Stalin had defeated his political opponents and gained full control over the party. He organized a committee to begin the process of industrialization of the Soviet Union. Backlash against industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture escalated, which prompted Stalin to increase
4278:
It is quite possible that Yezhov misled Stalin about the aspects of the purge process. Many people at the time, and also a few subsequent commentators, surmised that the Great Purge wasn't started by Stalin's initiative, so the idea got about that the process was entirely out of control once it had
4197:
and Oleg V. Naumov, "popular estimates of executions in the great purges vary from 500,000 to 7 million." However, according to them, "the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims" and "the data available at this
3407:
for three years, but this proved to be a temporary reprieve. In May 1938, he was arrested again for "counter-revolutionary activities". On 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps and died on 27 December 1938 at a transit camp near Vladivostok. Pasternak himself was
2467:
After the interrogations the files were submitted to NKVD troikas, which pronounced the verdicts in the absence of the accused. During a half-day-long session a troika went through several hundred cases, delivering either a death sentence or a sentence to the Gulag labor camps. Death sentences were
2385:
On 2 July 1937, in a top secret order to regional Party and NKVD chiefs Stalin instructed them to produce the estimated number of "kulaks" and "criminals" in their districts. These individuals were to be arrested and executed, or sent to the gulag camps. The party chiefs complied and produced these
2185:
I feel guilty of one thing more: even after admitting my guilt and exposing the organisation, I stubbornly refused to give evidence about Bukharin. I knew that Bukharin's situation was just as hopeless as my own, because our guilt, if not juridically, then in essence, was the same. But we are close
2173:
testified that there was a "third organization separate from the cadres which had passed through school," as well as "semi-Trotskyites, quarter-Trotskyites, one-eighth-Trotskyites, people who helped us, not knowing of the terrorist organization but sympathizing with us, people who from liberalism,
4561:
The Great Purge has provoked numerous debates about its purpose, scale, and mechanisms. According to one interpretation, Stalin's regime had to maintain its citizens in a state of fear and uncertainty to stay in power (Brzezinski, 1958). Robert Conquest emphasized Stalin's paranoia, focused on the
2711:
The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high command). The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly created, two people from the eight in
2423:
However, a large number of people were arrested at random in sweeps, on the basis of denunciations or because they were related to, were friends with or knew people already arrested. Engineers, peasants, railwaymen, and other types of workers were arrested during the "Kulak Operation" based on the
2035:
Between 1936 and 1938, three very large Moscow trials of former senior Communist Party leaders were held, in which they were accused of conspiring with fascist and capitalist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union and restore capitalism. These trials were
1930:
elected Kirov to the central committee with only three votes against, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 votes against. After Kirov's assassination, the NKVD charged the ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder as well as a growing list of other offenses,
4360:
Stalin committed a very grave crime against the Communist party, the socialist state, Soviet people and worldwide revolutionary movement...Together with Stalin, the responsibility for the abuse of law, mass unwarranted repressions and death of many thousands of wholly innocent people also lies on
4298:
Stalin undoubtedly caused many innocent people to be executed, but it seems likely that he thought many of them guilty of crimes against the state and felt that the execution of others would act as a deterrent to the guilty. He signed the papers and insisted on documentation. Hitler, by contrast,
4007:
Although the trials of former Soviet leaders were widely publicized, the hundreds of thousands of other arrests and executions were not. These became known in the West only as a few former gulag inmates reached the West with their stories. Not only did foreign correspondents from the West fail to
3771:
made up the majority of victims, with 18,000 being killed in the terror. Other victims were nobility and political and academic figures, along with some ordinary workers and herders. Mass graves containing hundreds of executed Buddhist monks and civilians have been discovered as recently as 2003.
2529:
minorities arrested during the Great Purge were executed while those sentenced during the Kulak Operation had only a 50% chance of being executed, (though this may have been due to the Gulag camp's lack of space in the late stages of the Purge rather than deliberate discrimination in sentencing).
1965:
A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for the first time, members of the ruling party were included on a massive scale as victims of the repression. In addition to ordinary citizens, prominent members of the Communist Party were also targets for the purges. The purge of the Party was
4640:
So what was the motivation behind the Terror? The answers required a lot more digging, but it gradually became clearer that the violence of the late 1930s was driven by fear. Most Bolsheviks, Stalin among them, believed that the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1871 had failed because their leaders
3040:
was flexibility: first, the numbers—the so-called limit—could be easily increased; second, it was left entirely to the NKVD officers whether a particular prisoner was to be shot or sent to the prison camps; third, the time-limits set for the completion of single operations were extended time and
4645:
Two major lines of interpretation have emerged among historians. One argues that the purges reflected Stalin's ambitions, his paranoia, and his inner drive to increase his power and eliminate potential rivals. Revisionist historians explain the purges by theorizing that rival factions exploited
3727:
to find work. At the height of the Terror, American immigrants besieged the US embassy, begging for passports so they could leave the Soviet Union. They were turned away by embassy officials, only to be arrested on the pavement outside by lurking NKVD agents. Many were subsequently shot dead at
3155:
4910:
The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document
4256:
states "theories about the elemental, spontaneous nature of the terror, about a loss of central control over the course of mass repression, and about the role of regional leaders in initiating the terror are simply not supported by the historical record". Besides signing Yezhov's lists, Stalin
3960:
the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of
2528:
Poles comprised 12.5% of those who were killed during the Great Terror, while comprising only 0.4% of the population. Overall, national minorities targeted in these campaigns composed 36% of the victims of the Great Purge, despite being only 1.6% of the Soviet Union's population. 74% of ethnic
2508:
was the largest of this kind. The Polish operation claimed the largest number of the NKVD victims: 143,810 arrests and 111,091 executions according to records. Snyder estimates that at least eighty-five thousand of them were ethnic Poles. The remainder were 'suspected' of being Polish, without
2096:, and Yezhov were present. Stalin claimed that they were the "commission" authorized by the Politburo and gave assurances that death sentences would not be carried out. After the trial, Stalin not only broke his promise to spare the defendants, he had most of their relatives arrested and shot.
2087:
and others, the methods used to extract the confessions are known: such tortures as repeated beatings, simulated drownings, making prisoners stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and
4128:
congress in February 1956 (which was made public a month later), Khrushchev referred to the purges as an "abuse of power" by Stalin which resulted in enormous harm to the country. In the same speech, he recognized that many of the victims were innocent and were convicted on the basis of false
2617:
Concerning diaspora minorities, the vast majority of whom were Soviet citizens and whose ancestors had resided for decades and sometimes centuries in the Soviet Union and Russian Empire, "this designation absolutized their cross-border ethnicities as the only salient aspect of their identity,
1839:
and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the "temporary" wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin's opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.
3128:
4513:
3449:
The investigators began to use force on me, a sick 65-year-old man. I was made to lie face down and beaten on the soles of my feet and my spine with a rubber strap ... For the next few days, when those parts of my legs were covered with extensive internal hemorrhaging, they again beat the
3044:
The victims were executed at night, either in prisons, in the cellars of NKVD headquarters, or in a secluded area, usually a forest. The NKVD officers shot prisoners in the head using pistols. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis. In Moscow, the use of
3435:, and supplied him with information about the situation in the USSR. There is no doubt that Gide used this information in his book attacking the USSR." Pilnyak was tried on 21 April 1938. In the proceeding that lasted 15 minutes, he was condemned to death and executed shortly afterward.
1730:, who headed the NKVD during the purge years. Scholars estimate the death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million. Despite the end of the Great Purge, the widespread surveillance and atmosphere of mistrust continued for decades. Similar purges took place
1715:, and Soviet citizens of Polish origin, who were subjected to forced deportation and extreme repression. Throughout the purge, the NKVD sought to strengthen control over civilians through fear, and frequently used imprisonment, torture, violent interrogation, and executions during its
4293:
posits that while the 'purposive deaths' caused by Hitler constitute 'murder', those caused under Stalin fall into the category of 'execution', although in terms of "causing death by criminal neglect and ruthlessness (...) Stalin probably exceeded Hitler". Wheatcroft elaborates:
2346:. His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what was in written confession and refuse to go any further.
2329:
young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with a double team of interrogators.
4825:
The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and
2091:
Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded, as a condition for "confessing", a direct guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families and followers would be spared. This offer was accepted, but when they were taken to the alleged Politburo meeting, only Stalin,
5071:
4150:(Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов) (1991) contains a large amount of newly presented original archive material: transcripts of interrogations, letters of convicts, and photos. The material demonstrates in detail how numerous show trials were fabricated.
4345:
Rykov, Zinoviev, and others were still seen as political opponents, and though the charges against them were obviously false, they could not have been rehabilitated because "for many years they headed the anti-Soviet struggle against the building of socialism in USSR".
4141:
and many lower-level victims were also declared innocent in the 1950s. Nikolai Bukharin and others convicted in the Moscow Trials were not rehabilitated until as late as 1988. Leon Trotsky, considered a major player in the Russian Revolution and a major contributor to
4012:
took the position that evidence of the camps should be ignored so the French proletariat would not be discouraged. A series of legal actions ensued at which definitive evidence was presented that established the validity of the former labor camp inmates' testimony.
2350:
demolish the whole case." He continued by saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was based solely on confessions. He finished his last plea with the words:
2321:
On the first day of trial, Krestinsky caused a sensation when he repudiated his written confession and pleaded not guilty to all the charges. However, he changed his plea the next day after "special measures", which dislocated his left shoulder among other things.
2696:(then equivalent to four-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-star generals), eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts), 50 of 57 army
2151:
That while confessions are necessarily entitled to the most serious consideration, the confessions themselves contain such inherent improbabilities as to convince the Commission that they do not represent the truth, irrespective of any means used to obtain
2274:
Even previously sympathetic observers who had accepted the earlier trials found it more difficult to accept these new allegations as they became ever more absurd, and the purge expanded to include almost every living Old Bolshevik leader except Stalin and
1879:, as well as the majority of Lenin's Politburo, for disagreements in policy. The NKVD attacked the supporters, friends, and family of these "heretical" Marxists, whether they lived in Russia or not. The NKVD nearly annihilated Trotsky's family before
4064:
Evidence and the results of research began to appear after Stalin's death. This revealed the full enormity of the Purges. The first of these sources were the revelations of Nikita Khrushchev, which particularly affected the American editors of the
4299:
wanted to be rid of the Jews and communists simply because they were Jews and communists. He was not concerned about making any pretence at legality. He was careful not to sign anything on this matter and was equally insistent on no documentation.
3478:, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus under Stalin and subsequently head of the NKVD, further pressured Iashvili with the alternatives of denouncing Tabidze or being arrested and tortured by the NKVD, Iashvili killed himself.
2155:
That Trotsky never instructed any of the accused or witnesses in the Moscow trials to enter into agreements with foreign powers against the Soviet Union that Trotsky never recommended, plotted, or attempted the restoration of capitalism in the
4541:
4441:
3474:, shot himself with a hunting gun in the building of the Writers' Union. He witnessed and was even forced to participate in public trials that ousted many of his associates from the Writers' Union, effectively condemning them to death. When
2424:
fact that they worked for or near important strategic sites and factories where work accidents had occurred due to "frantic rhythms and plans". During this period the NKVD reopened these cases and relabeled them as "sabotage" or "wrecking."
2420:, participants in peasant rebellions, members of the clergy, persons deprived of voting rights, former members of non-Bolshevik parties, ordinary criminals, like thieves, known to the police and various other "socially harmful elements".
2052:
that opposed Stalin, although its activities were exaggerated. Among other accusations, they were incriminated with the assassination of Kirov and plotting to kill Stalin. After confessing to the charges, all were sentenced to death and
4636:
establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an exaggerated fear of counterrevolution:
2712:
the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway. However the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.
1824:. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people. But from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution.
1954:. As the Russian Civil War drew to a close, this campaign was relaxed although the secret police did remain active. From 1924 to 1928, the mass repression – including incarceration in the Gulag system – dropped significantly.
10328:
4185:
were of individuals who had received this sentence. Despite this, the lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 "legal" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of
2068:, and were accused of plotting with Trotsky, who was said to be conspiring with Germany. Thirteen of the defendants were eventually executed by shooting and the rest received sentences in labor camps where they soon died.
2544:. The officials were mandated to arrest and execute a specific number of so-called "counter-revolutionaries", compiled by administration using various statistics but also telephone books with names sounding non-Russian.
1917:
By 1934, several of Stalin's rivals, such as Trotsky, began calling for Stalin's removal and attempted to break his control over the party. In this atmosphere of doubt and suspicion, the popular high-ranking official
4562:
Moscow show trial of "Old Bolsheviks", and analyzed the carefully planned and systematic destruction of the Communist Party. Some others view the Great Purge as a crucial moment, or rather the culmination, of a vast
3802:
broke out amid the purge. Sheng received assistance from the NKVD. Sheng and the Soviets alleged a massive Trotskyist conspiracy and a "Fascist Trotskyite plot" to destroy the Soviet Union. The Soviet Consul General
2118:. Although the hearings were obviously conducted with a view to proving Trotsky's innocence, they brought to light evidence which established that some of the specific charges made at the trials could not be true.
2114:, commonly known as the Dewey Commission, was set up in the United States by supporters of Trotsky, to establish the truth about the trials. The commission was headed by the noted American philosopher and educator
4340:. They were given the task to investigate the materials concerning Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and others. The commission worked in 1956–1957. While stating that the accusations against Tukhachevsky
3008:
While being the most visible part, the trials and executions of the former Bolshevik leaders were only a minor aspect of the purges. A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by
1738:. While the Soviet government desired to put Trotsky on trial during the purge, his exile prevented this. Trotsky survived the purge, though he would be assassinated in 1940 by the NKVD on the orders of Stalin.
3403:(Stalin jotted down in Bukharin's letter with feigned indignation: "Who gave them the right to arrest Mandelstam?"), Stalin instructed NKVD to "isolate but preserve" him, and Mandelstam was "merely" exiled to
2266:
The fact that Yagoda was one of the accused showed the speed at which the purges were consuming their own. It was now alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder
4416:
In 2007, one such site, the Butovo firing range near Moscow, was turned into a shrine to the victims of Stalinism. Between August 1937 and October 1938, more than 20,000 people were shot and buried there.
2279:. No other crime of the Stalin years so captivated Western intellectuals as the trial and execution of Bukharin, who was a Marxist theorist of international standing. For some prominent communists such as
1949:
onward, Lenin had used repression against perceived and legitimate enemies of the Bolsheviks as a systematic method of instilling fear and facilitating control over the population in a campaign called the
1685:
4097:
3663:
development research was judged un-Marxist, 27 astronomers disappeared between 1936 and 1938. The Meteorological Office was violently purged as early as 1933 for failing to predict weather harmful to the
2354:
he monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may the great might of the U.S.S.R. become clear to all.
2036:
highly publicized and extensively covered by the outside world, which was mesmerized by the spectacle of Lenin's closest associates confessing to most outrageous crimes and begging for death sentences:
4061:
technicians, managers, supervisors, scientists". Knickerbocker also wrote about dekulakization: "It is a conservative estimate to say that some 5,000,000 ... died at once, or within a few years."
2610:
wrote "In Ukraine 1937 began in 1933", referring to the earlier Soviet political repressions in Ukraine. There was also deadly persecution of Ukrainian cultural elites, who are referred to as the
113:
3936:
3415:
was arrested in May 1939, and according to his confession paper (which contained a blood stain) he "confessed" to being a member of a Trotskyist organization and being recruited by French writer
2400:
The following categories appear to have been on index-cards, catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the NKVD and were systematically tracked down: "ex-kulaks" previously deported to "
3583:
was arrested in 1938, and accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists". He was executed on 4 October 1938. Another Esperanto writer
2442:, including active parishioners, was nearly annihilated: 85% of the 35,000 members of the clergy were arrested. Particularly vulnerable to repression were also the so-called "special settlers" (
2449:
Common criminals such as thieves, "violators of the passport regime", etc. were also dealt with in a summary way. In Moscow, for example, nearly one third of the 20,765 persons executed on the
1962:. The kulaks responded by destroying crop yields and other acts of sabotage against the Soviet government. The food shortage led to a mass famine across the USSR and slowed the Five Year Plan.
3267:, was a Soviet economist, chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and Professor of the Agricultural Academy in Moscow but was eventually executed on fabricated charges in 1938.
3645:, an expert on East Asian languages, was arrested by the NKVD on the charge of being a "Japanese spy". On 27 November 1937 he was executed, along with his Japanese wife Isoko Mantani-Nevsky.
1843:
This opposition to current leadership may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The
4391:("openness and transparency") it became possible not only to speak about the Great Terror but to begin locating the killing grounds of 1937–1938 and identifying those who lay buried there.
1966:
accompanied by the purge of the whole society. Soviet historians organize the Great Purge into three corresponding trials. The following events are used for the demarcation of the period:
10221: – Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pp. 369–439, 767–79
4365:
Molotov stated "We would have been complete idiots if we had taken the reports at their face value. We were not idiots." and that "the cases were reviewed and some people were released"
2397:, former members of political parties other than the communist party, etc.). They were to be executed or sent to Gulag prison camps extrajudicially, under the decisions of NKVD troikas.
11120:
9093:
Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gabor T.; Zemskov, Viktor N. (October 1993). "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence".
2446:) who were under permanent police surveillance and constituted a huge pool of potential "enemies" to draw on. At least 100,000 of them were arrested in the course of the Great Terror.
4217:
saying "The report written by that commission member…says that 1,370,000 arrests were made in the 1930s. That's too many. I responded that the figures should be thoroughly reviewed".
2225:
2196:
1993:
11759:
2618:
sufficient proof of their disloyalty and sufficient justification for their arrest and execution" (Martin, 2001: 338). Some scholars have called the national operations of the NKVD
4024:, with respect to the trials of former leaders, some Western observers were unintentionally or intentionally ignorant of the fraudulent nature of the charges and evidence, notably
10607:
2040:
The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Kamenevite-Zinovievite-Leftist-Counter-Revolutionary Bloc," held in August 1936, at which the chief defendants were
4473:
2468:
immediately enforceable. The executions were carried out at night, either in prisons or in secluded areas run by the NKVD and located as a rule on the outskirts of major cities.
2471:
The "Kulak Operation" was the largest single campaign of repression in 1937–38, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed, more than half the total of known executions.
4650:
reports that the purge was not intended to subdue the Soviet masses, many of whom helped enact the purge, but to deal with opposition to Stalin's rule among the Soviet elites.
4405:
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many more mass graves filled with executed victims of the terror were discovered and turned into memorial sites. Some, such as the
2626:
called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal". However, he does not consider the Great Purge entirely genocidal because it also targeted political opponents.
656:
9715:
5389:
12163:
12146:
10291:
2583:, ethnic Poles constituted the largest group of victims in the Great Terror, comprising less than 0.5% of the country's population but comprising 12.5% of those executed.
1583:
1180:
4621:, which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by
1863:
participated, and which later led to both of their deaths. Stalin enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending
12193:
10459:
10424:
10420:
1927:
4899:
3767:, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and proceeded to execute tens of thousands of people accused of having ties to "pro-Japanese spy rings". Buddhist
8962:
621:
3991:
When the relatives of those who had been executed in 1937–1938 inquired about their fate, they were told by NKVD that their arrested relatives had been sentenced to "
12971:
11633:
10980:
2896:
communists that perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists that were handed over from Stalin to the Gestapo after the signing of the
9047:
3864:
Purging the elites; adopting plans for the mass repressions against the "social base" of the potential aggressors, starting of purging the "elites" from opposition.
2547:
The Polish Operation of the NKVD served as a model for a series of similar NKVD secret decrees targeting a number of the Soviet Union's diaspora nationalities: the
2079:
It is now known that the confessions were given only after great psychological pressure and torture had been applied to the defendants. From the accounts of former
11221:
11179:
10622:
10358:
10297:
4669:
4122:
2647:
1650:. Soviet politicians who opposed or criticized Stalin were removed from office and imprisoned or executed by the NKVD. Eventually, the purges were expanded to the
553:
4699:
4628:
Valentin Berezhkov, who became Stalin's interpreter in 1941, suggests parallels in his memoir between Hitler's inner party purge and Stalin's mass repressions of
3286:, founder of the Computing Institute in 1919 and was noted for his specialism in applied celestial mechanics before the Second World War. He was executed in 1941.
1827:
The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by
12136:
4008:
report on the purges, but in many Western nations (especially France), attempts were made to silence or discredit these witnesses; according to Robert Conquest,
4493:
12656:
12156:
11360:
2579:. Of the operations against national minorities, it was the largest one, second only to the "Kulak Operation" in terms of the number of victims. According to
11623:
3969:, were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public.
3870:
Mass repressions against "kulaks", "dangerous" ethnic minorities, family members of oppositionists, military officers, saboteurs in agriculture and industry.
2892:
argued that Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective countries. He referenced 600 active
1491:
1168:
1102:
801:
522:
4585:
viewed the excessive violence characteristic of the mass purges as an ideological differentiation between Stalinism and Bolshevism. He summarised his view:
2129:
in December 1935 to "receive terrorist instructions" from Trotsky. The Dewey Commission established that no such flight had taken place. Another defendant,
12182:
12151:
10807:
4641:
hadn't adequately anticipated the ferocity of the counter-revolutionary reaction from the establishment. They were determined not to make the same mistake.
3572:
was arrested on a charge of his alleged participation in the "Japanese-SR Terrorist Subversive Espionage Organization". He was executed on 12 October 1937.
2989:
who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive. Four of the other five were executed; the fifth,
2982:
1958:
police presence in rural areas. Soviet authorities increased repression against the kulaks (i.e., wealthy peasants that owned farmland) in a policy called
427:
2361:
and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the leading defendants were executed except Rakovsky and two others (who were killed in
1783:" became enshrined party policy. However, in the early 1930s, party officials began to lose faith in his leadership, largely due to the human cost of the
12141:
12093:
2598:
Timothy Snyder attributes 300,000 deaths during the Great Purge to "national terror" including ethnic minorities and Ukrainian "kulaks" who had survived
4529:
4316:
At least two Soviet commissions investigated the show-trials after Stalin's death. The first was headed by Molotov and included Voroshilov, Kaganovich,
11638:
11618:
11092:
3536:, was executed on 27 October 1937. He created a classification of Russian dialects that served as a base for modern scientific linguistic nomenclature.
