1104:
897:
1065:
29:
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1422:
888:
1957:; for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents. Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. More importantly, in Aristotle's works, the terms γένος (génos) and εἶδος (eidos) are relative; a taxon that is considered an eidos in a given context can be considered a génos in another, and be further subdivided into eide (plural of eidos). His approach remained influential until the
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1179:
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343:
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1987:
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1976:
583:'s species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that the biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species. A version of the concept is
741:
642:
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1615:. Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms. The circumscription of taxa, considered a taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the
551:, diluting the species concept and making taxonomy unstable. Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as
987:. Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with a 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept). Mishler and Wilkins and others concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist
1474:(in zoology) when the paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the
543:, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in
1861:
Conservation laws in many countries make special provisions to prevent species from going extinct. Hybridization zones between two species, one that is protected and one that is not, have sometimes led to conflicts between lawmakers, land owners and conservationists. One of the classic cases in North
1774:
Louis-Marie Bobay and Howard Ochman suggest, based on analysis of the genomes of many types of bacteria, that they can often be grouped "into communities that regularly swap genes", in much the same way that plants and animals can be grouped into reproductively isolated breeding populations. Bacteria
763:
It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or
595:
An ecological species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources
2087:
I look at the term species as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other ... It does not essentially differ from the word variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with
2026:
of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was still widely believed that there was no organic connection between species (except, possibly, between those of a given genus), no matter how similar they appeared. This
2001:
period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical: schemes included consanguinity based on colour (all plants with yellow flowers) or behaviour (snakes,
358:
A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would
1833:, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters. Another form of extinction is through the assimilation of one species by another through hybridization. The resulting single species has been termed as a "
966:
there is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced
578:
in 1951, is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies". This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley
322:
emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to
604:
A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert
Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by
2010:
No surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me than the distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in propagation from seed. Thus, no matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental
534:
species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)". The empirical basis – observed character states – provides the evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily
565:
Unlike the biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages. However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying
525:
The cladistic or phylogenetic species concept is that a species is the smallest lineage which is distinguished by a unique set of either genetic or morphological traits. No claim is made about reproductive isolation, making the concept useful also in palaeontology where only fossil evidence is
1600:
about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two
1513:
When a species' identity is not clear, a specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after.
2050:
In viewing evidence of hybridisation, Linnaeus recognised that species were not fixed and could change; he did not consider that new species could emerge and maintained a view of divinely fixed species that may alter through processes of hybridisation or acclimatisation. By the 19th century,
1857:
moot. Surveys using a phylogenetic species concept reported 48% more species and accordingly smaller populations and ranges than those using nonphylogenetic concepts; this was termed "taxonomic inflation", which could cause a false appearance of change to the number of endangered species and
995:
called this the "cynical species concept", and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience. Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least
399:
A mate-recognition species is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through
7542:
1645:
for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with
388:
to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits.
1874:; this has led to legal debates. It has been argued that the species problem is created by the varied uses of the concept of species, and that the solution is to abandon it and all other taxonomic ranks, and use unranked monophyletic groups instead, an approach facilitated by the
1659:("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species.
727:
will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles a traditional biological species. The
939:(HGT) makes it difficult to define a species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of
197:, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be a perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and
1103:
1501:
Authors may also use "spp." as a short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of
1221:
is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential
503:, contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider a misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently.
7485:
975:
argued that the species concept is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species. Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in
3341:
Bernardo, J. (2011). "A critical appraisal of the meaning and diagnosability of cryptic evolutionary diversity, and its implications for conservation in the face of climate change". In
Hodkinson, T.; Jones, M.; Waldren, S.; Parnell, J. (eds.).
706:
Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral
691:
one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered a different species from its ancestors.
1713:
speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible
1767:, is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic
2082:
from naturally occurring variation among individuals. This required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what they appear to be: ideas, provisionally useful for naming groups of interacting individuals, writing:
359:
differentiate the species. This method was used as a "classical" method of determining species, such as with
Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged
5090:
488:
in 2013, and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020. Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that a genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present.
176:
While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear with
331:
based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species, a species as determined by a taxonomist.
7945:
2011:
variations and not such as to distinguish a species ... Animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa.
6621:
400:
intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if the amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective
1858:
consequent political and practical difficulties. Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.
7088:
6703:
1461:
is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology (see
783:
No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation.