3749:
executions for this contingent, but at least three times more were shot in the course of the secret mass operation, the majority in March–April 1938.
12911:
12390:
11628:
10712:
6602:
1747:
404:
389:
129:
4572:, much of the Great Purge was directed against the widespread banditry and criminal activity which was occurring in the Soviet Union at the time.
3459:
was arrested on 10 October 1937 on a charge of treason and was tortured in prison. In a bitter humor, he named only the 18th-century Georgian poet
6682:
3431:
was arrested on 28 October 1937 for counter-revolutionary activities, spying and terrorism. One report alleged that "he held secret meetings with
11643:
11200:
4598:
4163:
4158:
Official figures put the total number of documentable executions during the years 1937 and 1938 at 681,692, in addition to 116,000 deaths in the
4080:
895:
4883:
According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials
4050:. While "Communist Parties everywhere simply transmitted the Soviet line", some of the most critical reporting also came from the left, notably
2456:
To carry out the mass arrests, the 25,000 officers of the State Security personnel of NKVD were complemented with units of ordinary police, and
586:
2263:, said in his memoirs that Bukharin told him that he formed a secret bloc with Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to remove Stalin from leadership.
918:
9843:
3976:, arrested in April 1938 and shot (or died from torture) in February 1939 (his wife, G. A. Yegorova, was shot in August 1938); Army Commander
3972:
In some cases, high military command arrested under Yezhov were later executed under Beria. Some examples include Marshal of the Soviet Union
12088:
11701:
11613:
10677:
10538:
7176:
7149:
6347:
Dyck, Kirsten (2022). "Holodomor and Holocaust memory in competition and cooperation". In Cox, John M.; Khoury, Amal; Minslow, Sarah (eds.).
4566:
campaign started at the beginning of the 1930s (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003; Werth, 2003). According to an October 1993 study published in
2629:
Some scholars, however, focus on the security dilemma in the border areas suggesting the need to secure the ethnic integrity of Soviet space
452:
447:
3876:
Stopping of mass operations, abolishing of many organs of extrajudicial executions, repressions against some organizers of mass repressions.
3273:, Soviet economist and ranked among the most influential contributors to the classical Marxist tradition. He is noted for his seminal work,
1654:
and military high command, which had a disastrous effect on the military. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society:
11754:
11103:
10383:
10379:
6373:"The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network"
4694:
4174:
3992:
2133:, confessed to taking part in the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, at a time when he had already been in prison for a year.
546:
527:
442:
437:
432:
3995:" (десять лет без права переписки). When these ten-year periods elapsed in 1947–1948 but the arrested did not appear, the relatives asked
2997:
in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one (
12273:
12243:
10735:
10338:
6101:"The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n°00447 (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network"
5045:
4684:
1120:
956:
861:
717:
234:
204:
6871:
6790:
4402:
in the White Sea, and erected next to KGB headquarters in Moscow as a memorial to all "the victims of political repression" since 1917.
12530:
12490:
12400:
12211:
11727:
11161:
10985:
1107:
413:
7342:
6244:
Sundström, Olle; Kotljarchuk, Andrej (2017). "Introduction: the problem of ethnic and religious minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union".
5537:
Anti-Soviet 'Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites' Heard before the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R., Verbatim Report
2148:
That the conduct of the Moscow Trials was such as to convince any unprejudiced person that no attempt was made to ascertain the truth.
1722:
In 1938, Stalin reversed his stance on the purges, criticized the NKVD for carrying out mass executions, and oversaw the execution of
12518:
12413:
12285:
12071:
10745:
10717:
7721:
1764:
1484:
704:
699:
474:
7423:
3890:
3488:, philosopher and deputy head of the Marx-Engels Institute, was Stalin's private tutor when Stalin was trying hard to study Hegel's
1984:
17:
12966:
12423:
12340:
12233:
11390:
11047:
10687:
10353:
8705:
848:
484:
375:
7775:
6763:
5251:
12363:
12170:
12037:
10960:
10909:
10271:
4453:
4374:
3627:
executive producer for the Soviet film monopoly from 1930 to 1937, was executed as a "traitor" in 1938, following a purge of the
3324:
2386:
lists within days, with figures which roughly corresponded to the individuals who were already under secret police surveillance.
818:
759:
539:
517:
7369:
2332:
Bukharin's confession in particular became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel
12976:
12906:
12061:
11906:
11138:
11005:
10964:
10617:
10543:
10454:
10348:
7987:
7694:
6923:"Kurapaty (1937–1941): NKVD Mass Killings in Soviet Belarus | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network"
4674:
4563:
4398:
in Belarus were the site of a clash between demonstrators and the police. In 1990, a boulder stone was brought from the former
3901:
2614:. Statistics of Ukraine's Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicate that about 200,000 victims of the Great Purge were Ukrainians.
2401:
1304:
1299:
1026:
616:
7494:
7467:
6844:
6066:
4308:
3496:
which was led by Leon Trotsky. In 1937, Sten was seized on the direct order of Stalin, who declared him one of the chiefs of "
12548:
12049:
12015:
12003:
11998:
11889:
10170:
10133:—— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32."
10052:
10031:
10010:
9988:
9966:
9947:
9925:
9903:
9856:
9823:
9802:
9783:
9761:
9738:
9226:
9139:
8742:
8715:
8688:
7997:
7970:
7785:
7758:
7748:
7731:
7704:
7659:
7585:
7558:
7531:
7521:
7504:
7477:
7450:
7406:
7379:
7352:
7325:
7298:
7186:
7159:
7132:
7105:
6881:
6854:
6827:
6817:
6800:
6773:
6746:
6719:
6692:
6665:
6356:
5261:
5234:
4704:
1173:
928:
754:
12475:
8966:
8130:
7575:
7315:
6449:
6390:"The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study"
6147:
2723:
disagreed, arguing that the Red Army was less effective after its intellectual leadership had been eliminated in the purge.
1289:
12585:
12353:
10449:
10444:
10388:
9129:
7960:
7675:
6736:
6209:
5535:
5224:
4904:
3980:, arrested July 1938 and shot February 1939; Flagman Konstantin Dushenov, arrested May 1938 and shot February 1940; Komkor
3551:
1971:
1795:
1477:
730:
570:
344:
7241:
6168:О фашистско-повстанческой, шпионской, диверсионной, пораженческой и террористической деятельности польской разведки в СССР
3565:, considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century, was shot on 3 November 1937.
2140:. Its conclusions asserted the innocence of all those condemned in the Moscow Trials. In its summary, the commission wrote
12981:
12465:
12131:
12078:
12066:
11155:
10899:
10817:
10682:
10501:
9723:
Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s
9057:
7649:
6389:
4714:
4689:
4125:
3442:
was arrested in 1939 and shot in February 1940 for "spying" for Japanese and British intelligence. His wife, the actress
3408:
nearly purged, but Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off the list, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller."
3275:
2488:
2484:
1672:
began affecting civilian life. The purge reached its peak between September 1936 and August 1938 under the leadership of
1590:
1424:
626:
10590:
7548:
7006:
2056:
The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures known as the "anti-Soviet Trotskyite-centre" which included
12881:
12513:
12508:
12228:
12176:
11302:
10975:
10940:
10882:
9654:
9616:
9597:
9578:
9543:
9511:
9488:
9466:
9447:
9425:
9401:
9380:
9359:
8807:
8777:
8535:
8424:
8373:
8182:
7826:
7288:
7002:
6906:
6490:
6331:
6258:
5884:
5585:
5007:
4121:
The Great Purge was denounced by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev following Stalin's death. In his secret speech to the
3996:
3331:, who oversaw Soviet construction projects and nationalization of the chemical industry. Bogdanov was executed in 1939.
3135:
2913:
1294:
1212:
1148:
694:
7440:
7095:
6480:
12896:
12891:
12886:
12765:
12716:
12649:
12460:
12188:
11790:
11694:
11340:
11071:
8732:
7676:"Yuri Gastev, Russian dissident and human rights activist; at 65 – The Boston Globe (Boston, MA) | HighBeam Research"
5877:
Not guilty : report of the Commission of Inquiry Into the Charges Made Against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials
3758:
2871:
2809:
2434:, one of the remaining leaders of the White movement, was kidnapped by the NKVD in 1937 and executed 19 months later.
1731:
1128:
467:
72:
7122:
5158:
4940:
3923:
In the summer of 1938, Yezhov was relieved from his post as head of the NKVD and was eventually tried and executed.
2853:
12926:
12795:
12783:
12607:
12597:
12553:
12368:
12044:
11993:
11876:
11345:
10862:
10343:
8980:
8172:
7396:
6407:
4252:
Historians with archival access have confirmed that Stalin was intimately involved in the purge. Russian historian
1158:
462:
108:
10238:
9218:
At Stalin's side : his interpreter's memoirs from the October Revolution to the fall of the dictator's empire
7344:
An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations
5509:
5483:
3013:
demonstrate that there were limits for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.
2088:
charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.
12800:
12788:
12644:
12629:
12543:
12445:
12027:
11847:
11365:
10852:
10847:
10827:
10775:
10491:
9666:"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest"
8619:
8612:
7205:
Sharma, Hari Prasad; Sen, Subir K. (2006). "Shubnikov: A case of non-recognition in superconductivity research".
5688:
4201:
3696:
2537:
2497:
was carried out from 1937 through 1938 targeting specific nationalities within the Soviet Union, on the order of
1229:
796:
316:
Elimination of political opponents, consolidation of power, fear of counterrevolution, fear of party infiltration
9940:
Two Lectures: Stalin's Great Terror: Origins and Consequences – Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Marxism in the USSR
9216:
3388:
had futilely pleaded for his case prior to his eventual execution due to accusations of working as a German spy.
3234:
considered the "Soviet founding father of Soviet low-temperature physics" He was known for the discovery of the
3219:. He was removed from his formal positions in 1935 and perished in prison in 1943 following his conflicts with
2271:
by poison, partition the USSR and hand its territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, and other charges.
12741:
12721:
12418:
12032:
11857:
11785:
11410:
11314:
10955:
10822:
10141:
8600:
8575:
7926:
7872:
6982:
6966:
6291:
5651:
4568:
4190:, Conquest claimed that he had been "correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million".
3764:
3704:
3580:
2838:
2791:
1799:
1707:. Many died at the penal labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure, and overwork. The NKVD targeted certain
1376:
1085:
1048:
479:
364:
354:
167:
6372:
4173:, a practice of falsification for lowering the execution numbers was disguising executions with the sentence "
3723:
Victims of the terror included American immigrants to the Soviet Union who had emigrated at the height of the
2993:, had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent
12936:
12931:
12921:
12812:
12639:
12503:
12455:
12216:
12010:
11884:
11867:
10935:
10832:
8454:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence"
4916:
4618:
3642:
1923:
1444:
1414:
1409:
94:
6111:
6100:
5277:
12956:
12951:
12916:
12408:
12083:
11978:
11779:
11687:
11590:
11355:
11017:
10867:
10780:
10506:
10496:
10469:
10210:
8161:
Allen S. Whiting and General Sheng Shicai. "Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot?" Michigan State University Press, 1958
4741:
4579:
regarded the Moscow trials "as the prelude to the destruction of an entire generation of revolutionaries".
4225:
3973:
3613:
3529:
3377:
3235:
2940:
2928:
2787:
2708:
expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–1939 were allowed to return to service.
2505:
2393:
was issued, directed against "ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" (such as former officials of the
2084:
1708:
1429:
1279:
1095:
1090:
1070:
913:
908:
869:
823:
811:
786:
776:
745:
735:
422:
54:
3946:
Michael Parrish argues that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s.
1794:
From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the "social disorder" caused by the upheavals of
12961:
12689:
12671:
12437:
12295:
12256:
12223:
11913:
11901:
11817:
11719:
11037:
10692:
10464:
10439:
10415:
10323:
10264:
10121:
9415:
4679:
4432:
3940:
3828:
3339:
3037:
2950:, in which the NKVD oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements in the Spanish Republican forces including
2897:
2693:
2677:
2657:
2494:
2480:
1805:
1716:
1419:
1404:
1399:
1038:
1033:
974:
781:
578:
512:
46:
8936:
3943:
and suspended implementation of death sentences. The decree signaled the end of massive Soviet purges.
1688:
headed by Stalin. Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of various political crimes (espionage,
12684:
12661:
12634:
11650:
11380:
11370:
11335:
10872:
10528:
10243:
10230:
10061:
Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited."
8763:
8461:
7015:
3493:
2905:
2252:
2049:
1852:
1269:
1239:
6709:
5358:
Shearer, David. 2003. "Social Disorder, Mass Repression and the NKVD During the 1930s." pp. 85–117 in
2071:
There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of Red Army commanders, including
12726:
12699:
12602:
10474:
9883:
6245:
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as "pornographic scrawls on the margins of Russian literature". He was promptly shot on 16 July 1937.
3074:
2917:
2909:
2893:
457:
12694:
6922:
6036:
Report by Viscount Chilston (British ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, No. 141, Moscow, 21 March 1938
12807:
11375:
11211:
11127:
11064:
10857:
10740:
10697:
10657:
9862:
8592:
7918:
7889:
6994:
2362:
1780:
1668:)—and professionals. As the scope of the purge widened, the omnipresent suspicion of saboteurs and
1635:
1058:
725:
8174:
Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949
8044:
7801:
2943:, spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937.
12056:
11585:
11189:
11078:
10945:
10812:
9503:
9173:
9155:
8851:
8206:
7124:
Covariant Loop Quantum Gravity: An Elementary Introduction to Quantum Gravity and Spinfoam Theory
4447:"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988
4130:
4092:
3985:
3819:
were among the 435 alleged conspirators in the plot. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control.
3298:
2849:
2780:
2634:
2439:
2370:
2229:
1689:
1611:
1522:
1202:
879:
674:
9013:
8616:
7029:
5908:
5403:
4038:, who reported, "proof ... beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict of treason"; and
3446:, was murdered in her apartment. In a letter to Molotov dated 13 January 1940, Meyerhold wrote:
3320:. Gerasimovich was arrested along with 13 other astronomers and was personally executed in 1938.
1934:
Another justification for the purge was to remove any possible "fifth column" in case of a war.
12736:
12328:
12266:
11668:
11577:
10672:
10558:
10257:
9626:
8013:
4979:
James Harris, "Encircled by Enemies: Stalin's Perceptions of the Capitalist World, 1918–1941,"
4664:
3947:
3916:. He was posthumously removed from pictures, such as here where he stood next to Joseph Stalin.
3692:
3239:
2936:
2461:
2413:
10216:
8767:
8363:
6121:
5832:
1700:, conspiracies to prepare uprisings and coups). They were executed by shooting or sent to the
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11827:
11564:
11109:
11098:
11032:
10612:
10333:
10069:
9570:
8567:
8527:
8073:
American Communists and Radicals Executed by Soviet Political Police and Buried at Sandarmokh
7469:
Automation and Autonomy: Labour, Capital and Machines in the Artificial Intelligence Industry
7010:
6547:
6152:["The Polish operation" NKVD 1937–1938] (in Russian). НИПЦ «Мемориал». Archived from
5253:
Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia
4793:
4752:
4290:
3952:
3511:
3343:
3170:
2339:
1864:
1697:
1669:
1075:
874:
10244:"Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38"
9721:
A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev.
4427:
In August 2021, a mass grave containing between 5,000 and 8,000 skeletons was discovered in
4177:" which almost always meant execution. All of the bodies identified from the mass graves at
4109:
3798:
province in China launched his own purge in 1937 to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. The
2177:
By the "third organization," he meant the last remaining former opposition group called the
12941:
12876:
12617:
12480:
12300:
12098:
11812:
11516:
11444:
11385:
11296:
11251:
10928:
10429:
10410:
9260:
7253:
7060:
7051:
Bronstein, Matvei (2011). "Republication of: Quantum theory of weak gravitational fields".
6941:
5431:
3962:
3950:(a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in
3653:
3628:
3212:
3062:
3025:
2661:
2611:
2533:
2390:
2072:
1872:
1784:
1757:
1681:
1366:
1222:
1080:
1053:
943:
938:
923:
791:
12704:
9411:
3984:, arrested August 1938 and shot March 1939. All the aforementioned have been posthumously
2259:
asserts that Bukharin was not involved. Differently from Broué, one of his former allies,
1735:
8:
12844:
12573:
12378:
12307:
12115:
11964:
11842:
11764:
11737:
11524:
11508:
11492:
11261:
11216:
11184:
10970:
10563:
10553:
10484:
10081:
9891:
6970:
4731:
4399:
4349:
4321:
4066:
4057:
3799:
3781:
3729:
3471:
3317:
3254:
3166:
3050:
2450:
1910:
1880:
1467:
1264:
1217:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1004:
843:
689:
643:
9665:
7257:
7064:
4926:
3420:
as well as "membership in a terrorist organization". On 27 January 1940, he was shot in
12946:
12711:
12622:
11939:
11852:
11742:
11732:
11548:
11476:
11468:
11427:
11400:
11395:
11132:
11085:
10877:
10770:
10662:
10521:
10116:
Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38."
10098:
9696:
9642:
9110:
9052:
8998:
8903:
8478:
8211:
7630:
7222:
7076:
6430:
5759:
5363:
5346:
5341:
Hagenloh, Paul. 2000. "Socially Harmful Elements and the Great Terror." pp. 286–307 in
5205:
5102:
5094:
4870:
4816:
4746:
4735:
4647:
4353:
4238:
4230:
4214:
4178:
4030:
3999:
about their fate again and this time were told that the arrested died in imprisonment.
3569:
3439:
3404:
3381:
3313:
3264:
3250:
3243:
3108:
2986:
2978:
2669:
2314:
2260:
2241:
2237:
2093:
2065:
1946:
1935:
1894:
1788:
1449:
1153:
1143:
1063:
664:
301:
289:
147:
85:
This article is about the 1936–1938 Soviet purge. For political purges in general, see
9877:
9184:
8113:
6512:
Cahiers du monde russe. Russie – Empire russe – Union soviétique et États indépendants
5317:
3036:, or their deputies) those arrested along national lines. A characteristic of all the
12819:
12759:
12538:
12324:
12020:
11822:
11807:
11749:
11595:
11226:
11027:
10950:
10667:
10511:
10434:
10405:
10166:
10073:
10048:
10042:
10027:
10006:
9998:
9984:
9976:
9962:
9943:
9921:
9899:
9852:
9819:
9798:
9779:
9757:
9734:
9700:
9688:
9650:
9631:
9612:
9593:
9574:
9539:
9507:
9484:
9462:
9443:
9421:
9397:
9376:
9370:
9355:
9222:
9135:
9021:
8911:
8803:
8773:
8738:
8711:
8684:
8660:
8596:
8571:
8531:
8453:
8420:
8369:
8178:
7993:
7966:
7922:
7868:
7781:
7754:
7727:
7700:
7655:
7622:
7581:
7554:
7527:
7500:
7473:
7446:
7402:
7375:
7348:
7321:
7294:
7269:
7214:
7182:
7155:
7128:
7101:
7080:
6998:
6978:
6962:
6945:
article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including:
6902:
6877:
6850:
6823:
6796:
6769:
6742:
6715:
6688:
6661:
6642:
6529:
6486:
6352:
6327:
6287:
6254:
5890:
5880:
5763:
5751:
5647:
5581:
5541:
5257:
5230:
5197:
5106:
5003:
4862:
4610:
4594:
4384:
4261:
3932:
3908:
3732:. In addition, 141 American Communists of Finnish origin were executed and buried at
3608:
3591:
3584:
3158:
3147:
3017:
3010:
2981:, or in Lenin's Soviet government, were executed. Out of six members of the original
2901:
2845:
2374:
2292:
2201:
2112:
Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials
1836:
1620:
1439:
1371:
1351:
1316:
1311:
1207:
1043:
994:
969:
964:
933:
669:
507:
219:
10842:
6434:
6247:
Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research
5226:
Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat
4820:
4348:
The second commission largely worked from 1961 to 1963 and was headed by Shvernik ("
3858:
Reforming the security organizations, adopting official plans on purging the elites.
3525:
was arrested in 1933 for contradicting Soviet ideology. He was shot in October 1937.
2994:
2908:
became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the
1884:
11540:
11532:
11350:
11308:
11282:
11171:
11042:
11022:
10995:
10755:
10516:
10090:
9680:
9525:
9476:
9102:
8470:
8064:
7614:
7261:
7068:
6954:
6519:
6507:
6422:
6067:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)"
5743:
5727:
5533:
5390:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)"
5189:
5086:
4854:
4808:
4659:
4380:
4325:
4272:
4242:
4138:
4035:
4009:
3737:
3724:
3652:
was executed on 3 November 1937. He is considered to be one of the lead figures of
3635:
3620:
3533:
3501:
3373:
3258:
3190:
3033:
2970:, a left-wing academic and translator along with many members of the POUM faction.
2932:
2744:
2591:
2517:
2380:
2334:
2307:
2217:
2178:
2105:
2048:, two of the most prominent former party leaders, who had indeed been members of a
2041:
2029:
1939:
1898:
1888:
1860:
1848:
1832:
1559:
1513:
1284:
1254:
903:
889:
806:
611:
491:
297:
293:
9716:
Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag
8140:
8118:
Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe
5747:
5663:
4519:
A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of
3939:) and the subsequent order of the NKVD undersigned by Beria cancelled most of the
3416:
12731:
11944:
11896:
11802:
11484:
11276:
11194:
10990:
10919:
10750:
10595:
10585:
10374:
10239:
Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)
10074:"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"
10021:
9813:
9771:
9553:
9535:
9391:
9352:
The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB
9079:
8797:
8678:
8623:
6946:
6321:
6153:
5575:
4997:
4993:
4602:
4576:
4206:
4170:
4017:
3924:
3815:, Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang and
3804:
3604:, seen as one of the founders of modern Yakut literature, died in prison in 1939.
3475:
3463:
as his accomplice in anti-Soviet activities. He was executed on 16 December 1937.
3456:
3400:
3392:
3385:
3290:
3200:
3194:
3120:
3084:
3002:
2673:
2665:
2541:
2325:
2288:
2276:
2161:
The commission concluded: "We therefore find the Moscow Trials to be frame-ups."
2130:
2122:
1977:
1937, introduction of NKVD troikas for implementation of "revolutionary justice."
1624:
1606:
1356:
1346:
1244:
884:
833:
281:
90:
10003:
Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine
9731:
Enemies within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939
9255:
8877:
8524:
The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939
8269:
7679:
6213:
5967:
De Lenine à Staline. Dix ans au service de l'Internationale communiste 1921–1931
5879:. 1859–1952. New York: Sam Sloan and Ishi Press International. pp. 154–55.
5193:
5072:"The Impact of the Great Purges on the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs"
5030:
4812:
4424:, an official but controversial recognition of the crimes of the Soviet regime.
2256:
12751:
12679:
11959:
11949:
11608:
11600:
11405:
11330:
11246:
11206:
10765:
10760:
10702:
9913:
7989:
Russian Academicians and the Revolution: Combining Professionalism and Politics
6986:
6351:. Routledge studies in modern history. London New York: Routledge. p. 31.
6317:
6273:
5577:
Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938
5131:
Goldman, W. (2005). "Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign".
4629:
4421:
4333:
4329:
4317:
4253:
4246:
4143:
4025:
3966:
3913:
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3421:
3396:
3335:
3328:
3305:
3220:
3216:
3046:
3029:
2998:
2623:
2599:
2580:
2498:
2431:
2409:
2394:
2358:
2245:
2213:
1959:
1768:
1727:
1723:
1673:
1655:
1647:
1639:
1575:
1336:
1274:
1016:
1009:
999:
633:
349:
277:
273:
10224:
10094:
9684:
9256:"Historian James Harris says Russian archives show we've misunderstood Stalin"
7618:
7072:
6684:
Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State
6081:
L'ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. Autopsie d'un meurtre de masse, 1937–1938
2756:
12901:
12870:
12612:
11500:
11460:
11256:
11149:
11144:
11000:
10923:
10889:
10652:
10647:
10533:
10280:
10235:
9935:
9753:
9529:
9435:
9025:
8915:
8793:
7626:
7273:
7218:
6533:
6062:
5894:
5755:
5385:
5201:
4866:
4758:
4606:
4337:
4234:
4194:
4039:
3981:
3840:
3649:
3443:
3428:
3399:
to his circle of friends in 1934. After intervention by Nikolai Bukharin and
3361:
3351:
3283:
3231:
2924:
2889:
2532:
The wives and children of those arrested and executed were dealt with by the
2369:, was sent to a labor camp, but she survived to see her husband posthumously
2284:
2280:
2209:
2061:
2006:
1906:
1844:
1712:
1643:
1586:
1434:
1361:
1341:
1249:
1021:
769:
684:
339:
265:
104:
8072:
6524:
3432:
2136:
The Dewey Commission later published its findings in a 422-page book titled
12495:
12316:
11710:
11556:
11452:
11271:
11012:
10797:
10707:
10568:
10191:
9873:
9692:
9521:
8068:
6637:
4582:
4484:
4435:. The graves are believed to date back to the late 1930s during the purge.
4134:
4102:
4071:
4052:
3791:
3785:
3700:
3515:
3369:
3365:
3358:
3197:
was arrested, accused of fictional "terroristic" activity and shot in 1938.
3131:
2990:
2716:
2233:
2021:
1919:
1902:
1856:
1828:
1809:
1776:
1772:
1598:
305:
159:
9459:
On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics
8417:
On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics
4858:
4700:
Orphans in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945
3470:, having earlier been forced to denounce several of his associates as the
12320:
12312:
11934:
11918:
11832:
11289:
11115:
8390:
7550:
Soviet Atomic Project, The: How The Soviet Union Obtained The Atomic Bomb
6283:
4622:
4284:
4114:
4043:
3547:
3539:
3412:
3347:
3270:
3096:
3066:
3021:
2967:
2935:
were arrested in 1937 by the NKVD and turned over to the German Gestapo.
2689:
2607:
2576:
2366:
2268:
2045:
2025:
1259:
1138:
989:
979:
638:
229:
10111:
The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military
9283:
The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military
8984:
7226:
6210:"Zapomniane ludobójstwo stalinowskie (The forgotten Stalinist genocide)"
5730:
The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military
4874:
4842:
3937:
Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation
1876:
12348:
11266:
10914:
10600:
10479:
9114:
8589:
Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940
8482:
6278:
5545:
5360:
Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union,
5098:
4709:
4548:
4280:
3977:
3833:
The Great Purge of 1936–1938 can be roughly divided into four periods:
3816:
3733:
3594:
was arrested and executed for "subversive writing" on 24 November 1937.
3562:
3497:
3309:
3204:
2974:
2959:
2951:
2885:
2794: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2560:
2417:
2170:
2115:
2057:
1951:
1752:
1704:
1163:
838:
679:
606:
384:
285:
192:
11679:
10102:
9590:
Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union
9215:
Berezhkov, V. M. (Valentin Mikhaĭlovich); Mikheyev, Sergei M. (1994).
7634:
7602:
7265:
5928:
British Embassy Report: Viscount Chilston to Mr. Eden, 6 February 1937
5209:
5177:
3611:, responsible for creating the synopsis for Sergei Prokofiev's ballet
1980:
1937, passage of Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage."
1887:
was part of an assassination task force put together by Special Agent
1638:
and secret police of the USSR. Starting in 1936, the NKVD under chief
1634:(People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), which functioned as the
984:
12568:
12563:
12385:
12278:
12108:
11769:
10894:
10785:
10642:
10580:
10126:—— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938."
8899:
8630:
4900:"The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region"
4719:
4312:
Opening of monument to victims of political repressions, Moscow, 1990
3928:
3836:
3812:
3808:
3576:
3489:
3187:
3070:
2955:
2701:
2603:
2556:
2521:
2311:
1234:
740:
601:
359:
143:
9106:
8474:
8135:
7317:
Managing Technological Innovation: Competitive Advantage from Change
5664:"Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives"
5090:
4843:"Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges"
3115:
2856:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
2769:
2365:
in 1941). Despite the promise to spare his family, Bukharin's wife,
2208:
chiefs responsible for conducting mass repressions (left to right):
12558:
12103:
11837:
11797:
10837:
10548:
7577:
Hammer and Rifle: The Militarization of the Soviet Union, 1926–1933
6658:
Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years
6426:
6377:
nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html
4460:
4406:
4395:
4388:
4265:
4182:
3795:
3708:
3485:
3224:
3154:
2685:
2619:
2568:
2564:
2552:
2457:
1693:
1651:
1616:
1133:
828:
239:
224:
196:
163:
7777:
Ensnared between Hitler and Stalin: Refugee Scientists in the USSR
7603:"Alexei Gastev and the Soviet Controversy over Taylorism, 1918-24"
7425:
The Official Record of the United States Department of Agriculture
3638:
was convicted as a "Japanese spy" and executed on 2 February 1938.
3142:
3079:
2586:
1820:" in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the expression
12450:
11954:
10573:
10398:
10393:
10153:
9845:
Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review
8852:"Pictorial essay: Death trenches bear witness to Stalin's purges"
8014:"In memory of the scientist : Durnovo, Nikolai Nikolayevich"
7651:
The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927–1932
6105:
nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html
4614:
4520:
3685:
3660:
3555:
3174:
2427:
2405:
10249:
8963:"Jewish Cemeteries, Synagogues, and Mass Grave Sites in Ukraine"
7865:
A Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror
5707:
5464:
4605:, a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the
3763:
During the late 1930s, Stalin dispatched NKVD operatives to the
3674:
2715:
The purge had a significant effect on German decision making in
10205:
7401:. (Cottons Gardens, E2 8DN), Pluto Press Limited. p. 239.
5113:
4551:
burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia
4431:, Ukraine, during exploration works for a planned expansion of
4383:
and similar organisations across the Soviet Union at a time of
4258:
3597:
3460:
3294:
3208:
3127:
3103:
2720:
2652:
2633:
neighboring capitalistic enemy states. They stress the role of
2606:
famine that had been used to kill millions in the early 1930s.
2572:
2303:
200:
8821:
8819:
7442:
The Reception of David Ricardo in Continental Europe and Japan
6326:(4th revised ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
5909:"The Case of Leon Trotsky (Report of Dewey Commission – 1937)"
4535:
A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia
3927:
succeeded him as head. On 17 November 1938, a joint decree of
3223:. The controversy would also contribute to a wider decline in
2700:
commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army
1812:, in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union
256:
system (official figures) 700,000 to 1.2 million (estimated)
12373:
12251:
10792:
9918:
Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)
8343:
7097:
Advances in the Interplay Between Quantum and Gravity Physics
5978:
5976:
5599:
5597:
5432:"The "Bloc" of the Oppositions against Stalin (January 1980)"
4878:
4504:
4464:
4428:
4159:
3844:
3091:
2947:
2697:
2548:
2220:. All three were themselves eventually arrested and executed.
1817:
1701:
1663:
1659:
1594:
399:
253:
137:
86:
10292:
General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
9896:
Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia
8452:
Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993).
8365:
Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind
7750:
Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences
6975:
Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia
4164:
16,500 to 50,000 deaths in the deportation of Soviet Koreans
3368:
in 1934. He was also the sibling of prominent mathematician
2638:
prejudices played a central causal role in the Great Purge.
12485:
12261:
9048:"Critics Scoff as Kremlin Erects Monument to the Repressed"
8816:
8307:
8297:
8295:
8280:
8082:
6901:. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 364–72.
6132:
6130:
4410:
4268:
3847:
3768:
3162:
2963:
2205:
2197:
Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"
2126:
2080:
1631:
269:
10246:
by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999
9567:
The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s
9014:"Former Killing Ground Becomes Shrine to Stalin's Victims"
8731:
Dashpu̇rėv, Danzankhorloogiĭn; Soni, Sharad Kumar (1992).
8704:
Kotkin, Stephen; Elleman, Bruce Allen (12 February 2015).
8510:
The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition
8497:
The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition
8419:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 244–45.
6765:
On the Eve: The Jews of Europe Before the Second World War
6618:
6047:
Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet
6018:
5973:
5594:
2719:: many German generals opposed an invasion of Russia, but
183:(2 years, 3 months, 4 weeks and 1 day)
12470:
12290:
8634:
8238:
6927:
kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html
6873:
Russia's International Relations in the Twentieth Century
6711:
Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History
2512:
2416:), former tsarist civil servants, former officers of the
2144:
Independent of extrinsic evidence, the Commission finds:
10329:
Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War
10298:
Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union
9481:
Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe
9307:
For a critique of Whitewood see Alexander Hill, review,
9196:
8433:
8331:
8319:
8292:
8024:
7931:
7696:
Comprehending the Complexity of Countries: The Way Ahead
6959:
Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe
6127:
5644:
Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe
5626:
5624:
5534:
People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. (1938).
5138:
4941:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Party Purge"
4670:
Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin
4420:
On 30 October 2017, President Vladimir Putin opened the
4148:
Rehabilitation: The Political Processes of the 1930s–50s
3850:(1937–1938), later himself arrested and executed in 1939
2680:. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov survived the Great Purge.
2648:
Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization
9417:
The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression
9327:
9092:
8451:
7887:
7753:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 3460.
7439:
Faccarello, Gilbert; Izumo, Masashi (3 February 2014).
6577:
6565:
6006:
5994:
5931:
5812:
5800:
5788:
5362:
edited by B. McLaughlin and K. McDermott. Basingstoke:
3049:
to kill the victims during their transportation to the
2224:
The third and final trial, in March 1938, known as the
1931:
including treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage.
1775:
opened in the Communist Party, the ruling party in the
11361:
List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin
9235:
9174:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)"
9156:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)"
8250:
8226:
8094:
7854:
The Independent, "The History of Hell", 8 January 1995
7100:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 440.
7094:
Bergmann, Peter G.; Sabbata, V. de (6 December 2012).
5847:
4960:
4958:
4271:
in Mongolia to be liquidated but the political leader
3500:
idealists". On 19 June 1937, Sten was put to death in
3395:
was arrested for reciting his famous anti-Stalin poem
3215:
such as the law of homologous series in variation and
8204:
6145:
5991:
Bertram David Wolfe, "Breaking with communism", p. 10
5859:
5621:
5278:"Leon Trotsky – Exile and assassination | Britannica"
4213:
The Soviets themselves made their own estimates with
3703:, who both organized large-scale murderous purges in
2255:
led by Trotsky and with zinovievites really existed,
2174:
from a Fronde against the Party, gave us this help."
1543:
1527:
802:
Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
10808:
Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization
10044:
The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia
9221:. Secaucus, NJ : Carol Pub. Group. p. 10.
6243:
6220:
5609:
5046:"Rethinking Stalin's Purge of the Red Army, 1937–38"
4264:
got rid of? No one." Stalin had ordered for 100,000
2474:
2453:
were charged with a non-political criminal offence.
9609:
The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953
9587:
8361:
8170:
7178:
The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography
7151:
The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography
6045:Tucker, Robert. "Block of Rights and Trotskyites."
5713:
4975:
4973:
4955:
4303:
3181:Those who perished during the Great Purge include:
1642:began the removal of the central party leadership,
11093:Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia
9842:Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008).
9841:
9633:The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: In Three Volumes
9630:
8904:"Wary of its past, Russia ignores mass grave site"
8650:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1999, p. 470
8355:
6939:This information was published first in 1990 in a
5540:. People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R.
5392:. Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network.
5159:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge"
2958:factions. Notable cases involved the execution of
1680:. The campaigns were carried out according to the
975:50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests
10150:Rehabilitation: Political Trials of the 1930s–50s
10146:Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов
9214:
8617:Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited
8565:Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle.
7422:Agriculture, United States Department of (1925).
6505:
3257:and developed the business cycle theory known as
2900:. Rogovin also noted that sixteen members of the
2181:, led by Bukharin, whom he implicated by saying:
2011:
1748:Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
1597:also sought to remove the remaining influence of
130:purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
12972:Persecution of intellectuals in the Soviet Union
12868:
12559:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
9776:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties
9350:Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000) .
6212:. Gliwicki klub Fondy. Czytelnia. Archived from
6095:
6093:
6091:
6089:
5574:Getty, John Arch; Getty, John Archibald (1987).
4970:
4146:, was never rehabilitated by the USSR. The book
4022:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties
11201:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences
9531:In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage
9440:The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia
9349:
9320:Roger R. Reese, "Stalin Attacks the Red Army."
7780:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 1–376.
7723:Groups and Analysis: The Legacy of Hermann Weyl
7438:
7371:Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography
7093:
6819:The End of the Spanish Civil War: Alicante 1939
6207:
5470:
4992:
4897:
4787:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4599:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences
2373:a half-century later by the Soviet state under
2164:
1662:—especially those lending out money or wealth (
89:. For the period of the French Revolution, see
49:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling
8730:
8207:"«Большой террор»: 1937–1938. Краткая хроника"
8077:In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage
8042:
7850:
7848:
7846:
7120:
6869:
6506:Kuromiya, Hiroaki; Pepłoński, Andrzej (2009).
6216:on 23 March 2012 – via Internet Archive.
5833:"The British Stalinists and the Moscow Trials"
5510:"Who Killed Kirov? 'The Crime of the Century'"
4034:, a Russian speaker; the American Ambassador,
3743:
3169:. He was accused of being a Japanese spy, and
11695:
10776:Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour
10678:Aggravation of class struggle under socialism
10539:Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance
10265:
9920:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
9647:Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941
8703:
8177:. Cambridge: CUP Archive. pp. 151, 376.
7428:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 3.
7200:
7198:
6405:
6086:
5924:
5922:
5178:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"
4794:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"
4556:
4413:, are said to contain up to 200,000 corpses.
4379:In the late 1980s, with the formation of the
1553:
1537:
1485:
547:
252:681,692 executions and 116,000 deaths in the
146:searching through the exhumed victims of the
10226:Actual video footage from Third Moscow Trial
10188:Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror
10023:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin
9625:
9588:McLoughlin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin (2002).
9500:The Great Fear: Stalin's Terror of the 1930s
9193:, p. 121 which cites his secret speech.
8937:"Stalin-era mass grave yields tons of bones"
8244:
8209:["Great Terror": Brief Chronology].
8131:"RTÉ News: Mass grave uncovered in Mongolia"
7127:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–7.
6279:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin
6192:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin
4938:
4898:François-Xavier, Nérard (27 February 2009).
4776:
4695:Family members of traitors to the Motherland
4368:
4175:10 years without the right of correspondence
4153:
3993:10 years without the right of correspondence
2381:"Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements"
10736:1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi
9520:
9456:
9420:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
9045:
8521:
8512:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. xvi
8499:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. 287
8414:
8388:
8368:. Reynal & Hitchcock. pp. 133–34.
8088:
7888:Tarkhan-Mouravi, George (19 January 1997).
7843:
7840:Robert C. Tucker, "Stalin in Power", p. 445
7794:
7746:
7726:. Cambridge University Press. p. 318.
7421:
7121:Rovelli, Carlo; Vidotto, Francesca (2015).
6870:Kocho-Williams, Alastair (4 January 2013).
6761:
6687:. Princeton University Press. p. 280.
6057:
6055:
4547:The monumental slab at the entrance to the
4105:on a 1963 postage stamp of the Soviet Union
3466:Tabidze's lifelong friend and fellow poet,
2757:Nikita Khrushchev speech during Great purge
1871:the NKVD) shot Bolshevik heroes, including
1646:, government officials, and regional party
1564:
11702:
11688:
11162:Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR
10272:
10258:
10068:
10040:
9975:
9750:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis
9663:
9011:
8825:
8802:. Cambridge University Press. p. 51.
7654:. Princeton University Press. p. 47.
7580:. University Press of Kansas. p. 72.
7239:
7195:
6991:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis
6474:
6472:
6470:
6253:. Södertörn Academic Studies. p. 16.
5919:
5573:
4632:, military commanders and intellectuals.
4394:In 1988, for instance, the mass graves at
4113:Monument to victims of the repressions in
3354:, emigre and eventual political dissident.
3279:. Rubin was arrested and executed in 1937.
3020:and in camera by extrajudicial organs—the
3001:) committed suicide, and two (Molotov and
2977:who had played prominent roles during the
2745:Soviet woman speech during the Great purge
1589:'s campaign to consolidate power over the
1492:
1478:
554:
540:
136:
10746:National delimitation in the Soviet Union
10718:Backwardness brings on beatings by others
9890:
9475:
9461:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
9127:
8898:
8878:"Mass grave found at Ukrainian monastery"
8772:. Harvard University Press. p. 369.
7958:
7949:Roy Medvedev, "Let history judge", p. 438
7773:
7465:
7204:
7050:
6849:. Harvard University Press. p. 212.
6815:
6734:
6523:
6203:
6201:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6179:
6177:
5630:
5043:
4133:") in 1957. The former Politburo members
3718:
3123:'s photo, taken at the time of his arrest
2872:Learn how and when to remove this message
2810:Learn how and when to remove this message
1847:seemed to vindicate Stalin's suspicions.
1630:The purges were largely conducted by the
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
12912:Political repression in the Soviet Union
10688:Great Construction Projects of Communism
10165:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
10160:
10140:
10005:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
9770:
9733:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
9649:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
9641:
9564:
9552:
9410:
9389:
9368:
9333:
9202:
9190:
9080:"Stalin-era mass grave found in Ukraine"
8841:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, pp. 276, 294
8587:Marc Jansen, Nikita Vasilʹevich Petrov.
8522:Getty, J. Arch; Naumov, Oleg V. (2010).
8439:
8349:
8337:
8325:
8313:
8301:
8286:
8100:
8030:
7937:
7883:
7881:
7802:"Biography of Osip Emilevich Mandelstam"
7774:Zimmerman, David K. (21 December 2022).
7492:
7242:"On seven decades of antiferromagnetism"
6624:
6608:
6583:
6571:
6450:"The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact"
6408:"The origins of Soviet ethnic cleansing"
6316:
6226:
6139:
6052:
6024:
6012:
6000:
5964:
5937:
5853:
5818:
5806:
5794:
5603:
5380:
5378:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5301:
5119:
5069:
4986:
4922:
4893:
4891:
4307:
4224:
4200:
4108:
4096:
3835:
3752:
3346:of labour in the Soviet Union. His son,
3153:
3141:
3126:
3114:
3102:
3090:
3078:
2651:
2585:
2511:
2426:
2404:" in inhospitable parts of the country (
2302:
2298:
2200:
2015:
1893:
1851:was working with the even larger secret
1804:
1751:
11709:
11104:Alleged 19 August 1939 speech
9956:
9934:
9912:
9811:
9778:(Revised ed.). London: Macmillan.
9606:
8762:
8256:
8232:
7692:
7546:
7519:
7286:
6846:Comrades!: A History of World Communism
6842:
6707:
6655:
6478:
6467:
5725:
5256:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7.
5223:Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023).
5222:
4999:Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion
4685:History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)
4375:Mass graves from Soviet mass executions
3775:
3325:Supreme Council of the National Economy
3242:. He also one of the first to discover
3217:centres of origins of cultivated plants
3138:politician, later arrested and executed
3028:and the two-man dvoiki (NKVD Commissar
2946:External purges were also conducted in
2540:were conducted on a quota system using
2248:, recently disgraced head of the NKVD.
1891:, under the personal orders of Stalin.
14:
12869:
11728:Index of Soviet Union–related articles
11139:Dialectical and Historical Materialism
10163:A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia
10019:
9997:
9747:
9497:
9253:
9241:
8758:
8756:
8754:
8737:. South Asian Publishers. p. 44.
8734:Reign of Terror in Mongolia, 1920-1990
8676:
8633:. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693.
8018:National academy of Science of Belarus
7647:
7600:
7394:
7367:
7174:
7147:
6896:
6447:
6392:by Karol Karski, Case Western Reserve
6198:
6189:
6174:
6149:"Польская операция" НКВД 1937–1938 гг.
5830:
5824:
5736:The Journal of Slavic Military Studies
5558:
5488:The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
5249:
5175:
5156:
4964:
4836:
4834:
4791:
4675:Index of Soviet Union-related articles
4229:A list from the Great Purge signed by
3510:, Soviet historian and founder of the
2704:, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars.
1027:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
617:Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
27:1936–1938 campaign in the Soviet Union
11683:
10253:
9872:
9795:The Red Army and the Second World War
9728:
9434:
9375:. New York: Oxford University Press.
9131:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky
9046:MacFarquhar, Neil (30 October 2017).