755:'s 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines a species as
4832:
Gevers, Dirk; Cohan, Frederick M.; Lawrence, Jeffrey G.; Spratt, Brian G.; Coenye, Tom; Feil, Edward J.; Stackebrandt, Erko; De Peer, Yves Van; Vandamme, Peter; Thompson, Fabiano L.; Swings, Jean (2005).
772:
It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species concepts is called the species problem. The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in
323:
count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John
Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1)
2856:
Land, Miriam; Hauser, Loren; Jun, Se-Ran; Nookaew, Intawat; Leuze, Michael R.; Ahn, Tae-Hyuk; Karpinets, Tatiana; Lund, Ole; Kora, Guruprased; Wassenaar, Trudy; Poudel, Suresh; Ussery, David W. (2015).
6110:
1230:
thus closing the ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the
1064:
5688:
Jarvis, C. E. (1992). "Seventy-Two
Proposals for the Conservation of Types of Selected Linnaean Generic Names, the Report of Subcommittee 3C on the Lectotypification of Linnaean Generic Names".
1272:
6413:"Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590)"
6411:
Lawley, Jonathan W.; Gamero-Mora, Edgar; Maronna, Maximiliano M.; Chiaverano, Luciano M.; Stampar, Sérgio N.; Hopcroft, Russell R.; Collins, Allen G.; Morandini, André C. (29 September 2022).
919:
Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g.
5054:
7897:
547:, by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically. Others have called this approach
535:
divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space. Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or
1619:, and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited.
8596:
447:, genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of
1642:
1601:
distinct names to individual organisms later identified as the same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given
3422:
Taylor, J. W.; Jacobson, D. J.; Kroken, S.; Kasuga, T.; Geiser, D. M.; Hibbett, D. S.; Fisher, M. C. (2000). "Phylogenetic species recognition and species concepts in fungi".
1494:
sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in
4690:
2839:
3855:
2019:
classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics, and not simply based upon differences. Like many contemporary systematists, he established the idea of a
8539:
8339:
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1801:
well before that moment. It is estimated that over 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, some five billion species, are now extinct. Some of these were in
1315:
1775:
may thus form species, analogous to Mayr's biological species concept, consisting of asexually reproducing populations that exchange genes by homologous recombination.
4810:
6868:
495:
has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for
201:
for studying life on Earth, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but
6699:
3115:
1248:
in Asia, but many so-called ring species have turned out to be the result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species.
860:
When scientists do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are capable of interbreeding; this is the case with all extinct life-forms in
10084:
8586:
653:
changes with time. At some point, palaeontologists judge that enough change has occurred that two species (A and B), separated in time and anatomy, once existed.
318:. Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept.
1254:
8591:
5958:
Geml, J.; Tulloss, R. E.; Laursen, G. A.; Sasanova, N. A.; Taylor, D. L. (2008). "Evidence for strong inter- and intracontinental phylogeographic structure in
4748:
Fraser, C.; Alm, E. J.; Polz, M. F.; Spratt, B. G.; Hanage, W. P. (2009). "The bacterial species challenge: making sense of genetic and ecological diversity".
7390:
3682:
de
Queiroz, Kevin (1998). "The general lineage concept of species, species criteria, and the process of speciation". In D. J. Howard; S. H. Berlocher (eds.).
1367:. Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean
8576:
6083:
1669:
Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct.
7947:
Antonii
Laurentii de Jussieu ... Genera plantarum secundum ordines naturales disposita: juxta methodum in horto regio Parisiensi exaratam, anno M.DCC.LXXIV.
5344:
8581:
6389:
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3908:
2429:
Mayden, R. L. (1997). "A hierarchy of species concepts: the denouement of the species problem". In
Claridge, M. F.; Dawah, H. A.; Wilson, M. R. (eds.).
1849:
need to categorise and identify organisms in the course of their work. Difficulty assigning organisms reliably to a species constitutes a threat to the
1141:
presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the
878:, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.
10573:
10430:
8138:
5573:
I defend a view of the species category, pluralistic realism, which is designed to do justice to the insights of many different groups of systematists.
991:'s early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species". Wilkins noted that the philosopher
8280:
10398:
5788:
2776:
3878:
1687:
process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species is called
7950:(in Latin). Apud viduam Herissant, typographum, viâ novâ B.M. sub signo Crucis Aureæ. Et Theophilum Barrois, ad ripam Augustinianorum. p. 498.