8792:
7962:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky
7878:
7573:
7496:History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia
7320:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31.
6822:. Pen and Sword History. p. 81.
6788:
6738:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky
6680:
6239:
6237:
6235:
6117:
5952:Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution
5874:
5689:"The First Five Year Plan, 1928–1932"
5615:
5425:
5423:
5421:
5419:
5417:
5384:
5369:
5229:. Taylor & Francis. p. vii.
5144:
4888:
4705:Mass killings under communist regimes
3561:Ukrainian theater and movie director
3293:who among the key founders of Soviet
3024:sentenced indigenous "enemies" under
2190:
1558:
929:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution
11222:22nd Congress of the Communist Party
11180:20th Congress of the Communist Party
10623:19th Congress of the Communist Party
10460:18th Congress of the Communist Party
10425:17th Congress of the Communist Party
9832:
9792:
9039:
8981:"Bykivnia between Hitler and Stalin"
7985:
7719:
7648:Graham, Loren R. (8 December 2015).
7314:Betz, Frederick (22 February 2011).
7313:
6816:Whitehead, Jonathan (4 April 2024).
6346:
5458:Stalin: Paradoxes of Power 1878–1928
4905:Paris Institute of Political Studies
4840:
4048:Soviet Communism: A New Civilization
4002:
3965:of 1928–1933's collectivization and
3941:NKVD orders of systematic repression
3518:. Arrested and put to death in 1938.
3323:Soviet engineer and chairman of the
2821:
2792:adding citations to reliable sources
2763:
2641:
29:
11156:Marxism and Problems of Linguistics
10380:Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)
10118:Slavonic & East European Review
9592:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
9396:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9128:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015).
8751:
8581:
8198:
8045:"Nightmare in the workers paradise"
7959:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015).
7678:. 18 September 2017. Archived from
7340:
7240:Kharchenko, N. F. (1 August 2005).
7032:(in Finnish). Parliament of Finland
6789:Sakwa, Richard (12 November 2012).
6768:. Simon and Schuster. p. 395.
6735:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015).
6708:Sheehan, Helena (23 January 2018).
6656:Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021).
6349:Denial: the final stage of genocide
6208:Michał Jasiński (27 October 2010).
5831:Redman, Joseph (March–April 1958).
5484:"Trotsky's Struggle against Stalin"
5250:Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019).
4831:
4715:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan
4690:Armenian victims of the Great Purge
4287:which "would be a bigger victory".
3617:, was executed on 21 November 1937.
3211:that made several contributions to
3134:; (1885–1937) Finnish educator and
3083:1938 NKVD arrest photo of the poet
2489:Armenian victims of the Great Purge
2485:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan
2099:
1796:forced collectivization of peasants
1591:Communist Party of the Soviet Union
24:
11303:Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism
11122:The History of the Communist Party
10941:Soviet offensive plans controversy
10906:Ideological repression in science
10450:1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang
10063:Journal of Soviet Military Studies
9837:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
9709:
9012:Kishkovsky, Sophia (8 June 2007).
8799:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives
8554:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, p. 285
7553:(109 ed.). World Scientific.
7368:Krausz, Tamás (27 February 2015).
7053:General Relativity and Gravitation
6611:, pp. 198–89 (a Soviet book,
6448:Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010).
6232:
5779:
5693:Special Collections & Archives
5455:
5414:
5295:
4619:Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code
4617:, and on loose interpretations of
3514:. He had been an old associate of
3372:who made various contributions to
3301:. Kleymyonov was executed in 1938.
3261:. Kondratiev was executed in 1938.
1149:Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan
695:Treaty on the Creation of the USSR
25:
12993:
11341:Generalissimo of the Soviet Union
11072:Marxism and the National Question
10279:
10198:
9815:Stalinism: The Essential Readings
8707:Mongolia in the Twentieth Century
7915:The Making of the Georgian Nation
7747:Ben-Menahem, Ari (6 March 2009).
7693:Kuijper, Hans (18 January 2022).
7520:Chertok, Boris Evseevich (2005).
7466:Steinhoff, James (21 June 2021).
7341:Guo, Rongxing (6 February 2017).
7287:Shifman, Misha (28 August 2015).
7181:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805.
7154:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805.
6762:Wasserstein, Bernard (May 2012).
6714:. Verso Books. pp. 416–417.
6615:by Nikulin, pp. 189–94 is cited).
6597:European Dictatorships 1918–1945,
6061:
5949:
5429:
5044:Whitewood, Peter (13 June 2016).
4725:
4503:victims of Stalinist repression,
4361:Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov....
4086:
3759:Stalinist repressions in Mongolia
3740:were also shot and buried there.
3246:. Shubnikov was executed in 1937.
3056:
2475:Campaigns targeting nationalities
1605:was popularized by the historian
12851:
12850:
12838:
11664:
11663:
10981:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
10445:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts
10204:
9818:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
9393:The Great Terror: A Reassessment
9314:
9301:
9288:
9275:
9247:
9208:
9166:
9148:
9121:
9086:
9072:
9005:
8991:
8973:
8955:
8929:
8892:
8870:
8844:
8831:
8786:
8724:
8697:
8670:
8653:
8640:
8606:
8557:
8544:
8515:
8502:
8489:
8445:
8408:
8391:"On Leaving the Communist Party"
8389:Howard Fast (16 November 1957).
8382:
8262:
8164:
8155:
8123:
8106:
8058:
8043:Tim Tzouliadis (2 August 2008).
8036:
8006:
7979:
7952:
7943:
7907:
7857:
7834:
7819:
7767:
7740:
7720:Tent, Katrin (16 October 2008).
7713:
7699:. Springer Nature. p. 164.
7686:
7668:
7641:
7594:
7567:
7547:Pondrom, Lee G. (25 July 2018).
7540:
7513:
7486:
7459:
7432:
7415:
7388:
7361:
7334:
7307:
7293:. World Scientific. p. 19.
7280:
7233:
7175:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013).
7168:
7148:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013).
7141:
7114:
7087:
7044:
7022:
6933:
6915:
6681:Weitz, Eric D. (13 April 2021).
6307:, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 411–12
4911:translated in Werth, 2006: 143).
4540:
4528:
4512:
4492:
4472:
4452:
4440:
4304:Soviet investigation commissions
4220:
3900:
3889:
3684:
3673:
3590:Playwright and avant-garde poet
3276:Essays on Marx's Theory of Value
2966:and former government minister,
2826:
2768:
2751:
2739:
2000:
1684:, often by direct orders of the
1461:
1213:End of communist rule in Hungary
1159:Estonian Sovereignty Declaration
585:
34:
12967:Persecution by the Soviet Union
11366:Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin
10502:Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact
10492:Occupation of the Baltic states
9812:Hoffman, David L., ed. (2003).
9611:. Westport, CT: Praeger Press.
7493:Lankford, John (7 March 2013).
7472:. Springer Nature. p. 55.
7445:. Routledge. pp. 203–204.
6890:
6863:
6836:
6809:
6792:Soviet Politics: In Perspective
6782:
6755:
6728:
6701:
6674:
6649:
6630:
6589:
6540:
6499:
6441:
6399:
6383:
6365:
6340:
6310:
6297:
6267:
6073:
6039:
6030:
5985:
5958:
5943:
5901:
5868:
5770:
5719:
5714:McLoughlin & McDermott 2002
5681:
5656:
5636:
5567:
5552:
5527:
5502:
5476:
5449:
5396:
5352:
5335:
5310:
5270:
5243:
5216:
5169:
5150:
5125:
5063:
5050:University Press of Kansas Blog
5037:
4166:which correspond to the purge.
3697:National University of Mongolia
3587:was executed on 3 October 1938.
2779:needs additional citations for
2538:National operations of the NKVD
2432:Yevgeny-Ludvig Karlovich Miller
2125:testified that he had flown to
1789:collectivization of agriculture
1230:Dissolution of the Soviet Union
797:Occupation of the Baltic states
205:religious activists and leaders
181:19 July 1936 – 17 November 1938
9797:, Cambridge University Press,
9254:Harris, James (26 July 2016).
9095:The American Historical Review
8139:. 14 June 2003. Archived from
7986:Tolz, Vera (13 October 1997).
6660:. Mehring Books. p. 380.
5726:Harward, Grant (2 July 2016).
5580:. Cambridge University Press.
5133:The American Historical Review
5023:
4932:
4569:The American Historical Review
2726:
2516:Polish-born Soviet politician
2012:First and second Moscow trials
1883:him in Mexico; the NKVD agent
1835:, respectively. Following the
1049:Mozambican War of Independence
746:Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933
528:Ukrainian language suppression
13:
1:
12977:Massacres in the Soviet Union
12907:Political and cultural purges
12391:Political abuse of psychiatry
12183:Congress of People's Deputies
11207:Gomulka thaw (Polish October)
11018:1946–1947 Soviet famine
10591:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état
9959:1937: Stalin's Year of Terror
9134:. Verso Books. p. 1370.
8683:. Monsudar Pub. p. 322.
8677:Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn (1999).
8530:. pp. xiv, 243, 590–91.
8205:N.G. Okhotin; A.B. Roginsky.
7965:. Verso Books. p. 1206.
6951:KGB: The State Within a State
6741:. Verso Books. p. 1443.
6415:The Journal of Modern History
6136:Snyder 2010, pp. 103–04.
5748:10.1080/13518046.2016.1200397
5033:– via Internet Archive.
4765:
4075:, who, following the lead of
3289:Soviet engineer and inventor
3227:research in the Soviet Union.
3146:Paleontologist and geologist
2973:Eventually almost all of the
1741:
1108:Death and funeral of Brezhnev
390:Purges of the Communist Party
95:Great Terror (disambiguation)
11356:1956 Georgian demonstrations
10135:Journal of Strategic Studies
9851:. Forum for Living History.
9457:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017).
9294:Ronald Grigor Suny, review,
8415:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017).
8362:Knickerbocker, H.R. (1941).
8171:Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986).
7913:Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994),
7890:"70 years of Soviet Georgia"
6394:Journal of International Law
4981:Journal of Strategic Studies
4770:
4101:Posthumously rehabilitated,
3956:his view of the timeline of
3855:October 1936 – February 1937
3568:Russian writer and explorer
3376:. He had contributed to the
3165:in the USSR and co-invented
2941:Communist Party of Palestine
2929:Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski
2658:Marshals of the Soviet Union
2506:Polish Operation of the NKVD
2165:Implication of the Rightists
914:Hungarian Revolution of 1956
909:1956 Georgian demonstrations
870:East German uprising of 1953
812:Soviet invasion of Manchuria
7:
12554:Academy of Medical Sciences
11371:Stalin Monument in Budapest
11038:Night of the Murdered Poets
10956:Allegations of antisemitism
10693:Engineers of the human soul
10440:Soviet invasion of Xinjiang
10416:Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)
9833:Ilic, Melanie, ed. (2006).
9748:Colton, Timothy J. (1998).
9637:. New York: Harper and Row.
9372:Stalin and the Kirov Murder
9285:(2015) Quoting pp. 12, 276.
8665:Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy
7601:Bailes, Kendall E. (1977).
6485:. Oxford University Press.
6479:Naimark, Norman M. (2016).
6194:. Basic Books. p. 104.
6146:Н.В.Петров, А.Б.Рогинский.
5471:Andrew & Mitrokhin 2000
5194:10.1080/0966813022000017177
5070:Uldricks, Teddy J. (1977).
4813:10.1080/0966813022000017177
4680:Timeline of the Great Purge
4653:
4433:Odesa International Airport
3829:Timeline of the Great Purge
3822:
3765:Mongolian People's Republic
3744:Executions of Gulag inmates
3342:and pioneering theorist of
3340:Central Institute of Labour
3038:mass operations of the NKVD
3016:The victims were convicted
2852:the claims made and adding
2495:mass operations of the NKVD
2481:Mass operations of the NKVD
2338:and philosophical essay by
1544:
1528:
1039:Angolan War of Independence
896:"On the Cult of Personality
849:Death and funeral of Stalin
579:History of the Soviet Union
168:Mongolian People's Republic
10:
12998:
12982:Ethnic cleansing in Europe
11411:Stalin Bloc – For the USSR
11381:Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori
10529:Soviet atomic bomb project
9884:Harcourt Brace and Company
9729:Chase, William J. (2001).
9713:
9627:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I.
9565:Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007).
9342:
9322:Military History Quarterly
9309:American Historical Review
8710:. Routledge. p. 112.
8508:Robert Conquest, Preface,
8462:American Historical Review
8120:, London, 2002, pp. 155–68
7894:rolfgross.dreamhosters.com
7526:. NASA. pp. 164–165.
7499:. Routledge. p. 365.
7374:. NYU Press. p. 417.
7016:Two Hundred Years Together
5982:Corey Robin, "Fear", p. 96
4557:Historical interpretations
4372:
4090:
4056:. The American journalist
3826:
3779:
3756:
3494:Bloc of Soviet Oppositions
3364:had fled persecution from
3350:became a prominent Soviet
3087:, who died in a labor camp
3060:
3032:and Main State Prosecutor
2906:Communist Party of Germany
2645:
2478:
2194:
2103:
2020:Bolshevik revolutionaries
2004:
1745:
1240:First Nagorno-Karabakh War
824:Soviet famine of 1946–1947
736:Soviet famine of 1932–1933
705:Death and funeral of Lenin
355:Soviet famine of 1930–1933
84:
18:Stalin's Great Terror
12882:1930s in the Soviet Union
12832:
12776:
12750:
12670:
12593:
12584:
12529:
12436:
12399:
12339:
12242:
12204:
12124:
11986:
11977:
11927:
11875:
11866:
11718:
11659:
11576:
11437:
11419:
11391:Places named after Stalin
11376:Stalin Monument in Prague
11323:
11235:
11170:
11056:
10900:Repressions in Azerbaijan
10726:
10635:
10618:1950 legislative election
10544:1946 legislative election
10455:1937 legislative election
10367:
10316:
10307:
10287:
10186:Pultz, David, dir. 1997.
10095:10.1080/09668139608412415
10036:– via Google Books.
10026:. New York: Basic Books.
9835:Stalin's Terror Revisited
9685:10.1080/09668130050143860
9607:Parrish, Michael (1996).
9354:. New York: Basic Books.
9311:(2017) 122#5 pp. 1713–14.
8908:Christian Science Monitor
8667:(New York, 1991), p. 210.
7619:10.1080/09668137708411134
7347:. Springer. p. 164.
7073:10.1007/s10714-011-1285-4
6876:. Routledge. p. 60.
6795:. Routledge. p. 43.
6482:Genocide: A World History
5865:Snyder 2010, p. 137.
5785:Rogovin (1998), pp. 36–38
5776:Rogovin (1998), pp. 17–18
5343:Stalinism: New Directions
5002:. ABC-CLIO. p. 110.
4613:, often obtained through
4369:Mass graves and memorials
4154:Number of people executed
3550:on 11 November 1937. The
3240:type-II superconductivity
3111:at the time of his arrest
3095:The NKVD photo of writer
2750:
2738:
2733:
2660:in November 1935. (l–r):
2522:1932–33 famine in Ukraine
1989:1937, the military purge.
1682:general line of the party
1554:
1538:
1517:
312:
261:
248:
210:
187:
173:
155:
135:
127:
122:
12897:1938 in the Soviet Union
12892:1937 in the Soviet Union
12887:1936 in the Soviet Union
11212:Soviet Nonconformist Art
11128:1936 Soviet Constitution
10781:Soviet famine of 1932–33
10741:1907 Tiflis bank robbery
10713:Transformation of nature
10698:1936 Soviet Constitution
10658:Socialism in One Country
10497:German–Soviet Axis talks
10161:—— (2004) .
10041:Tzouliadis, Tim (2008).
9793:Hill, Alexander (2017),
9390:—— (2008) .
8593:Hoover Institution Press
8112:Christopher Kaplonski, "
7992:. Springer. p. 48.
7919:Indiana University Press
7574:Stone, David R. (2000).
6995:Harvard University Press
6897:Freeze, Gregory (2009).
6843:Service, Robert (2007).
6190:Snyder, Timothy (2010).
6148:
5304:Behind the Moscow Trials
5176:Ellman, Michael (2002).
4792:Ellman, Michael (2002).
3867:July 1937 – October 1938
3378:Herglotz–Noether theorem
3316:who was director of the
3253:was a proponent for the
3236:Shubnikov–de Haas effect
3203:was a prominent Russian
3171:extrajudicially executed
1822:purge of the Party ranks
1781:socialism in one country
1584:Soviet General Secretary
1300:independence declaration
1071:Cambodian–Vietnamese War
1059:South African Border War
726:Socialism in one country
12927:Massacres in Uzbekistan
12845:Soviet Union portal
11336:Iosif Stalin locomotive
11079:Foundations of Leninism
11065:Anarchism or Socialism?
10946:Hitler Youth Conspiracy
10813:NKVD prisoner massacres
10465:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
10354:Death and state funeral
10180:
10020:—— (2010).
9957:—— (1998).
9664:—— (2000).
9504:Oxford University Press
9369:—— (1987).
8622:14 October 2007 at the
8270:"Московский мартиролог"
8114:Thirty thousand bullets
8089:Haynes & Klehr 2003
7395:Rosmer, Alfred (1971).
7246:Low Temperature Physics
6525:10.4000/monderusse.9736
5646:, 2007, Knopf, 720 pp.
5163:McNair Scholars Journal
5122:, pp. 250, 257–58.
5031:"Tokaev Comrade X 1956"
4945:McNair Scholars Journal
4483:memorial cemetery near
4093:Rehabilitation (Soviet)
4053:The Manchester Guardian
3843:; (1896–1939) chief of
3648:Ukrainian drama writer
3558:is named after Chavain.
3299:Gas Dynamics Laboratory
3230:Experimental physicist
2923:According to historian
2690:Military Maritime Fleet
2635:international relations
2520:, a contributor to the
2363:NKVD prisoner massacres
2230:Communist International
2226:Trial of the Twenty-One
1670:counter-revolutionaries
1560:[(j)ɪˈʐofɕːɪnə]
1468:Soviet Union portal
1203:Fall of the Berlin Wall
1169:Lithuanian independence
880:1954 transfer of Crimea
782:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
675:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
109:Infobox civilian attack
101:
12737:Stalinist architecture
12491:Science and technology
12401:Ideological repression
12329:Soviet Airborne Forces
12267:Destruction battalions
11544:(second father-in-law)
10798:Murder of Sergey Kirov
10673:Stalinist architecture
10559:Turkish Straits crisis
10142:Yakovlev, Alexander N.
10120:93.2 (2015): 286–314.
9498:Harris, James (2017).
9442:. London: Allen Lane.
9082:. BBC. 26 August 2021.
7867:. Enigma Books, 2003.
7290:Physics In A Mad World
6406:Martin, Terry (1998).
6079:Werth, Nicolas. 2009.
5302:Schatman, Max (1938).
5157:Homkes, Brett (2004).
4847:Cahiers du Monde russe
4841:Kuhr, Corinna (1998).
4665:Anti-Rightist Campaign
4643:
4591:
4363:
4313:
4301:
4249:
4210:
4118:
4106:
3948:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
3880:
3851:
3790:The pro-Soviet leader
3719:Western émigré victims
3693:Khorloogiin Choibalsan
3579:writer and translator
3452:
3178:
3151:
3139:
3124:
3112:
3100:
3088:
3053:has been documented.
2937:Joseph Berger-Barzilai
2692:removed three of five
2681:
2595:
2525:
2462:Young Communist League
2435:
2412:, Kazakhstan, and the
2356:
2318:
2221:
2188:
2159:
2032:
1914:
1813:
1760:
1593:and Soviet state. The
1123:: Decline and collapse
414:Ideological repression
114:considered for merging
93:. For other uses, see
12519:List of metro systems
12072:Collective leadership
11565:William Wesley Peters
11110:Falsifiers of History
11033:Rootless cosmopolitan
10339:Rule as Soviet leader
9983:. London: Routledge.
9571:Yale University Press
8987:on 23 September 2020.
8969:on 23 September 2020.
8794:Getty, John Archibald
8568:Yale University Press
8528:Yale University Press
7828:Collecting Mandelstam
7682:on 18 September 2017.
7011:Alexandr Solzhenitsyn
6613:Marshal Tukhachevskiy
5965:Humbert-Droz, Jules.
4939:Brett Homkes (2004).
4859:10.3406/cmr.1998.2520
4753:30 September killings
4638:
4587:
4463:mass grave site near
4358:
4311:
4296:
4291:Stephen G. Wheatcroft
4228:
4204:
4112:
4100:
3953:The Gulag Archipelago
3839:
3753:Mongolian Great Purge
3512:Marx-Engels Institute
3472:enemies of the people
3447:
3344:scientific management
3157:
3145:
3130:
3118:
3106:
3099:made after his arrest
3094:
3082:
3075:Korets–Landau leaflet
2655:
2646:Further information:
2589:
2515:
2430:
2389:On 30 July 1937, the
2352:
2340:Maurice Merleau-Ponty
2306:
2299:Bukharin's confession
2204:
2183:
2169:In the second trial,
2142:
2019:
1897:
1865:democratic centralism
1808:
1755:
1698:anti-Soviet agitation
1615:, whose title was an
1545:Tridtsat' sed'moy god
1532:), also known as the
875:Virgin Lands campaign
700:National delimitation
191:Political opponents,
12937:Massacres in Armenia
12932:Massacres in Belarus
12922:Massacres in Ukraine
12481:Net material product
12424:Censorship of images
12341:Political repression
12301:Soviet Border Troops
12234:First Deputy Premier
11818:1965 economic reform
11813:Soviet space program
11586:Stalin's house, Gori
11517:Yevgeny Dzhugashvili
11445:Besarion Jughashvili
11386:Batumi Stalin Museum
11297:Nineteen Eighty-Four
11048:Censorship of images
10727:Crimes, repressions,
10430:1931 Menshevik Trial
10411:First five-year plan
10218:The Case of Bukharin
10213:at Wikimedia Commons
10130:67.1 (2015): 102–22.
9892:Merridale, Catherine
9879:Assignment in Utopia
9298:(2018) 80#1: 177–79.
9261:History News Network
8999:"War Stats Redirect"
8646:Getty & Naumov,
8352:, pp. 465, 467.
6971:Merridale, Catherine
6942:Komsomolskaya Pravda
6083:. Paris: Tallandier.
5875:Dewey, John (2008).
5559:Knight, Amy (1999).
5514:www.wilsoncenter.org
5349:. London: Routledge.
4747:Khmer Rouge genocide
4742:Hungarian Revolution
4601:", and to historian
4409:killing fields near
4275:resisted the order.
3963:first five-year plan
3961:purges, such as the
3873:November 1938 – 1939
3776:Xinjiang Great Purge
3654:Executed Renaissance
3629:Soviet film industry
3542:poet and playwright
3534:Durnovo noble family
3213:agricultural science
3063:Executed Renaissance
3026:NKVD Order No. 00447
2939:, co-founder of the
2788:improve this article
2662:Mikhail Tukhachevsky
2612:Executed Renaissance
2534:NKVD Order No. 00486
2391:NKVD Order No. 00447
2073:Mikhail Tukhachevsky
1873:Mikhail Tukhachevsky
1785:first five-year plan
1758:NKVD Order No. 00447
1295:Ukrainian revolution
1223:German reunification
1181:Latvian independence
1096:1984 Olympic boycott
1091:1980 Olympic boycott
1081:1980 Summer Olympics
1054:Mozambican Civil War
944:Cuban Missile Crisis
924:Peaceful coexistence
792:Operation Barbarossa
523:Repressions of Poles
518:Population transfers
376:Political repression
12957:Mass murder in 1938
12952:Mass murder in 1937
12917:Massacres in Russia
12549:Academy of Sciences
12364:Population transfer
12308:Soviet Armed Forces
12171:Congress of Soviets
12152:Presidium/Politburo
12116:Soviet anti-Zionism
11965:West Siberian Plain
11843:Revolutions of 1989
11780:Great Patriotic War
11765:New Economic Policy
11578:Stalin's residences
11525:Galina Dzhugashvili
11509:Svetlana Alliluyeva
11493:Nadezhda Alliluyeva
11420:Cultural depictions
11262:Anti-Stalinist left
11217:Shvernik Commission
11185:Pospelov Commission
10961:Population transfer
10936:1941 Red Army purge
10910:Suppressed research
10564:First Indochina War
10507:Great Patriotic War
10485:Moscow Peace Treaty
10349:Cult of personality
10128:Europe-Asia Studies
10082:Europe-Asia Studies
10070:Wheatcroft, Stephen
10047:. London: Penguin.
9898:. London: Penguin.
9673:Europe-Asia Studies
9324:27.1 (2014): 38–45.
8902:(10 October 2002).
8769:Stalin: A Biography
8680:History of Mongolia
8627:Europe–Asia Studies
8563:Oleg V. Khlevniuk.
7917:(2nd ed.), p. 272.
7258:2005LTP....31..633K
7065:2012GReGr..44..267B
6156:on 15 February 2017
5728:"Whitewood, Peter,
5490:. 12 September 2018
5182:Europe-Asia Studies
5147:, pp. 227–315.
4801:Europe-Asia Studies
4732:Cultural Revolution
4400:Solovki prison camp
4350:Shvernik Commission
4205:Memorial events in
4067:Communist Party USA
4058:H. R. Knickerbocker
3800:Xinjiang War (1937)
3782:Xinjiang War (1937)
3730:Butovo firing range
3607:Russian dramaturge
3318:Pulkovo Observatory
3255:New Economic Policy
3150:, executed in 1938.
3051:Butovo firing range
2451:Butovo firing range
2402:special settlements
2344:Humanism and Terror
2050:Conspiratorial Bloc
1985:second Moscow trial
1928:1934 Party Congress
1800:famine of 1932–1933
1218:Romanian Revolution
1198:Peaceful Revolution
1193:Pan-European Picnic
1188:Revolutions of 1989
1129:Invasion of Grenada
1005:Cambodian Civil War
959:: Era of Stagnation
844:First Indochina War
819:Soviet deportations
787:Great Patriotic War
760:Cultural Revolution
690:New Economic Policy
644:February Revolution
513:National operations
405:Punitive psychiatry
332:Economic repression
327:in the Soviet Union
12962:Soviet phraseology
12194:Military Collegium
12062:Capital punishment
11940:Caucasus Mountains
11853:Post-Soviet states
11733:Russian Revolution
11549:Alexander Svanidze
11477:Konstantin Kuzakov
11469:Yakov Dzhugashvili
11428:Apocalypse: Stalin
11401:Stalin Peace Prize
11396:State Stalin Prize
11099:"Ten Blows" speech
11086:Dizzy with Success
10996:Operation "Priboi"
10976:Operation "Lentil"
10929:1937 Soviet Census
10608:Sino-Soviet Treaty
10522:Potsdam Conference
10475:Invasion of Poland
10109:Whitewood, Peter.
10065:3.1 (1990): 46–65.
9977:Rosefielde, Steven
9914:Naimark, Norman M.
9868:on 24 August 2010.
9412:Courtois, Stéphane
9060:on 3 February 2024
9053:The New York Times
9018:The New York Times
8648:The Road to Terror
8316:, pp. 472–74.
8289:, pp. 472–73.
7523:Rockets and People
6987:Colton, Timothy J.
6518:(50/2–3): 647–70.
6508:"The Great Terror"
6323:Ukraine: A History
6107:. 19 January 2016.
6027:, pp. 364–35.
5642:Robert Gellately,
5606:, pp. 122–38.
5563:. Hill & Wang.
5364:Palgrave MacMillan
5282:www.britannica.com
4736:Great Leap Forward
4648:Robert W. Thurston
4611:forced confessions
4607:Moscow show trials
4564:social engineering
4314:
4250:
4215:Vyacheslav Molotov
4211:
4119:
4107:
4077:The New York Times
4031:The New York Times
3852:
3699:, and portrait of
3570:Maximilian Kravkov
3440:Vsevolod Meyerhold
3382:special relativity
3314:Boris Gerasimovich
3265:Valerian Obolensky
3251:Nikolai Kondratiev
3244:antiferromagnetism
3179:
3161:, who popularized
3152:
3140:
3125:
3113:
3109:Vsevolod Meyerhold
3101:
3089:
2987:October Revolution
2979:Russian Revolution
2898:German-Soviet Pact
2837:possibly contains
2682:
2670:Kliment Voroshilov
2596:
2594:, executed in 1938
2526:
2524:, executed in 1939
2436:
2319:
2261:Jules Humbert-Droz
2253:an Opposition Bloc
2242:Nikolai Krestinsky
2238:Christian Rakovsky
2222:
2191:Third Moscow trial
2094:Kliment Voroshilov
2066:Grigory Sokolnikov
2033:
1994:third Moscow trial
1972:first Moscow trial
1947:October Revolution
1936:Vyacheslav Molotov
1915:
1909:(and his daughter
1814:
1798:and the resulting
1761:
1450:Post-Soviet states
1154:Singing Revolution
1144:Chernobyl disaster
1064:Rhodesian Bush War
665:October Revolution
302:Kliment Voroshilov
290:Vyacheslav Molotov
220:Summary executions
148:Vinnytsia massacre
53:You can assist by
12864:
12863:
12828:
12827:
12820:Hammer and sickle
12762:and their groups
12760:Soviet dissidents
12539:Communist Academy
12456:Economic planning
12432:
12431:
12325:Soviet Air Forces
12244:Security services
12164:General Secretary
12147:Central Committee
12089:Political parties
12021:Brezhnev Doctrine
12016:Foreign relations
11973:
11972:
11914:Autonomous okrugs
11828:Soviet–Afghan War
11808:Sino-Soviet split
11750:Russian Civil War
11677:
11676:
11634:Kholodnaya Rechka
11331:Iosif Stalin tank
11252:Lenin's Testament
11227:Era of Stagnation
11028:Mingrelian Affair
11006:Forced settlement
10991:Operation "North"
10951:Soviet war crimes
10729:and controversies
10668:Socialist realism
10631:
10630:
10613:Tito–Stalin split
10512:Tehran Conference
10435:Spanish Civil War
10406:Chinese Civil War
10209:Media related to
10172:978-0-300-10322-9
10054:978-1-59420-168-4
10033:978-0-465-00239-9
10012:978-0-300-10670-1
9990:978-0-415-77757-5
9968:978-0-929087-77-1
9961:. Mehring Books.
9949:978-0-929087-83-2
9942:. Mehring books.
9927:978-0-691-14784-0
9905:978-0-14-200063-2
9858:978-91-977487-2-8
9825:978-0-631-22890-5
9804:978-1-1070-2079-5
9785:978-0-02-527560-7
9763:978-0-674-58749-6
9740:978-0-300-08242-5
9569:. New Haven, CT:
9522:Haynes, John Earl
9477:Gellately, Robert
9281:Peter Whitewood,
9228:978-1-55972-212-4
9141:978-1-78168-721-5
8839:Molotov Remembers
8744:978-1-881318-15-6
8717:978-1-317-46010-7
8690:978-99929-0-038-3
8661:Dmitri Volkogonov
8552:Molotov Remembers
8495:Robert Conquest,
8245:Solzhenitsyn 1973
7999:978-1-349-25840-6
7972:978-1-78168-721-5
7787:978-1-4875-4366-2
7760:978-3-540-68831-0
7733:978-0-521-71788-5
7706:978-981-16-4709-3
7661:978-1-4008-7551-1
7587:978-0-7006-1037-2
7560:978-981-323-557-1
7533:978-0-16-073239-3
7506:978-1-136-50834-9
7479:978-3-030-71689-9
7452:978-1-317-81995-0
7408:978-0-902818-11-8
7381:978-1-58367-449-9
7354:978-3-319-48772-4
7327:978-0-470-54782-3
7300:978-981-4619-31-8
7266:10.1063/1.2008126
7213:(11): 1576–1578.
7188:978-1-136-59369-7
7161:978-1-136-59369-7
7134:978-1-107-06962-6
7107:978-94-010-0347-6
6977:. Penguin Books.
6955:Gellately, Robert
6899:Russia: A History
6883:978-1-136-15747-9
6856:978-0-674-02530-1
6829:978-1-3990-6395-1
6802:978-1-134-90996-4
6775:978-1-4165-9427-7
6748:978-1-78168-721-5
6721:978-1-78663-426-9
6694:978-0-691-22812-9
6667:978-1-893638-97-6
6643:Let History Judge
6627:, p. 200–02.
6358:978-1-003-01070-8
5473:, pp. 86–87.
5456:Kotkin, Stephen,
5388:(15 April 2019).
5263:978-1-4985-9153-9
5236:978-1-000-95544-6
5135:, 110(5), 1427–53
4597:'s 1956 speech, "
4595:Nikita Khrushchev
4262:Ivan the Terrible
4254:Oleg V. Khlevniuk
4020:in his 1968 book
4003:Western reactions
3974:Alexander Yegorov
3933:Central Committee
3909:Damnatio memoriae
3861:March – June 1937
3738:Finnish Canadians
3641:Russian linguist
3609:Adrian Piotrovsky
3592:Nikolay Oleynikov
3585:Vladimir Varankin
3528:Russian linguist
3438:Theatre director
3249:Soviet economist
3159:Vasili Oshchepkov
3148:Dmitrii Mushketov
3136:Social Democratic
3107:Theatre director
3011:Vladimir Bukovsky
2902:Central committee
2882:
2881:
2874:
2839:original research
2820:
2819:
2812:
2762:
2761:
2684:The purge of the
2678:Alexander Yegorov
2642:Purge of the army
2509:further inquiry.
2444:spetzpereselentsy
2375:Mikhail Gorbachev
2293:Heinrich Brandler
2232:, former premier
2110:In May 1937, the
1709:ethnic minorities
1676:, hence the name
1636:interior ministry
1621:French Revolution
1609:in his 1968 book
1526:
1502:
1501:
1331:Soviet leadership
1317:Alma-Ata Protocol
1312:Belovezha Accords
1208:Velvet Revolution
1174:Economic blockade
1076:Soviet–Afghan War
1044:Angolan Civil War
995:Laotian Civil War
970:Era of Stagnation
965:Brezhnev Doctrine
934:Sino-Soviet split
864:: Khrushchev Thaw
755:Industrialization
670:Russian Civil War
564:
563:
508:De-Cossackization
500:Ethnic repression
320:
319:
83:
82:
75:
16:(Redirected from
12989:
12854:
12853:
12843:
12842:
12841:
12591:
12590:
12499:
12354:Collectivization
12099:Marxism–Leninism
11984:
11983:
11873:
11872:
11704:
11697:
11690:
11681:
11680:
11667:
11666:
11569:
11561:
11553:
11552:(brother-in-law)
11545:
11541:Sergei Alliluyev
11537:
11533:Joseph Alliluyev
11529:
11521:
11513:
11505:
11497:
11489:
11481:
11473:
11465:
11457:
11449:
11351:Pantheon, Moscow
11309:The Soviet Story
11283:Darkness at Noon
11172:De-Stalinization
11023:Leningrad Affair
10756:Decossackization
10554:1946 Iran crisis
10517:Yalta Conference
10389:Collectivization
10314:
10313:
10274:
10267:
10260:
10251:
10250:
10227:
10208:
10176:
10157:
10106:
10078:
10058:
10037:
10016:
9994:
9972:
9953:
9931:
9909:
9887:
9869:
9867:
9861:. Archived from
9850:
9838:
9829:
9807:
9789:
9772:Conquest, Robert
9767:
9744:
9704:
9670:
9660:
9643:Thurston, Robert
9638:
9636:
9622:
9603:
9584:
9561:
9558:Darkness at Noon
9554:Koestler, Arthur
9549:
9517:
9494:
9472:
9453:
9431:
9407:
9386:
9365:
9337:
9331:
9325:
9318:
9312:
9305:
9299:
9292:
9286:
9279:
9273:
9272:
9270:
9268:
9251:
9245:
9239:
9233:
9232:
9212:
9206:
9200:
9194:
9188:
9182:
9181:
9178:www.marxists.org
9170:
9164:
9163:
9160:www.marxists.org
9152:
9146:
9145:
9125:
9119:
9118:
9090:
9084:
9083:
9076:
9070:
9069:
9067:
9065:
9056:. Archived from
9043:
9037:
9036:
9034:
9032:
9009:
9003:
9002:
8995:
8989:
8988:
8983:. Archived from
8977:
8971:
8970:
8965:. Archived from
8959:
8953:
8952:
8950:
8948:
8933:
8927:
8926:
8924:
8922:
8896:
8890:
8889:
8887:
8885:
8874:
8868:
8867:
8865:
8863:
8848:
8842:
8835:
8829:
8823:
8814:
8813:
8790:
8784:
8783:
8760:
8749:
8748:
8728:
8722:
8721:
8701:
8695:
8694:
8674:
8668:
8657:
8651:
8644:
8638:
8610:
8604:
8585:
8579:
8561:
8555:
8548:
8542:
8541:
8519:
8513:
8506:
8500:
8493:
8487:
8486:
8458:
8449:
8443:
8437:
8431:
8430:
8412:
8406:
8405:
8403:
8401:
8386:
8380:
8379:
8359:
8353:
8347:
8341:
8335:
8329:
8323:
8317:
8311:
8305:
8299:
8290:
8284:
8278:
8277:
8266:
8260:
8254:
8248:
8242:
8236:
8230:
8224:
8223:
8221:
8219:
8202:
8196:
8195:
8193:
8191:
8168:
8162:
8159:
8153:
8152:
8150:
8148:
8127:
8121:
8110:
8104:
8098:
8092:
8086:
8080:
8065:John Earl Haynes
8062:
8056:
8055:
8053:
8051:
8040:
8034:
8028:
8022:
8021:
8010:
8004:
8003:
7983:
7977:
7976:
7956:
7950:
7947:
7941:
7935:
7929:
7911:
7905:
7904:
7902:
7900:
7885:
7876:
7861:
7855:
7852:
7841:
7838:
7832:
7823:
7817:
7816:
7814:
7812:
7798:
7792:
7791:
7771:
7765:
7764:
7744:
7738:
7737:
7717:
7711:
7710:
7690:
7684:
7683:
7672:
7666:
7665:
7645:
7639:
7638:
7598:
7592:
7591:
7571:
7565:
7564:
7544:
7538:
7537:
7517:
7511:
7510:
7490:
7484:
7483:
7463:
7457:
7456:
7436:
7430:
7429:
7419:
7413:
7412:
7392:
7386:
7385:
7365:
7359:
7358:
7338:
7332:
7331:
7311:
7305:
7304:
7284:
7278:
7277:
7237:
7231:
7230:
7202:
7193:
7192:
7172:
7166:
7165:
7145:
7139:
7138:
7118:
7112:
7111:
7091:
7085:
7084:
7048:
7042:
7041:
7039:
7037:
7026:
7020:
6947:Albats, Yevgenia
6937:
6931:
6930:
6929:. 29 April 2019.
6919:
6913:
6912:
6894:
6888:
6887:
6867:
6861:
6860:
6840:
6834:
6833:
6813:
6807:
6806:
6786:
6780:
6779:
6759:
6753:
6752:
6732:
6726:
6725:
6705:
6699:
6698:
6678:
6672:
6671:
6653:
6647:
6634:
6628:
6622:
6616:
6606:
6600:
6593:
6587:
6581:
6575:
6569:
6563:
6562:
6560:
6558:
6544:
6538:
6537:
6527:
6503:
6497:
6496:
6476:
6465:
6464:
6462:
6460:
6445:
6439:
6438:
6412:
6403:
6397:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6379:. 15 April 2019.
6369:
6363:
6362:
6344:
6338:
6337:
6314:
6308:
6303:Timothy Snyder,
6301:
6295:
6271:
6265:
6264:
6252:
6241:
6230:
6224:
6218:
6217:
6205:
6196:
6195:
6187:
6172:
6171:
6166:Original title:
6163:
6161:
6143:
6137:
6134:
6125:
6115:
6109:
6108:
6097:
6084:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6059:
6050:
6043:
6037:
6034:
6028:
6022:
6016:
6010:
6004:
5998:
5992:
5989:
5983:
5980:
5971:
5970:
5962:
5956:
5955:
5950:Cohen, Stephen.
5947:
5941:
5935:
5929:
5926:
5917:
5916:
5913:www.marxists.org
5905:
5899:
5898:
5872:
5866:
5863:
5857:
5851:
5845:
5844:
5828:
5822:
5816:
5810:
5804:
5798:
5792:
5786:
5783:
5777:
5774:
5768:
5767:
5723:
5717:
5711:
5705:
5704:
5702:
5700:
5695:. 7 October 2015
5685:
5679:
5678:
5676:
5674:
5660:
5654:
5640:
5634:
5628:
5619:
5613:
5607:
5601:
5592:
5591:
5571:
5565:
5564:
5561:Who Killed Kirov
5556:
5550:
5549:
5531:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5520:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5495:
5480:
5474:
5468:
5462:
5460:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5444:
5442:
5436:www.marxists.org
5427:
5412:
5411:
5408:www.marxists.org
5400:
5394:
5393:
5382:
5367:
5356:
5350:
5339:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5328:
5314:
5308:
5307:
5299:
5293:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5274:
5268:
5267:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5220:
5214:
5213:
5188:(7): 1151–1172.
5173:
5167:
5166:
5154:
5148:
5142:
5136:
5129:
5123:
5117:
5111:
5110:
5076:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5041:
5035:
5034:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5016:
4990:
4984:
4977:
4968:
4962:
4953:
4952:
4936:
4930:
4920:
4914:
4913:
4895:
4886:
4885:
4838:
4829:
4828:
4798:
4789:
4761:(Czechoslovakia)
4660:Leningrad affair
4609:, were based on
4544:
4532:
4516:
4496:
4476:
4456:
4444:
4381:Memorial Society
4352:"). It included
4273:Peljidiin Genden
4188:The Great Terror
4139:Stanislav Kosior
4079:, published the
4036:Joseph E. Davies
4010:Jean-Paul Sartre
3904:
3893:
3805:Garegin Apresoff
3725:Great Depression
3695:in front of the
3688:
3677:
3636:Julian Shchutsky
3621:Boris Shumyatsky
3614:Romeo and Juliet
3581:Nikolai Nekrasov
3546:was executed in
3532:, born into the
3502:Lefortovo prison
3374:abstract algebra
3259:Kondratiev waves
3191:Matvei Bronstein
3034:Andrey Vyshinsky
2933:Fritz Houtermans
2918:Polish Communist
2877:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2857:
2854:inline citations
2830:
2829:
2822:
2815:
2808:
2804:
2801:
2795:
2772:
2764:
2755:
2754:
2743:
2742:
2731:
2730:
2592:Khadija Gayibova
2518:Stanislav Kosior
2335:Darkness at Noon
2317:executed in 1938
2308:Nikolai Bukharin
2218:Stanislav Redens
2106:Dewey Commission
2100:Dewey Commission
2042:Grigory Zinoviev
2030:Grigory Zinoviev
1940:Lazar Kaganovich
1889:Pavel Sudoplatov
1861:Grigori Zinoviev
1833:Nikolai Bukharin
1660:wealthy peasants
1612:The Great Terror
1581:
1578:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1556:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1531:
1521:
1519:
1494:
1487:
1480:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1445:Soviet republics
1285:New Union Treaty
1086:Olympic boycotts
904:We will bury you
890:De-Stalinization
807:Battle of Berlin
731:Collectivization
612:World revolution
589:
566:
565:
556:
549:
542:
345:Collectivization
322:
321:
298:Lazar Kaganovich
294:Andrey Vyshinsky
235:Ethnic cleansing
140:
120:
119:
117:
78:
71:
67:
64:
58:
38:
37:
30:
21:
12997:
12996:
12992:
12991:
12990:
12988:
12987:
12986:
12867:
12866:
12865:
12860:
12839:
12837:
12824:
12772:
12746:
12666:
12580:
12525:
12497:
12471:Internet domain
12466:Five-year plans
12428:
12395:
12335:
12238:
12200:
12132:Communist Party
12120:
12079:Passport system
11969:
11945:European Russia
11923:
11862:
11803:Khrushchev Thaw
11782:(World War II)
11760:Creation treaty
11714:
11708:
11678:
11673:
11655:
11651:Stalin's bunker
11601:Room at Kremlin
11591:Tiflis Seminary
11572:
11567:
11559:
11551:
11543:
11535:
11528:(granddaughter)
11527:
11519:
11511:
11503:
11495:
11487:
11485:Artyom Sergeyev
11479:
11471:
11463:
11455:
11447:
11433:
11415:
11319:
11277:True Communists
11240:
11238:
11231:
11195:Khrushchev Thaw
11166:
11133:Stalin's poetry
11052:
10920:Japhetic theory
10858:Medvedev Forest
10751:Georgian Affair
10728:
10722:
10683:Five-year plans
10627:
10596:Berlin Blockade
10586:Greek Civil War
10375:August Uprising
10363:
10344:Political views
10309:
10303:
10283:
10278:
10225:
10201:
10183:
10173:
10152:]. Moscow:
10076:
10055:
10034:
10013:
9999:Snyder, Timothy
9991:
9969:
9950:
9928:
9906:
9865:
9859:
9848:
9826:
9805:
9786:
9764:
9741:
9725:. Moscow, 2003.