7258:
28:
7930:
1296:
3935:
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1486:
Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using the abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for
729:
6838:
3367:
Brower, Andrew V. Z. and
Randall T. Schuh. (2021). Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
1638:
1526:
1475:
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2051:
naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes.
1578:
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6017:
4259:
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1085:
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boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results.
687:(evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the
6068:
4021:
Van
Regenmortel, Marc H. V. (2010). "Logical puzzles and scientific controversies: The nature of species, viruses and living organisms".
4007:
3973:
2181:
5674:
3824:
1042:, making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as
8668:
4912:
11274:
8702:
7198:
5288:(2022). "Ecology, evolution, and systematics in a post-species world". In Wilkins, John S.; Zachos, Frank E.; Pavlinov, Igor (eds.).
1389:) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code
7449:"Taxonomic inflation, the Phylogenetic Species Concept and lineages in the Tree of Life – a cautionary comment on species splitting"
2792:"Taxonomic note: a place for DNA-DNA reassociation and 16S rRNA sequence analysis in the present species definition in bacteriology"
1652:("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as the person who named the species, while the
11562:
11164:
10337:
9792:
8549:
7916:
Elemens de botanique, ou Methode pour connoître les plantes. I. [Texte.] / . Par Mr Pitton Tournefort... [T. I-III]
1522:
With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including:
4659:
2824:
6545:
1719:
1570:
1542:
8043:
5508:
2027:
view was influenced by European scholarly and religious education, which held that the taxa had been created by God, forming an
1722:. A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a
9143:
8275:
7608:
1030:
are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by
759:
groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
11134:
11054:
11029:
10908:
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10100:
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8235:
8212:
8186:
8152:
8121:
8083:
7970:
7780:
7419:
7384:
6647:
6062:
5723:
Wittzell, Hakan (1999). "Chloroplast DNA variation and reticulate evolution in sexual and apomictic sections of dandelions".
5668:
5526:
5430:
5297:
5269:
5183:
5029:
4906:
4596:
4567:
4253:
4245:
Virus Taxonomy Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses: Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
4001:
3851:
3709:
3351:
2721:
2529:
2501:
2465:
720:
8424:
4880:
Templeton, A. R. (1989). "The meaning of species and speciation: A genetic perspective". In Otte, D.; Endler, J. A. (eds.).
4806:
2727:
11254:
10462:
9457:
8349:
8319:
8069:
5130:"How discordant morphological and molecular evolution among microorganisms can revise our notions of biodiversity on Earth"
6860:
6571:
6358:
3877:
de Buffrénil, Vivian; de Ricqlès, Armand J; Zylberberg, Louise; Padian, Kevin; Laurin, Michel; Quilhac, Alexandra (2021).
2906:
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10886:
10862:
10810:
10183:
9103:
2207:
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Vane-Wright, R. I.; Humphries, C. J.; Williams, P. H. (1991). "What to protect? – systematics and the agony of choice".
11694:
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11279:
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10418:
9845:
9505:
6127:
Irwin, D. E.; Bensch, Staffan; Irwin, Jessica H.; Price, Trevor D. (2005). "Speciation by Distance in a Ring Species".
5338:
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3127:
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2980:
Rodriguez-R, Luis M.; Jain, Chirag; Conrad, Roth E.; Aluru, Srinivas; Konstantinidis, Konstantinos T. (7 July 2021).
9912:
8428:
6213:
Alcaide, M.; Scordato, E. S. C.; Price, T. D.; Irwin, D. E. (2014). "Genomic divergence in a ring species complex".
3292:
Wheeler, Quentin D.; Platnick, Norman I. 2000. The phylogenetic species concept (sensu Wheeler & Platnick). In:
11785:
11707:
11314:
11099:
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10384:
9917:
9515:
3588:"Why one century of phenetics is enough: Response to 'are there really twice as many bovid species as we thought?'"
2121:
1830:
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209:
to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that a lineage should be divided into multiple
11775:
11760:
11309:
11289:
11002:
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10455:
10450:
10423:
10162:
10152:
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9351:
7564:
5547:
5325:
2126:
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247:
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3467:"Eukaryotic microbes, species recognition and the geographic limits of species: Examples from the kingdom Fungi"
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10519:
10290:
10157:
9937:
9681:
9479:
9383:
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appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap.