9718:
9712:
9710:Further reading
9707:
9668:
9657:
9619:
9600:
9581:
9546:
9536:Encounter Books
9514:
9491:
9469:
9450:
9428:
9404:
9383:
9362:
9345:
9340:
9332:
9328:
9319:
9315:
9306:
9302:
9293:
9289:
9280:
9276:
9266:
9264:
9252:
9248:
9244:, pp. 2–4.
9240:
9236:
9229:
9213:
9209:
9201:
9197:
9189:
9185:
9172:
9171:
9167:
9154:
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9107:10.2307/2166597
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8871:
8861:
8859:
8850:
8849:
8845:
8837:Chuev, Feliks.
8836:
8832:
8828:, p. 1348.
8826:Wheatcroft 1996
8824:
8817:
8810:
8791:
8787:
8780:
8764:Service, Robert
8761:
8752:
8745:
8729:
8725:
8718:
8702:
8698:
8691:
8675:
8671:
8658:
8654:
8645:
8641:
8624:Wayback Machine
8611:
8607:
8586:
8582:
8562:
8558:
8550:Chuev, Feliks.
8549:
8545:
8538:
8520:
8516:
8507:
8503:
8494:
8490:
8475:10.2307/2166597
8456:
8450:
8446:
8438:
8434:
8427:
8413:
8409:
8399:
8397:
8395:www.trussel.com
8387:
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8203:
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8189:
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8185:
8169:
8165:
8160:
8156:
8146:
8144:
8143:on 14 June 2003
8129:
8128:
8124:
8111:
8107:
8099:
8095:
8087:
8083:
8075:" (appendix to
8063:
8059:
8049:
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8037:
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8025:
8012:
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7908:
7898:
7896:
7886:
7879:
7862:
7858:
7853:
7844:
7839:
7835:
7831:, November 2006
7824:
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7355:
7339:
7335:
7328:
7312:
7308:
7301:
7285:
7281:
7238:
7234:
7207:Current Science
7203:
7196:
7189:
7173:
7169:
7162:
7146:
7142:
7135:
7119:
7115:
7108:
7092:
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6493:
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6456:
6446:
6442:
6410:
6404:
6400:
6396:, Vol. 45, 2013
6388:
6384:
6371:
6370:
6366:
6359:
6345:
6341:
6334:
6318:Subtelny, Orest
6315:
6311:
6302:
6298:
6294:. pp. 102, 107.
6274:Snyder, Timothy
6272:
6268:
6261:
6250:
6242:
6233:
6225:
6221:
6206:
6199:
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5508:
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5503:
5493:
5491:
5482:
5481:
5477:
5469:
5465:
5454:
5450:
5440:
5438:
5430:Broué, Pierre.
5428:
5415:
5402:
5401:
5397:
5383:
5370:
5357:
5353:
5340:
5336:
5326:
5324:
5318:"Joseph Stalin"
5316:
5315:
5311:
5300:
5296:
5286:
5284:
5276:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5248:
5244:
5237:
5221:
5217:
5174:
5170:
5155:
5151:
5143:
5139:
5130:
5126:
5118:
5114:
5091:10.2307/2495035
5074:
5068:
5064:
5054:
5052:
5042:
5038:
5029:
5028:
5024:
5014:
5012:
5010:
4994:Helen Rappaport
4991:
4987:
4978:
4971:
4963:
4956:
4937:
4933:
4921:
4917:
4896:
4889:
4853:(1/2): 209–20.
4839:
4832:
4796:
4790:
4777:
4773:
4768:
4728:
4656:
4603:Robert Conquest
4577:Isaac Deutscher
4559:
4552:
4545:
4536:
4533:
4524:
4517:
4508:
4497:
4488:
4477:
4468:
4457:
4448:
4445:
4377:
4371:
4306:
4223:
4207:Bykivnia graves
4171:Robert Conquest
4156:
4095:
4089:
4069:newspaper, the
4018:Robert Conquest
4005:
3925:Lavrentiy Beria
3921:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3917:
3905:
3896:
3895:
3894:
3883:
3831:
3825:
3788:
3780:Main articles:
3778:
3761:
3755:
3746:
3721:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3689:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3667:
3530:Nikolai Durnovo
3476:Lavrentiy Beria
3457:Titsian Tabidze
3401:Boris Pasternak
3393:Osip Mandelstam
3386:Albert Einstein
3297:, chief of the
3291:Ivan Kleymyonov
3201:Nikolai Vavilov
3195:quantum gravity
3193:and pioneer of
3121:Nikolai Vavilov
3085:Osip Mandelstam
3077:
3059:
2878:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2843:
2831:
2827:
2816:
2805:
2799:
2796:
2785:
2773:
2752:
2740:
2734:External videos
2729:
2674:Vasily Blyukher
2666:Semyon Budyonny
2656:The first five
2650:
2644:
2542:album procedure
2491:
2479:Main articles:
2477:
2440:Orthodox clergy
2383:
2326:Anastas Mikoyan
2301:
2289:Arthur Koestler
2199:
2193:
2167:
2123:Georgy Pyatakov
2108:
2102:
2085:Alexander Orlov
2075:, in June 1937.
2014:
2009:
2003:
1853:Opposition Bloc
1750:
1744:
1717:mass operations
1625:Reign of Terror
1607:Robert Conquest
1579:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1529:Bol'shoy terror
1498:
1462:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1395:
1387:
1386:
1332:
1324:
1323:
1245:April 9 tragedy
1124:
1113:
1112:
960:
949:
948:
885:Khrushchev Thaw
865:
854:
853:
834:Berlin Blockade
721:
710:
709:
660:
659:: Establishment
649:
648:
627:Bolshevik Party
622:Bolshevik split
597:
560:
326:
325:Mass repression
282:Lavrentiy Beria
257:
244:
213:
182:
180:
151:
118:
102:
98:
91:Reign of Terror
79:
68:
62:
59:
52:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12995:
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12514:Rail transport
12511:
12509:Railway system
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12231:
12229:Deputy Premier
12226:
12221:
12220:
12219:
12212:Heads of state
12208:
12206:
12202:
12201:
12199:
12198:
12197:
12196:
12186:
12180:
12177:Supreme Soviet
12174:
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12139:
12128:
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12101:
12094:State ideology
12091:
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12074:
12064:
12059:
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12001:
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11962:
11960:Ural Mountains
11957:
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11950:North Caucasus
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11417:
11416:
11414:
11413:
11408:
11406:Stalin Society
11403:
11398:
11393:
11388:
11383:
11378:
11373:
11368:
11363:
11358:
11353:
11348:
11346:Stalin statues
11343:
11338:
11333:
11327:
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11321:
11320:
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11312:
11305:
11300:
11293:
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11279:
11274:
11269:
11264:
11259:
11254:
11249:
11247:Stalin Epigram
11243:
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11236:
11233:
11232:
11230:
11229:
11224:
11219:
11214:
11209:
11204:
11197:
11192:
11190:Rehabilitation
11187:
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11176:
11174:
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10800:
10795:
10790:
10789:
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10778:
10773:
10768:
10766:Wittorf affair
10763:
10761:Dekulakization
10758:
10753:
10748:
10743:
10738:
10732:
10730:
10724:
10723:
10721:
10720:
10715:
10710:
10705:
10703:New Soviet man
10700:
10695:
10690:
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10247:
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10214:
10200:
10199:External links
10197:
10196:
10195:
10190:. Narrated by
10182:
10179:
10178:
10177:
10171:
10158:
10144:, ed. (1991).
10138:
10131:
10124:
10114:
10107:
10089:(8): 1319–53.
10066:
10059:
10053:
10038:
10032:
10017:
10011:
9995:
9989:
9973:
9967:
9954:
9948:
9936:Rogovin, Vadim
9932:
9926:
9910:
9904:
9888:
9870:
9857:
9839:
9830:
9824:
9809:
9803:
9790:
9784:
9768:
9762:
9745:
9739:
9726:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9705:
9679:(6): 1143–59.
9661:
9656:978-0300074420
9655:
9639:
9623:
9618:978-0275951139
9617:
9604:
9599:978-1403901194
9598:
9585:
9580:978-0300123890
9579:
9562:
9550:
9545:978-1893554726
9544:
9518:
9513:978-0198797869
9512:
9495:
9490:978-1400040056
9489:
9473:
9468:978-0691175775
9467:
9454:
9449:978-0713997026
9448:
9436:Figes, Orlando
9432:
9427:978-0674076082
9426:
9408:
9403:978-0195317008
9402:
9387:
9382:978-0195055795
9381:
9366:
9361:978-0465003129
9360:
9346:
9344:
9341:
9339:
9338:
9326:
9313:
9300:
9287:
9274:
9246:
9234:
9227:
9207:
9205:, p. 286.
9195:
9183:
9165:
9147:
9140:
9120:
9101:(4): 1030–35.
9085:
9071:
9038:
9004:
8990:
8972:
8954:
8928:
8891:
8880:. 16 July 2002
8869:
8858:. 17 July 1997
8843:
8830:
8815:
8809:978-0521446709
8808:
8785:
8779:978-0674016972
8778:
8750:
8743:
8723:
8716:
8696:
8689:
8669:
8652:
8639:
8613:Michael Ellman
8605:
8580:
8556:
8543:
8537:978-0300104073
8536:
8514:
8501:
8488:
8444:
8442:, p. 139.
8432:
8426:978-0691175775
8425:
8407:
8381:
8375:978-1417992775
8374:
8354:
8342:
8340:, p. 469.
8330:
8328:, p. 468.
8318:
8306:
8304:, p. 472.
8291:
8279:
8261:
8249:
8237:
8225:
8197:
8184:978-0521255141
8183:
8163:
8154:
8122:
8105:
8093:
8091:, p. 117.
8081:
8057:
8035:
8033:, p. 295.
8023:
8005:
7998:
7978:
7971:
7951:
7942:
7940:, p. 301.
7930:
7906:
7877:
7856:
7842:
7833:
7818:
7793:
7786:
7766:
7759:
7739:
7732:
7712:
7705:
7685:
7667:
7660:
7640:
7613:(3): 373–394.
7607:Soviet Studies
7593:
7586:
7566:
7559:
7539:
7532:
7512:
7505:
7485:
7478:
7458:
7451:
7431:
7414:
7407:
7398:Lenin's Moscow
7387:
7380:
7360:
7353:
7333:
7326:
7306:
7299:
7279:
7252:(8): 633–634.
7232:
7194:
7187:
7167:
7160:
7140:
7133:
7113:
7106:
7086:
7059:(1): 267–283.
7043:
7030:"Aino Forsten"
7021:
7003:978-0674587496
6932:
6914:
6908:978-0199560417
6907:
6889:
6882:
6862:
6855:
6835:
6828:
6808:
6801:
6781:
6774:
6754:
6747:
6727:
6720:
6700:
6693:
6673:
6666:
6648:
6629:
6617:
6601:
6588:
6586:, p. 198.
6576:
6574:, p. 211.
6564:
6539:
6498:
6492:978-0190637729
6491:
6466:
6440:
6427:10.1086/235168
6398:
6382:
6364:
6357:
6339:
6333:978-1442609914
6332:
6309:
6296:
6266:
6260:978-9176017777
6259:
6231:
6219:
6197:
6173:
6138:
6126:
6110:
6085:
6072:
6063:Werth, Nicolas
6051:
6038:
6029:
6017:
6015:, p. 352.
6005:
6003:, p. 258.
5993:
5984:
5972:
5957:
5942:
5940:, p. 164.
5930:
5918:
5900:
5886:978-0923891312
5885:
5867:
5858:
5846:
5823:
5821:, p. 121.
5811:
5809:, p. 182.
5799:
5797:, p. 142.
5787:
5778:
5769:
5718:
5706:
5680:
5655:
5635:
5631:Gellately 2007
5620:
5618:, p. 239.
5608:
5593:
5587:978-0521335706
5586:
5566:
5551:
5526:
5501:
5475:
5463:
5448:
5413:
5404:"Great Terror"
5395:
5386:Werth, Nicolas
5368:
5351:
5347:S. Fitzpatrick
5334:
5309:
5294:
5269:
5262:
5242:
5235:
5215:
5168:
5149:
5137:
5124:
5112:
5085:(2): 187–204.
5062:
5036:
5022:
5009:978-1576070840
5008:
4985:
4983:30#3 : 513–45.
4969:
4954:
4931:
4915:
4887:
4830:
4807:(7): 1151–72.
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4762:
4756:
4750:
4744:
4739:
4727:
4726:Similar events
4724:
4723:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4655:
4652:
4630:Old Bolsheviks
4558:
4555:
4554:
4553:
4546:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4527:
4525:
4518:
4511:
4509:
4499:A memorial to
4498:
4491:
4489:
4478:
4471:
4469:
4458:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4439:
4422:Wall of Sorrow
4373:Main article:
4370:
4367:
4305:
4302:
4222:
4219:
4155:
4152:
4144:Marxist theory
4091:Main article:
4088:
4087:Rehabilitation
4085:
4026:Walter Duranty
4004:
4001:
3967:dekulakization
3914:Nikolai Yezhov
3906:
3899:
3898:
3897:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3874:
3871:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3859:
3856:
3827:Main article:
3824:
3821:
3777:
3774:
3757:Main article:
3754:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3720:
3717:
3690:
3683:
3682:
3681:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3657:
3646:
3643:Nikolai Nevsky
3639:
3632:
3618:
3605:
3602:Platon Oyunsky
3595:
3588:
3573:
3566:
3559:
3544:Sergei Chavain
3537:
3526:
3523:Nikolai Klyuev
3519:
3508:David Riazanov
3505:
3483:
3479:
3468:Paolo Iashvili
3464:
3455:Georgian poet
3453:
3436:
3425:
3422:Butyrka prison
3409:
3397:Stalin Epigram
3389:
3357:Jewish German
3355:
3338:, director of
3336:Aleksei Gastev
3332:
3329:Pyotr Bogdanov
3321:
3306:astrophysicist
3302:
3287:
3280:
3268:
3262:
3247:
3228:
3221:Trofim Lysenko
3198:
3183:
3058:
3057:Intelligentsia
3055:
3030:Nikolai Yezhov
2995:Ramón Mercader
2880:
2879:
2834:
2832:
2825:
2818:
2817:
2776:
2774:
2767:
2760:
2759:
2748:
2747:
2736:
2735:
2728:
2725:
2643:
2640:
2624:Norman Naimark
2600:dekulakization
2581:Timothy Snyder
2499:Nikolai Yezhov
2476:
2473:
2395:Tsarist regime
2382:
2379:
2359:Romain Rolland
2300:
2297:
2246:Genrikh Yagoda
2214:Genrikh Yagoda
2192:
2189:
2166:
2163:
2158:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2104:Main article:
2101:
2098:
2077:
2076:
2069:
2054:
2013:
2010:
2005:Main article:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1960:dekulakization
1885:Ramón Mercader
1769:Vladimir Lenin
1763:Following the
1756:An excerpt of
1743:
1740:
1728:Nikolai Yezhov
1724:Genrikh Yagoda
1674:Nikolai Yezhov
1656:intelligentsia
1644:Old Bolsheviks
1640:Genrikh Yagoda
1518:Большой террор
1500:
1499:
1497:
1496:
1489:
1482:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1394:Related topics
1393:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1275:The Barricades
1272:
1270:January Events
1267:
1265:Dushanbe riots
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1166:
1161:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1034:Wars in Africa
1031:
1030:
1029:
1019:
1017:Yom Kippur War
1014:
1013:
1012:
1010:Fall of Saigon
1007:
1002:
1000:Operation Menu
997:
987:
982:
977:
972:
967:
961:
955:
954:
951:
950:
947:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
900:
899:
887:
882:
877:
872:
866:
860:
859:
856:
855:
852:
851:
846:
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
815:
814:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
774:
773:
772:
762:
757:
752:
751:
750:
749:
748:
743:
728:
722:
716:
715:
712:
711:
708:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
661:
655:
654:
651:
650:
647:
646:
641:
636:
634:Russian Empire
631:
630:
629:
624:
619:
609:
604:
598:
595:
594:
591:
590:
582:
581:
575:
574:
562:
561:
559:
558:
551:
544:
536:
533:
532:
531:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
502:
501:
497:
496:
495:
494:
489:
488:
487:
477:
472:
471:
470:
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
417:
416:
410:
409:
408:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
379:
378:
372:
371:
370:
369:
368:
367:
362:
352:
350:Dekulakization
347:
342:
334:
333:
329:
328:
318:
317:
314:
310:
309:
278:Nikolai Yezhov
274:Genrikh Yagoda
263:
259:
258:
250:
246:
245:
243:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
216:
214:
211:
208:
207:
189:
185:
184:
175:
171:
170:
157:
153:
152:
141:
133:
132:
125:
124:
81:
80:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12994:
12983:
12980:
12978:
12975:
12973:
12970:
12968:
12965:
12963:
12960:
12958:
12955:
12953:
12950:
12948:
12945:
12943:
12940:
12938:
12935:
12933:
12930:
12928:
12925:
12923:
12920:
12918:
12915:
12913:
12910:
12908:
12905:
12903:
12900:
12898:
12895:
12893:
12890:
12888:
12885:
12883:
12880:
12878:
12875:
12874:
12872:
12857:
12849:
12847:
12846:
12835:
12834:
12831:
12821:
12818:
12814:
12811:
12810:
12809:
12806:
12802:
12799:
12798:
12797:
12794:
12790:
12787:
12786:
12785:
12782:
12781:
12779:
12775:
12767:
12764:
12763:
12761:
12758:
12757:
12755:
12753:
12749:
12743:
12740:
12738:
12735:
12733:
12730:
12728:
12725:
12723:
12720:
12718:
12717:Printed media
12715:
12713:
12710:
12706:
12703:
12702:
12701:
12698:
12696:
12693:
12691:
12688:
12686:
12683:
12681:
12678:
12677:
12675:
12673:
12669:
12663:
12660:
12658:
12655:
12651:
12650:Cyrillisation
12648:
12646:
12643:
12642:
12641:
12638:
12636:
12633:
12631:
12628:
12624:
12621:
12619:
12618:Working class
12616:
12614:
12613:Soviet people
12611:
12610:
12609:
12606:
12604:
12601:
12599:
12596:
12595:
12592:
12589:
12587:
12583:
12575:
12572:
12571:
12570:
12567:
12565:
12562:
12560:
12557:
12555:
12552:
12550:
12547:
12545:
12542:
12540:
12537:
12536:
12534:
12532:
12528:
12520:
12517:
12515:
12512:
12510:
12507:
12506:
12505:
12502:
12500:
12494:
12492:
12489:
12487:
12484:
12482:
12479:
12477:
12474:
12472:
12469:
12467:
12464:
12462:
12461:Energy policy
12459:
12457:
12454:
12452:
12449:
12447:
12444:
12443:
12441:
12439:
12435:
12425:
12422:
12420:
12417:
12415:
12412:
12410:
12407:
12406:
12404:
12402:
12398:
12392:
12389:
12387:
12384:
12380:
12377:
12376:
12375:
12372:
12370:
12367:
12365:
12362:
12360:
12357:
12355:
12352:
12350:
12347:
12346:
12344:
12342:
12338:
12330:
12326:
12322:
12318:
12314:
12311:
12310:
12309:
12306:
12302:
12299:
12297:
12294:
12293:
12292:
12289:
12287:
12284:
12280:
12277:
12276:
12275:
12272:
12268:
12265:
12264:
12263:
12260:
12258:
12255:
12253:
12250:
12249:
12247:
12245:
12241:
12235:
12232:
12230:
12227:
12225:
12222:
12218:
12215:
12214:
12213:
12210:
12209:
12207:
12203:
12195:
12192:
12191:
12190:
12189:Supreme Court
12187:
12184:
12181:
12178:
12175:
12172:
12169:
12165:
12162:
12158:
12155:
12153:
12150:
12149:
12148:
12145:
12143:
12140:
12138:
12135:
12134:
12133:
12130:
12129:
12127:
12123:
12117:
12114:
12110:
12107:
12105:
12102:
12100:
12097:
12096:
12095:
12092:
12090:
12087:
12085:
12082:
12080:
12077:
12073:
12070:
12069:
12068:
12065:
12063:
12060:
12058:
12055:
12051:
12048:
12047:
12046:
12043:
12039:
12036:
12035:
12034:
12031:
12029:
12026:
12022:
12019:
12018:
12017:
12014:
12012:
12009:
12005:
12002:
12000:
11997:
11996:
11995:
11992:
11991:
11989:
11985:
11982:
11980:
11976:
11966:
11963:
11961:
11958:
11956:
11953:
11951:
11948:
11946:
11943:
11941:
11938:
11936:
11933:
11932:
11930:
11926:
11920:
11917:
11915:
11912:
11908:
11905:
11904:
11903:
11900:
11898:
11895:
11891:
11888:
11887:
11886:
11883:
11882:
11880:
11878:
11874:
11871:
11869:
11865:
11859:
11856:
11854:
11851:
11849:
11846:
11844:
11841:
11839:
11836:
11834:
11831:
11829:
11826:
11824:
11821:
11819:
11816:
11814:
11811:
11809:
11806:
11804:
11801:
11799:
11796:
11792:
11791:The Holocaust
11789:
11787:
11784:
11783:
11781:
11778:
11776:
11773:
11771:
11768:
11766:
11763:
11761:
11758:
11756:
11753:
11751:
11748:
11744:
11741:
11739:
11736:
11735:
11734:
11731:
11729:
11726:
11725:
11723:
11721:
11717:
11712:
11705:
11700:
11698:
11693:
11691:
11686:
11685:
11682:
11670:
11662:
11661:
11658:
11652:
11649:
11645:
11642:
11640:
11637:
11635:
11632:
11630:
11627:
11625:
11624:Semyonovskoye
11622:
11620:
11617:
11615:
11612:
11610:
11607:
11606:
11604:
11602:
11599:
11597:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11584:
11583:
11581:
11579:
11575:
11566:
11563:
11558:
11555:
11550:
11547:
11542:
11539:
11534:
11531:
11526:
11523:
11518:
11515:
11510:
11507:
11502:
11501:Vasily Stalin
11499:
11496:(second wife)
11494:
11491:
11488:(adopted son)
11486:
11483:
11478:
11475:
11470:
11467:
11462:
11461:Kato Svanidze
11459:
11454:
11451:
11446:
11443:
11442:
11440:
11436:
11430:
11429:
11425:
11424:
11422:
11418:
11412:
11409:
11407:
11404:
11402:
11399:
11397:
11394:
11392:
11389:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11379:
11377:
11374:
11372:
11369:
11367:
11364:
11362:
11359:
11357:
11354:
11352:
11349:
11347:
11344:
11342:
11339:
11337:
11334:
11332:
11329:
11328:
11326:
11322:
11316:
11313:
11311:
11310:
11306:
11304:
11301:
11299:
11298:
11294:
11292:
11291:
11287:
11285:
11284:
11280:
11278:
11275:
11273:
11270:
11268:
11265:
11263:
11260:
11258:
11257:Ryutin Affair
11255:
11253:
11250:
11248:
11245:
11244:
11242:
11237:Criticism and
11234:
11228:
11225:
11223:
11220:
11218:
11215:
11213:
11210:
11208:
11205:
11203:
11202:
11198:
11196:
11193:
11191:
11188:
11186:
11183:
11181:
11178:
11177:
11175:
11173:
11169:
11163:
11160:
11157:
11153:
11151:
11150:Order No. 270
11148:
11146:
11145:Order No. 227
11143:
11141:
11140:
11136:
11134:
11131:
11129:
11126:
11124:
11123:
11119:
11117:
11114:
11112:
11111:
11107:
11105:
11102:
11100:
11097:
11094:
11090:
11087:
11083:
11080:
11076:
11073:
11069:
11066:
11062:
11061:
11059:
11055:
11049:
11046:
11044:
11043:Doctors' plot
11041:
11039:
11036:
11034:
11031:
11029:
11026:
11024:
11021:
11019:
11016:
11014:
11011:
11007:
11004:
11002:
11001:Nazino affair
10999:
10997:
10994:
10992:
10989:
10987:
10984:
10982:
10979:
10977:
10974:
10973:
10972:
10969:
10966:
10965:German–Soviet
10962:
10959:
10957:
10954:
10952:
10949:
10947:
10944:
10942:
10939:
10937:
10934:
10930:
10927:
10925:
10924:Slavists case
10921:
10918:
10916:
10913:
10911:
10908:
10907:
10905:
10901:
10898:
10896:
10893:
10891:
10890:Moscow Trials
10888:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10864:
10861:
10859:
10856:
10854:
10851:
10849:
10846:
10844:
10841:
10839:
10836:
10834:
10831:
10829:
10826:
10824:
10821:
10819:
10816:
10815:
10814:
10811:
10809:
10806:
10805:
10804:
10801:
10799:
10796:
10794:
10791:
10787:
10784:
10783:
10782:
10779:
10777:
10774:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10757:
10754:
10752:
10749:
10747:
10744:
10742:
10739:
10737:
10734:
10733:
10731:
10725:
10719:
10716:
10714:
10711:
10709:
10706:
10704:
10701:
10699:
10696:
10694:
10691:
10689:
10686:
10684:
10681:
10679:
10676:
10674:
10671:
10669:
10666:
10664:
10661:
10659:
10656:
10654:
10653:Korenizatsiya
10651:
10649:
10648:Neo-Stalinism
10646:
10644:
10641:
10640:
10638:
10634:
10624:
10621:
10619:
10616:
10614:
10611:
10609:
10606:
10602:
10599:
10597:
10594:
10592:
10589:
10587:
10584:
10582:
10579:
10575:
10572:
10571:
10570:
10567:
10565:
10562:
10560:
10557:
10555:
10552:
10551:
10550:
10547:
10545:
10542:
10540:
10537:
10535:
10534:Ili Rebellion
10532:
10530:
10527:
10523:
10520:
10518:
10515:
10513:
10510:
10508:
10505:
10503:
10500:
10498:
10495:
10493:
10490:
10486:
10483:
10482:
10481:
10478:
10476:
10473:
10472:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10453:
10451:
10448:
10446:
10443:
10441:
10438:
10436:
10433:
10431:
10428:
10426:
10422:
10419:
10417:
10414:
10412:
10409:
10407:
10404:
10400:
10397:
10395:
10392:
10391:
10390:
10387:
10385:
10381:
10378:
10376:
10373:
10372:
10370:
10366:
10360:
10357:
10355:
10352:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10321:
10319:
10315:
10312:
10306:
10299:
10296:
10293:
10290:
10289:
10286:
10282:
10281:Joseph Stalin
10275:
10270:
10268:
10263:
10261:
10256:
10255:
10252:
10245:
10242:
10240:
10237:
10236:Nicolas Werth
10234:
10232:
10228:
10223:
10220:
10219:
10215:
10212:
10207:
10203:
10202:
10193:
10189:
10185:
10184:
10174:
10168:
10164:
10159:
10155:
10151:
10147:
10143:
10139:
10137:(2019): 1–24.
10136:
10132:
10129:
10125:
10123:
10119:
10115:
10112:
10108:
10104:
10100:
10096:
10092:
10088:
10084:
10083:
10075:
10071:
10067:
10064:
10060:
10056:
10050:
10046:
10045:
10039:
10035:
10029:
10025:
10024:
10018:
10014:
10008:
10004:
10000:
9996:
9992:
9986:
9982:
9981:Red Holocaust
9978:
9974:
9970:
9964:
9960:
9955:
9951:
9945:
9941:
9937:
9933:
9929:
9923:
9919:
9915:
9911:
9907:
9901:
9897:
9893:
9889:
9885:
9881:
9880:
9875:
9874:Lyons, Eugene
9871:
9864:
9860:
9854:
9847:
9846:
9840:
9836:
9831:
9827:
9821:
9817:
9816:
9810:
9806:
9800:
9796:
9791:
9787:
9781:
9777:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9759:
9755:
9754:Belknap Press
9751:
9746:
9742:
9736:
9732:
9727:
9724:
9720:
9719:
9717:
9702:
9698:
9694:
9690:
9686:
9682:
9678:
9674:
9667:
9662:
9658:
9652:
9648:
9644:
9640:
9635:
9634:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9614:
9610:
9605:
9601:
9595:
9591:
9586:
9582:
9576:
9572:
9568:
9563:
9559:
9555:
9551:
9547:
9541:
9537:
9533:
9532:
9527:
9526:Klehr, Harvey
9523:
9519:
9515:
9509:
9505:
9501:
9496:
9492:
9486:
9482:
9478:
9474:
9470:
9464:
9460:
9455:
9451:
9445:
9441:
9437:
9433:
9429:
9423:
9419:
9418:
9413:
9409:
9405:
9399:
9395:
9394:
9388:
9384:
9378:
9374:
9373:
9367:
9363:
9357:
9353:
9348:
9347:
9336:, p. xx.
9335:
9334:Thurston 1998
9330:
9323:
9317:
9310:
9304:
9297:
9291:
9284:
9278:
9263:
9262:
9257:
9250:
9243:
9238:
9230:
9224:
9220:
9219:
9211:
9204:
9203:Conquest 2008
9199:
9192:
9191:Conquest 2008
9187:
9179:
9175:
9169:
9161:
9157:
9151:
9143:
9137:
9133:
9132:
9124:
9116:
9112:
9108:
9104:
9100:
9096:
9089:
9081:
9075:
9059:
9055:
9054:
9049:
9042:
9027:
9023:
9019:
9015:
9008:
9000:
8994:
8986:
8982:
8976:
8968:
8964:
8958:
8943:. 9 June 2010
8942:
8938:
8932:
8917:
8913:
8909:
8905:
8901:
8895:
8879:
8873:
8857:
8853:
8847:
8840:
8834:
8827:
8822:
8820:
8811:
8805:
8801:
8800:
8795:
8789:
8781:
8775:
8771:
8770:
8765:
8759:
8757:
8755:
8746:
8740:
8736:
8735:
8727:
8719:
8713:
8709:
8708:
8700:
8692:
8686:
8682:
8681:
8673:
8666:
8662:
8656:
8649:
8643:
8636:
8632:
8628:
8625:
8621:
8618:
8614:
8609:
8602:
8598:
8594:
8590:
8584:
8577:
8573:
8569:
8566:
8560:
8553:
8547:
8539:
8533:
8529:
8525:
8518:
8511:
8505:
8498:
8492:
8484:
8480:
8476:
8472:
8468:
8464:
8463:
8455:
8448:
8441:
8440:Thurston 1998
8436:
8428:
8422:
8418:
8411:
8396:
8392:
8385:
8377:
8371:
8367:
8366:
8358:
8351:
8350:Conquest 2008
8346:
8339:
8338:Conquest 2008
8334:
8327:
8326:Conquest 2008
8322:
8315:
8314:Conquest 2008
8310:
8303:
8302:Conquest 2008
8298:
8296:
8288:
8287:Conquest 2008
8283:
8275:
8271:
8265:
8259:, p. 33.
8258:
8253:
8246:
8241:
8235:, p. 32.
8234:
8229:
8214:
8213:
8208:
8201:
8186:
8180:
8176:
8175:
8167:
8158:
8142:
8138:
8137:
8132:
8126:
8119:
8115:
8109:
8102:
8101:Kuromiya 2007
8097:
8090:
8085:
8078:
8074:
8070:
8066:
8061:
8046:
8039:
8032:
8031:Conquest 2008
8027:
8019:
8015:
8009:
8001:
7995:
7991:
7990:
7982:
7974:
7968:
7964:
7963:
7955:
7946:
7939:
7938:Conquest 2008
7934:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7910:
7895:
7891:
7884:
7882:
7874:
7870:
7866:
7860:
7851:
7849:
7847:
7837:
7830:
7829:
7822:
7807:
7803:
7797:
7789:
7783:
7779:
7778:
7770:
7762:
7756:
7752:
7751:
7743:
7735:
7729:
7725:
7724:
7716:
7708:
7702:
7698:
7697:
7689:
7681:
7677:
7671:
7663:
7657:
7653:
7652:
7644:
7636:
7632:
7628:
7624:
7620:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7597:
7589:
7583:
7579:
7578:
7570:
7562:
7556:
7552:
7551:
7543:
7535:
7529:
7525:
7524:
7516:
7508:
7502:
7498:
7497:
7489:
7481:
7475:
7471:
7470:
7462:
7454:
7448:
7444:
7443:
7435:
7427:
7426:
7418:
7410:
7404:
7400:
7399:
7391:
7383:
7377:
7373:
7372:
7364:
7356:
7350:
7346:
7345:
7337:
7329:
7323:
7319:
7318:
7310:
7302:
7296:
7292:
7291:
7283:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7236:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7201:
7199:
7190:
7184:
7180:
7179:
7171:
7163:
7157:
7153:
7152:
7144:
7136:
7130:
7126:
7125:
7117:
7109:
7103:
7099:
7098:
7090:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7047:
7031:
7025:
7018:
7017:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6964:
6960:
6956:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6943:
6936:
6928:
6924:
6918:
6910:
6904:
6900:
6893:
6885:
6879:
6875:
6874:
6866:
6858:
6852:
6848:
6847:
6839:
6831:
6825:
6821:
6820:
6812:
6804:
6798:
6794:
6793:
6785:
6777:
6771:
6767:
6766:
6758:
6750:
6744:
6740:
6739:
6731:
6723:
6717:
6713:
6712:
6704:
6696:
6690:
6686:
6685:
6677:
6669:
6663:
6659:
6652:
6645:
6644:
6639:
6633:
6626:
6625:Conquest 2008
6621:
6614:
6610:
6609:Conquest 2008
6605:
6598:
6595:Stephen Lee,
6592:
6585:
6584:Courtois 1999
6580:
6573:
6572:Conquest 2008
6568:
6553:
6549:
6543:
6535:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6517:
6513:
6509:
6502:
6494:
6488:
6484:
6483:
6475:
6473:
6471:
6455:
6451:
6444:
6436:
6432:
6428:
6424:
6421:(4): 813–61.
6420:
6416:
6409:
6402:
6395:
6391:
6386:
6378:
6374:
6368:
6360:
6354:
6350:
6343:
6335:
6329:
6325:
6324:
6319:
6313:
6306:
6300:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6262:
6256:
6249:
6248:
6240:
6238:
6236:
6228:
6227:Courtois 1999
6223:
6215:
6211:
6204:
6202:
6193:
6186:
6184:
6182:
6180:
6178:
6170:
6169:
6155:
6151:
6142:
6133:
6131:
6123:
6119:
6114:
6106:
6102:
6096:
6094:
6092:
6090:
6082:
6076:
6068:
6064:
6058:
6056:
6049:. pp. 667–68.
6048:
6042:
6033:
6026:
6025:Conquest 2008
6021:
6014:
6013:Conquest 2008
6009:
6002:
6001:Koestler 1940
5997:
5988:
5979:
5977:
5968:
5961:
5953:
5946:
5939:
5938:Conquest 2008
5934:
5925:
5923:
5914:
5910:
5904:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5882:
5878:
5871:
5862:
5856:, p. 87.
5855:
5854:Conquest 2008
5850:
5842:
5838:
5837:Labour Review
5834:
5827:
5820:
5819:Conquest 2008
5815:
5808:
5807:Conquest 2008
5803:
5796:
5795:Conquest 2008
5791:
5782:
5773:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5742:(3): 524–26.
5741:
5737:
5733:
5731:
5722:
5715:
5710:
5694:
5690:
5684:
5669:
5665:
5659:
5653:
5649:
5645:
5639:
5632:
5627:
5625:
5617:
5612:
5605:
5604:Conquest 1987
5600:
5598:
5589:
5583:
5579:
5578:
5570:
5562:
5555:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5538:
5530:
5515:
5511:
5505:
5489:
5485:
5479:
5472:
5467:
5459:
5452:
5437:
5433:
5426:
5424:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5409:
5405:
5399:
5391:
5387:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5375:
5373:
5365:
5361:
5355:
5348:
5344:
5338:
5323:
5319:
5313:
5305:
5298:
5283:
5279:
5273:
5265:
5259:
5255:
5254:
5246:
5238:
5232:
5228:
5227:
5219:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5172:
5164:
5160:
5153:
5146:
5141:
5134:
5128:
5121:
5120:Conquest 2008
5116:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5079:Slavic Review
5073:
5066:
5051:
5047:
5040:
5032:
5026:
5011:
5005:
5001:
5000:
4995:
4989:
4982:
4976:
4974:
4967:, p. 16.
4966:
4961:
4959:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4935:
4928:
4924:
4923:Conquest 2008
4919:
4912:
4907:
4906:
4901:
4894:
4892:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4837:
4835:
4827:
4826:world—history
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4795:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4775:
4760:
4759:Prague Spring
4757:
4754:
4751:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4657:
4651:
4649:
4642:
4637:
4633:
4631:
4626:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4593:According to
4590:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4578:
4573:
4571:
4570:
4565:
4550:
4543:
4538:
4531:
4526:
4522:
4515:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4495:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4475:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4455:
4450:
4443:
4438:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4425:
4423:
4418:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4376:
4366:
4362:
4357:
4355:
4351:
4346:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4310:
4300:
4295:
4292:
4288:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4274:
4270:
4267:
4263:
4260:
4255:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4227:
4221:Stalin's role
4218:
4216:
4208:
4203:
4199:
4196:
4195:J. Arch Getty
4193:According to
4191:
4189:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4169:According to
4167:
4165:
4161:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4131:rehabilitated
4127:
4124:
4116:
4111:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4084:
4082:
4081:Secret Speech
4078:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4062:
4059:
4055:
4054:
4049:
4046:, authors of
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4016:According to
4014:
4011:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3989:
3987:
3986:rehabilitated
3983:
3979:
3975:
3970:
3968:
3964:
3959:
3955:
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3949:
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3849:
3846:
3842:
3841:Israil Pliner
3838:
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3662:
3658:
3655:
3651:
3650:Mykola Kulish
3647:
3644:
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3484:
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3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3451:
3445:
3444:Zinaida Raikh
3441:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3429:Boris Pilnyak
3426:
3423:
3418:
3417:André Malraux
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3362:Fritz Noether
3360:
3356:
3353:
3352:cybernetician
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3284:Boris Numerov
3281:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3232:Lev Shubnikov
3229:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3189:
3185:
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2930:
2926:
2925:Eric D. Weitz
2921:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2890:Vadim Rogovin
2887:
2876:
2873:
2865:
2862:February 2022
2855:
2851:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2835:This section
2833:
2824:
2823:
2814:
2811:
2803:
2800:February 2022
2793:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2777:This section
2775:
2771:
2766:
2765:
2758:
2749:
2746:
2737:
2732:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2713:
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2574:
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2545:
2543:
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2530:
2523:
2519:
2514:
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2500:
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2490:
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2469:
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2445:
2441:
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2429:
2425:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2371:rehabilitated
2368:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2316:
2315:revolutionary
2313:
2309:
2305:
2296:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2285:Jay Lovestone
2282:
2281:Bertram Wolfe
2278:
2272:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2210:Yakov Agranov
2207:
2203:
2198:
2187:
2182:
2180:
2175:
2172:
2162:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2139:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2121:For example,
2119:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2097:
2095:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2062:Yuri Piatakov
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2008:
2007:Moscow trials
2001:Moscow trials
1995:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1901:party leader
1900:
1896:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1845:Ryutin affair
1841:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1713:Volga Germans
1710:
1706:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1678:Yezhovshchina
1675:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1587:Joseph Stalin
1585:
1577:
1561:
1551:
1550:Yezhovshchina
1546:
1535:
1530:
1524:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1481:
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1473:
1472:
1469:
1459:
1458:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1435:Soviet Empire
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1381:
1380:
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1374:
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1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
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1358:
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1350:
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1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1250:Black January
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1170:
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1162:
1160:
1157:
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1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1116:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1103:Polish strike
1101:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1022:Prague Spring
1020:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
992:
991:
988:
986:
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
962:
958:
953:
952:
945:
942:
940:
939:Space program
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
897:
893:
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891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
863:
858:
857:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
779:
778:
775:
771:
770:Moscow trials
768:
767:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
747:
744:
742:
739:
738:
737:
734:
733:
732:
729:
727:
724:
723:
719:
714:
713:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
685:War communism
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
662:
658:
653:
652:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
614:
613:
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608:
605:
603:
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584:
583:
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577:
576:
572:
568:
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552:
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516:
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486:
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446:
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412:
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401:
398:
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393:
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388:
386:
383:
382:
381:
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377:
374:
373:
366:
363:
361:
358:
357:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
340:War communism
338:
337:
336:
335:
331:
330:
324:
323:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
288:and others),
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
266:Joseph Stalin
264:
260:
255:
251:
247:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
217:
215:
209:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
179:
176:
172:
169:
165:
161:
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154:
149:
145:
139:
134:
131:
126:
121:
115:
111:
110:
106:
100:
96:
92:
88:
77:
74:
66:
63:November 2023
56:
50:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
12836:
12608:Demographics
12598:Antisemitism
12451:Central Bank
12369:Forced labor
12358:
12317:Spetsnaz GRU
12137:organisation
12045:Human rights
11994:Constitution
11877:Subdivisions
11774:
11755:Russian SFSR
11711:Soviet Union
11568:(son-in-law)
11560:(son-in-law)
11557:Yuri Zhdanov
11464:(first wife)
11453:Keke Geladze
11426:
11315:Antisemitism
11307:
11295:
11288:
11281:
11272:Kremlin Plot
11199:
11137:
11121:
11108:
11013:Tax on trees
10971:Deportations
10802:
10708:Stakhanovite
10569:Eastern Bloc
10470:World War II
10423: /
10310:and politics
10217:
10192:Meryl Streep
10187:
10162:
10149:
10145:
10134:
10127:
10117:
10110:
10086:
10080:
10062:
10043:
10022:
10002:
9980:
9958:
9939:
9917:
9895:
9878:
9863:the original
9844:
9834:
9814:
9794:
9775:
9749:
9730:
9722:
9676:
9672:
9646:
9632:
9608:
9589:
9566:
9557:
9530:
9499:
9480:
9458:
9439:
9416:
9392:
9371:
9351:
9329:
9321:
9316:
9308:
9303:
9295:
9290:
9282:
9277:
9265:. Retrieved
9259:
9249:
9237:
9217:
9210:
9198:
9186:
9177:
9168:
9159:
9150:
9130:
9123:
9098:
9094:
9088:
9074:
9062:. Retrieved
9058:the original
9051:
9041:
9029:. Retrieved
9017:
9007:
9001:. erols.com.
8993:
8985:the original
8975:
8967:the original
8957:
8945:. Retrieved
8940:
8931:
8919:. Retrieved
8907:
8894:
8882:. Retrieved
8872:
8860:. Retrieved
8855:
8846:
8838:
8833:
8798:
8788:
8768:
8733:
8726:
8706:
8699:
8679:
8672:
8664:
8655:
8647:
8642:
8626:
8608:
8588:
8583:
8564:
8559:
8551:
8546:
8523:
8517:
8509:
8504:
8496:
8491:
8466:
8460:
8447:
8435:
8416:
8410:
8398:. Retrieved
8394:
8384:
8364:
8357:
8345:
8333:
8321:
8309:
8282:
8273:
8264:
8257:Parrish 1996
8252:
8240:
8233:Parrish 1996
8228:
8216:. Retrieved
8210:
8200:
8188:. Retrieved
8173:
8166:
8157:
8145:. Retrieved
8141:the original
8134:
8125:
8117:
8108:
8103:, p. 2.
8096:
8084:
8076:
8069:Harvey Klehr
8060:
8048:. Retrieved
8038:
8026:
8017:
8008:
7988:
7981:
7961:
7954:
7945:
7933:
7914:
7909:
7897:. Retrieved
7893:
7864:
7863:Kern, Gary.
7859:
7836:
7827:
7821:
7809:. Retrieved
7805:
7796:
7776:
7769:
7749:
7742:
7722:
7715:
7695:
7688:
7680:the original
7670:
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7643:
7610:
7606:
7596:
7576:
7569:
7549:
7542:
7522:
7515:
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7461:
7441:
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7397:
7390:
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7336:
7316:
7309:
7289:
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7249:
7245:
7235:
7210:
7206:
7177:
7170:
7150:
7143:
7123:
7116:
7096:
7089:
7056:
7052:
7046:
7034:. Retrieved
7024:
7014:
6990:
6974:
6958:
6950:
6940:
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6926:
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6898:
6892:
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6784:
6764:
6757:
6737:
6730:
6710:
6703:
6683:
6676:
6657:
6651:
6641:
6638:Roy Medvedev
6632:
6620:
6612:
6604:
6596:
6591:
6579:
6567:
6555:. Retrieved
6551:
6542:
6515:
6511:
6501:
6481:
6457:. Retrieved
6454:the Guardian
6453:
6443:
6418:
6414:
6401:
6393:
6385:
6376:
6367:
6348:
6342:
6322:
6312:
6304:
6299:
6277:
6269:
6246:
6222:
6214:the original
6191:
6167:
6165:
6158:. Retrieved
6154:the original
6141:
6113:
6104:
6080:
6075:
6046:
6041:
6032:
6020:
6008:
5996:
5987:
5966:
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5951:
5945:
5933:
5912:
5903:
5876:
5870:
5861:
5849:
5840:
5836:
5826:
5814:
5802:
5790:
5781:
5772:
5739:
5735:
5729:
5721:
5716:, p. 6.
5709:
5697:. Retrieved
5692:
5683:
5671:. Retrieved
5667:
5658:
5643:
5638:
5611:
5576:
5569:
5560:
5554:
5536:
5529:
5517:. Retrieved
5513:
5504:
5492:. Retrieved
5487:
5478:
5466:
5457:
5451:
5439:. Retrieved
5435:
5407:
5398:
5359:
5354:
5345:, edited by
5342:
5337:
5325:. Retrieved
5321:
5312:
5303:
5297:
5285:. Retrieved
5281:
5272:
5252:
5245:
5225:
5218:
5185:
5181:
5171:
5162:
5152:
5140:
5132:
5127:
5115:
5082:
5078:
5065:
5053:. Retrieved
5049:
5039:
5025:
5015:29 September
5013:. Retrieved
4998:
4988:
4980:
4948:
4944:
4934:
4918:
4909:
4903:
4882:
4877:– via
4850:
4846:
4824:
4804:
4800:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4627:
4623:NKVD troikas
4592:
4588:
4583:Leon Trotsky
4581:
4574:
4567:
4560:
4485:Petrozavodsk
4480:
4426:
4419:
4415:
4404:
4393:
4378:
4364:
4359:
4347:
4341:
4315:
4297:
4289:
4285:Zinovievists
4277:
4251:
4212:
4192:
4187:
4168:
4157:
4147:
4135:Yan Rudzutak
4120:
4103:Tukhachevsky
4076:
4072:Daily Worker
4070:
4063:
4051:
4047:
4029:
4021:
4015:
4006:
3990:
3982:G. I. Bondar
3971:
3957:
3951:
3945:
3922:
3907:
3832:
3792:Sheng Shicai
3789:
3786:Sheng Shicai
3762:
3747:
3722:
3701:Sheng Shicai
3624:
3612:
3516:Leon Trotsky
3498:Menshevizing
3448:
3370:Emmy Noether
3366:Nazi Germany
3359:mathematican
3274:
3186:Theoretical
3180:
3132:Aino Forsten
3043:
3022:NKVD troikas
3015:
3007:
2991:Leon Trotsky
2972:
2945:
2922:
2883:
2868:
2859:
2836:
2806:
2797:
2786:Please help
2781:verification
2778:
2717:World War II
2714:
2710:
2706:
2683:
2630:
2628:
2616:
2597:
2546:
2531:
2527:
2503:
2493:A series of
2492:
2470:
2466:
2455:
2448:
2443:
2437:
2422:
2399:
2388:
2384:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2333:
2331:
2324:
2320:
2273:
2265:
2257:Pierre Broué
2250:
2234:Alexei Rykov
2223:
2184:
2176:
2168:
2160:
2143:
2137:
2135:
2131:Ivan Smirnov
2120:
2111:
2109:
2090:
2078:
2034:
2022:Leon Trotsky
1964:
1956:
1944:
1933:
1924:assassinated
1920:Sergei Kirov
1916:
1903:Sergei Kirov
1869:
1857:Leon Trotsky
1842:
1829:Leon Trotsky
1826:
1821:
1815:
1810:Leon Trotsky
1793:
1777:Soviet Union
1773:power vacuum
1762:
1721:
1711:such as the
1677:
1664:
1629:
1610:
1602:
1599:Leon Trotsky
1549:
1533:
1510:Great Terror
1509:
1505:
1503:
1378:
919:Wage reforms
777:World War II
764:
453:Christianity
394:
306:Robert Eikhe
262:Perpetrators
199:leadership,
177:
160:Soviet Union
128:Part of the
107:
99:
69:
60:
47:copy editing
45:may require
44:
12942:Politicides
12877:Great Purge
12712:Phraseology
12657:Prohibition
12645:Linguistics
12630:Drug policy
12623:1989 census
12544:Cybernetics
12446:Agriculture
12359:Great Purge
12321:Soviet Navy
12313:Soviet Army
12185:(1989–1991)
12179:(1938–1991)
12173:(1922–1936)
12157:Secretariat
12028:Gun control
11935:Caspian Sea
11919:Closed city
11848:Dissolution
11833:Perestroika
11775:Great Purge
11324:Remembrance
11290:Animal Farm
11116:Stalin Note
10803:Great Purge
10771:Great Break
10663:Great Break
10384:(1928–1941)
10300:(1946–1953)
10294:(1922–1952)
10211:Great Purge
9242:Harris 2017
9031:23 February
8947:23 February
8921:23 February
8884:23 February
8862:23 February
8856:www.cnn.com
8469:(4): 1022.
8400:23 February
8218:23 February
8190:31 December
8147:23 February
8050:23 February
7899:23 February
7825:Caxtonian,
7811:23 February
7806:Poem Hunter
6557:18 December
6284:Basic Books
5441:19 December
5322:History.com
4965:Harris 2017
4755:(Indonesia)
4281:Trotskyists
4115:Ulaanbaatar
4044:Sidney Webb
3935:of VKP(b) (
3634:Sinologist
3552:State prize
3548:Yoshkar-Ola
3413:Isaac Babel
3348:Yuri Gastev
3282:Astronomer
3271:Isaak Rubin
3097:Isaac Babel
3067:UPTI Affair
3018:in absentia
2985:during the
2968:Jose Robles
2727:Wider purge
2608:Lev Kopelev
2367:Anna Larina
2269:Maxim Gorky
2216:; unknown;
2046:Lev Kamenev
2026:Lev Kamenev
1771:in 1924, a
1732:in Mongolia
1705:labor camps
1603:great purge
1601:. The term
1534:Year of '37
1506:Great Purge
1290:August Coup
1260:War of Laws
1139:Perestroika
990:Vietnam War
980:Six-Day War
765:Great Purge
720:: Stalinism
639:World War I
468:Legislation
395:Great Purge
230:Mass murder
212:Attack type
193:Trotskyists
178:Main phase:
123:Great Purge
103:‹ The
12871:Categories
12752:Opposition
12742:Television
12722:Propaganda
12695:Literature
12569:Naukograds
12564:Sharashkas
12498:(currency)
12476:Inventions
12419:Censorship
12349:Red Terror
12033:Government
11907:Autonomous
11890:Autonomous
11823:Stagnation
11786:Evacuation
11639:Lake Ritsa
11619:Uspenskoye
11536:(grandson)
11520:(grandson)
11512:(daughter)
11267:Trotskyism
11239:opposition
10915:Lysenkoism
10601:Korean War
10480:Winter War
10368:Chronology
10359:Death toll
10324:Early life
9714:See also:
9267:1 December
9064:6 November
8659:Quoted in
8601:0817929029
8576:0300110669
7927:0253209153
7873:1929631146
6985:. p. 200;
6983:0142000639
6969:. p. 460;
6967:1400040051
6953:. p. 101;
6552:goarmy.com
6305:Bloodlands
6292:0465002390
6120:, p.
6118:Figes 2007
5652:1400040051
5616:Figes 2007
5546:B0711N78KN
5519:3 December
5327:2 December
5145:Figes 2007
5055:3 December
4925:, p.
4766:References
4749:(Cambodia)
4710:Lustration
4575:Historian
4549:Sandarmokh
4481:Krasny Bor
4243:Kaganovich
4239:Voroshilov
4117:, Mongolia
3978:Ivan Fedko
3817:Hoja-Niyaz
3807:, General
3734:Sandarmokh
3691:Statue of
3563:Les Kurbas
3310:astronomer
3205:geneticist
3061:See also:
2975:Bolsheviks
2962:, Spanish
2960:Andreu Nin
2952:Trotskyist
2916:and other
2888:historian
2886:Trotskyist
2846:improve it
2702:commissars
2418:White Army
2310:, Russian
2195:See also:
2171:Karl Radek
2138:Not Guilty
2116:John Dewey
2058:Karl Radek
1992:1938, the
1983:1937, the
1970:1936, the
1952:Red Terror
1816:The term "
1746:See also:
1742:Background
1574:period of
1548:) and the
1425:Leadership
1352:Khrushchev
1305:referendum
1280:Referendum
1164:Baltic Way
839:Korean War
680:Red Terror
607:Bolshevism
596:Background
480:Censorship
385:Red Terror
365:Kazakhstan
308:and others
286:Ivan Serov
142:People of
55:editing it
12947:Stalinism
12813:Republics
12801:Republics
12789:Republics
12640:Languages
12504:Transport
12386:Holodomor
12279:Militsiya
12217:President
12109:Stalinism
12011:Elections
11885:Republics
11868:Geography
11858:Nostalgia
11770:Stalinism
11629:New Athos
10895:Hotel Lux
10878:Vinnytsia
10833:Chortkiv
10823:Berezwecz
10818:Berezhany
10786:Holodomor
10643:Stalinism
10581:Cominform
10317:Overviews
9774:(1973) .
9701:205667754
9645:(1998) .
9483:. Knopf.
9296:Historian
9026:0362-4331
8916:0882-7729
8900:Fred Weir
8631:Routledge
7627:0038-5859
7274:1063-777X
7219:0011-3891
7081:122107821
6961:. Knopf.
6646:, p. 214
6534:1252-6576
6320:(2009) .
5895:843206645
5764:151381912
5756:1351-8046
5699:24 August
5673:24 August
5494:22 August
5202:0966-8136
5107:163664533
4867:1252-6576
4771:Citations
4720:Holodomor
4523:, Ukraine
4467:, Belarus
4385:Gorbachev
4083:in full.
3931:USSR and
3929:Sovnarkom
3813:Ma Shaowu
3809:Ma Hushan
3577:Esperanto
3490:dialectic
3188:physicist
3119:Botanist
3071:Sharashka
3005:) lived.
2983:Politburo
2956:anarchist
2920:parties.
2910:Hungarian
2894:Bulgarian
2850:verifying
2631:vis-à-vis
2620:genocidal
2604:Holodomor
2561:Bulgarian
2414:Far North
2377:in 1988.
2312:Bolshevik
2251:Although
2179:Rightists
2053:executed.
1945:From the
1913:) in 1934
1899:Leningrad
1855:in which
1837:Civil War
1686:politburo
1523:romanized
1508:, or the
1415:Geography
1410:Education
1372:Gorbachev
1367:Chernenko
1255:Osh riots
1235:Jeltoqsan
1121:1982–1991
957:1964–1982
862:1953–1964
741:Holodomor
718:1927–1953
657:1917–1927
602:Communism
448:1975–1987
443:1958–1964
438:1928–1941
433:1921–1928
428:1917–1921
225:Massacres
144:Vinnytsia
112:is being
12856:Category
12409:Religion
12296:Chairmen
12142:Congress
12104:Leninism
12084:Propiska
11979:Politics
11838:Glasnost
11798:Cold War
11738:February
11669:Category
11609:Kuntsevo
11456:(mother)
11448:(father)
10883:Zolochiv
10868:Valozhyn
10838:Kurapaty
10636:Concepts
10549:Cold War
10072:(1996).
10001:(2005).
9979:(2009).
9938:(1996).
9916:(2010).
9894:(2002).
9876:(1937).
9693:19326595
9629:(1973).
9556:(1940).
9528:(2003).
9479:(2007).
9438:(2007).
9414:(1999).
8796:(1993).
8766:(2005).
8620:Archived
8595:, 2002.
8570:, 2008.
8212:Memorial
7227:24093868
6973:. 2002.
6957:. 2007.
6949:. 1995.
6459:6 August
6435:32917643
6276:. 2010.
5287:27 April
4996:(1999).
4951:(1): 13.
4875:20171081
4821:43510161
4734:and the
4654:See also
4507:, Russia
4487:, Russia
4461:Kuropaty
4407:Bykivnia
4396:Kurapaty
4389:glasnost
4354:Shelepin
4334:Pospelov
4326:Shvernik
4322:Furtseva
4266:Buddhist
4183:Kuropaty
4179:Vinnitsa
4040:Beatrice
3823:Timeline
3796:Xinjiang
3709:Xinjiang
3705:Mongolia
3625:de facto
3575:Russian
3486:Jan Sten
3295:rocketry
3209:botanist
3177:in 1938.
3047:gas vans
2914:Yugoslav
2884:Russian
2694:marshals
2686:Red Army
2602:and the
2590:Pianist
2557:Estonian
2458:Komsomol
2083:officer
1911:Svetlana
1877:Béla Kun
1787:and the
1736:Xinjiang
1694:sabotage
1690:wrecking
1652:Red Army
1617:allusion
1555:Ежовщина
1539:37-й год
1430:Politics
1377:List of
1362:Andropov
1357:Brezhnev
1347:Malenkov
1134:Glasnost
829:Cold War
571:a series
569:Part of
423:Religion
240:Genocide
197:Red Army
164:Xinjiang
156:Location
116:. ›
105:template
12777:Symbols
12690:Fashion
12672:Culture
12586:Society
12531:Science
12496:Rouble
12438:Economy
12414:Science
12224:Premier
12205:Offices
12067:Leaders
11987:General
11955:Siberia
11928:Regions
11902:Oblasts
11743:October
11720:History
11644:Sukhumi
11605:Dachas
11596:Kureika
10986:Koreans
10873:Vileyka
10574:Comecon
10399:Sovkhoz
10394:Kolkhoz
10308:History
10231:YouTube
10154:ROSSPEN
9343:Sources
9115:2166597
8941:Reuters
8483:2166597
8274:memo.ru
8116:", in:
7254:Bibcode
7061:Bibcode
7036:21 June
6548:"Ranks"
5099:2495035
4738:(China)
4615:torture
4521:Donetsk
4338:Rudenko
4330:Aristov
4247:Zhdanov
4231:Molotov
4209:reserve
3661:sunspot
3600:writer
3556:Mari El
3427:Writer
3411:Writer
3405:Cherdyn
3304:Soviet
3225:genetic
3175:Butyrka
3173:in the
3041:again.
3003:Kalinin
2904:of the
2844:Please
2577:Chinese
2569:Iranian
2553:Latvian
2549:Finnish
2406:Siberia
2277:Kalinin
1881:killing
1619:to the
1582:), was
1568:
1525::
1514:Russian
1420:History
1405:Economy
1400:Culture
1379:troikas
985:Détente
475:Science
463:Judaism
360:Ukraine
12796:Emblem
12784:Anthem
12732:Sports
12685:Cinema
12680:Ballet
12662:Racism
12635:Family
12125:Bodies
11713:topics
11438:Family
10863:Sambir
10169:
10122:online
10113:(2015)
10103:152781
10101:
10051:
10030:
10009:
9987:
9965:
9946:
9924:
9902:
9855:
9822:
9801:
9782:
9760:
9737:
9699:
9691:
9653:
9615:
9596:
9577:
9542:
9510:
9487:
9465:
9446:
9424:
9400:
9379:
9358:
9225:
9138:
9113:
9024:
8914:
8806:
8776:
8741:
8714:
8687:
8603:p. 111
8599:
8578:p. xix
8574:
8534:
8481:
8423:
8372:
8181:
8136:RTÉ.ie
7996:
7969:
7925:
7875:p. 111
7871:
7784:
7757:
7730:
7703:
7658:
7635:150306
7633:
7625:
7584:
7557:
7530:
7503:
7476:
7449:
7405:
7378:
7351:
7324:
7297:
7272:
7225:
7217:
7185:
7158:
7131:
7104:
7079:
7009:; and
7007:p. 286
7001:
6989:1998.
6981:
6965:
6905:
6880:
6853:
6826:
6799:
6772:
6745:
6718:
6691:
6664:
6599:p. 56.
6532:
6489:
6433:
6355:
6330:
6290:
6257:
6160:27 May
5893:
5883:
5762:
5754:
5668:uh.edu
5650:
5584:
5544:
5260:
5233:
5210:826310
5208:
5200:
5105:
5097:
5006:
4873:
4865:
4819:
4501:Polish
4342:et al.
4336:, and
4318:Suslov
4259:boyars
4245:, and
4235:Stalin
3736:. 127
3664:crops.
3659:After
3461:Besiki
3073:, and
2999:Tomsky
2721:Hitler
2575:, and
2565:Afghan
2487:, and
2408:, the
2291:, and
2244:, and
2028:, and
1907:Stalin
1849:Ryutin
1665:kulaks
1648:bosses
1595:purges
1576:Yezhov
1440:Russia
1342:Stalin
573:on the
485:Images
313:Motive
268:, the
249:Deaths
201:kulaks
188:Target
150:, 1943
12727:Radio
12705:Opera
12700:Music
12603:Crime
12374:Gulag
12252:Cheka
11897:Krais
11614:Sochi
11504:(son)
11480:(son)
11472:(son)
11057:Works
10848:Lutsk
10843:Katyn
10828:Dubno
10793:Gulag
10148:[
10099:JSTOR
10077:(PDF)
9866:(PDF)
9849:(PDF)
9697:S2CID
9669:(PDF)
9111:JSTOR
8479:JSTOR
8457:(PDF)
7631:JSTOR
7223:JSTOR
7077:S2CID
6431:S2CID
6411:(PDF)
6251:(PDF)
5760:S2CID
5206:JSTOR
5103:S2CID
5095:JSTOR
5075:(PDF)
4879:JSTOR
4871:JSTOR
4817:S2CID
4797:(PDF)
4505:Tomsk
4465:Minsk
4429:Odesa
4269:lamas
4160:Gulag
3845:Gulag
3769:lamas
3598:Yakut
3521:Poet
3391:Poet
3334:Poet
3167:sambo
2948:Spain
2698:corps
2573:Greek
2410:Urals
2156:USSR.
2152:them.
1905:with
1818:purge
1765:death
1702:Gulag
1337:Lenin
458:Islam
400:Gulag
254:Gulag
87:Purge
12902:NKVD
12808:Flag
12766:List
12574:List
12486:OGAS
12379:List
12262:NKVD
12050:LGBT
12038:List
12004:1977
11999:1936
10853:Lviv
10421:16th
10334:Rise
10194:. US
10181:Film
10167:ISBN
10049:ISBN
10028:ISBN
10007:ISBN
9985:ISBN
9963:ISBN
9944:ISBN
9922:ISBN
9900:ISBN
9853:ISBN
9820:ISBN
9799:ISBN
9780:ISBN
9758:ISBN
9735:ISBN
9689:PMID
9651:ISBN
9613:ISBN
9594:ISBN
9575:ISBN
9540:ISBN
9508:ISBN
9485:ISBN
9463:ISBN
9444:ISBN
9422:ISBN
9398:ISBN
9377:ISBN
9356:ISBN
9269:2018
9223:ISBN
9136:ISBN
9066:2017
9033:2023
9022:ISSN
8949:2023
8923:2023
8912:ISSN
8886:2023
8864:2023
8804:ISBN
8774:ISBN
8739:ISBN
8712:ISBN
8685:ISBN
8637:file
8597:ISBN
8572:ISBN
8532:ISBN
8421:ISBN
8402:2023
8370:ISBN
8220:2023
8192:2010
8179:ISBN
8149:2023
8067:and
8052:2023
7994:ISBN
7967:ISBN
7923:ISBN
7901:2023
7869:ISBN
7813:2023
7782:ISBN
7755:ISBN
7728:ISBN
7701:ISBN
7656:ISBN
7623:ISSN
7582:ISBN
7555:ISBN
7528:ISBN
7501:ISBN
7474:ISBN
7447:ISBN
7403:ISBN
7376:ISBN
7349:ISBN
7322:ISBN
7295:ISBN
7270:ISSN
7215:ISSN
7183:ISBN
7156:ISBN
7129:ISBN
7102:ISBN
7038:2016
6999:ISBN
6979:ISBN
6963:ISBN
6903:ISBN
6878:ISBN
6851:ISBN
6824:ISBN
6797:ISBN
6770:ISBN
6743:ISBN
6716:ISBN
6689:ISBN
6662:ISBN
6559:2018
6530:ISSN
6487:ISBN
6461:2018
6353:ISBN
6328:ISBN
6288:ISBN
6255:ISBN
6162:2012
5891:OCLC
5881:ISBN
5843:(2).
5752:ISSN
5701:2022
5675:2022
5648:ISBN
5582:ISBN
5542:ASIN
5521:2021
5496:2022
5443:2020
5329:2021
5289:2022
5258:ISBN
5231:ISBN
5198:ISSN
5057:2021
5017:2015
5004:ISBN
4863:ISSN
4479:The
4459:The
4411:Kyiv
4283:and
4181:and
4137:and
4126:CPSU
4123:20th
4042:and
3848:NKVD
3784:and
3707:and
3540:Mari
3433:Gide
3308:and
3238:and
3207:and
3163:judo
2964:POUM
2954:and
2931:and
2688:and
2504:The
2438:The
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