716:
295:
3200:"DNA barcoding cannot reliably identify species of the blowfly genus Protocalliphora (Diptera: Calliphoridae)"
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11324:
11304:
11241:
10692:
10561:
10502:
10355:
9942:
9686:
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8695:
5642:
Heywood, V. H. (1962). "The 'species aggregate' in theory and practice". In Heywood, V. H.; Löve, Á. (eds.).
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Wilkins, John S. (2022). "The Good Species". In Wilkins, John S.; Zachos, Frank E.; Pavlinov, Igor (eds.).
2032:
633:(ESU) or "wildlife species" is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation.
436:
38:
3822:
2923:
Parks, D. H.; Chuvochina, M.; Chaumeil, P. A.; Rinke, C.; Mussig, A. J.; Hugenholtz, P. (September 2020).
2078:
and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals, by
2006:, an English naturalist, was the first to attempt a biological definition of species in 1686, as follows:
1878:. It has been argued, too, that since species are not comparable, counting them is not a valid measure of
1545:(KEGG) employs a three- or four-letter code for a limited number of organisms; in this code, for example,
813:
Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most
463:
to decide if they belong to the same species. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%.
11733:
11299:
10534:
10365:
9959:
8656:
8644:
1226:
between each "linked" population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may
500:
467:
33:
7227:
1937:. These terms were translated into Latin as "genus" and "species", though they do not correspond to the
37:
36:
11194:
11064:
11044:
10823:
10568:
10061:
9235:
8545:
1466:), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a
1357:
The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat,
1178:
732:
has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy.
415:
3931:
2063:, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.
1771:, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.
404:. A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species.
125:
reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of
11614:
11585:
11472:
11386:
11294:
11269:
11094:
11059:
10835:
9855:
9652:
9462:
9230:
9123:
8204:
8113:
8103:
7605:
The Endangered Species Act at Thirty, Volume 2: Conserving Biodiversity in Human-Dominated Landscapes
2318:
2264:
Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Worm, Boris (23 August 2011).
460:
9984:
8224:
Species Concepts in Biology: Historical Development, Theoretical Foundations and Practical Relevance
7505:
7405:
4792:
4515:
Bernstein, H.; Byerly, H. C.; Hopf, F. A.; Michod, R.E. (1985). "Sex and the emergence of species".
3380:
Giraud, T.; Refrégier, G.; Le Gac, M.; de Vienne, D. M.; Hood, M. E. (2008). "Speciation in Fungi".
3306:
Giraud, T.; Refrégier, G.; Le Gac, M.; de Vienne, D. M.; Hood, M. E. (2008). "Speciation in Fungi".
2171:
1164:
1014:, groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming
996:
Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs), a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory.
40:
11507:
11391:
11264:
11084:
11017:
10879:
10852:
10707:
10482:
10445:
10278:
10142:
10114:
10089:
10046:
9949:
9882:
9757:
9630:
9598:
9571:
9561:
8688:
8499:
8312:
2060:
1744:
1735:
1235:
984:
936:
775:
482:. With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for
279:
234:
20:
9762:
7706:
Aristotle's classification of animals: biology and the conceptual unity of the Aristotelian corpus
6830:
5660:
Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species
3959:"Typologic versus population concepts of chronospecies: implications for ammonite biostratigraphy"
1596:
The naming of a particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a
1463:
11780:
11671:
11512:
11378:
11204:
11184:
11174:
10989:
10969:
10840:
10828:
10818:
10675:
10407:
10283:
10213:
10122:
9850:
9732:
9500:
9096:
7047:
3697:
3525:
Groves, C.; Grubb, P. 2011. Ungulate taxonomy. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
2982:"Reply to: "Re-evaluating the evidence for a universal genetic boundary among microbial species""
1406:
1031:
365:
born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called
263:
154:
142:
129:
is between 8 and 8.7 million. About 14% of these had been described by 2011. All species (except
35:
6784:"The PhyloCode : The logical outcome of millennia of evolution of biological nomenclature?"
6013:
4243:
3039:
2172:"What Is a Species, Anyway? - Some of the best known species on Earth may not be what they seem"
1421:
213:, or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as
11629:
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11382:
11374:
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10697:
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10322:
9971:
9840:
9802:
9703:
9674:
9647:
9642:
9240:
8942:
8604:
8560:
8493:
8462:
8380:
8354:
7986:
7500:
6725:
3958:
1902:
1896:
1867:
1740:
1706:
1467:
1240:
826:
575:
150:
146:
9828:
8144:
8075:
7857:
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6052:
4134:
3991:
39:
11656:
11619:
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11421:
11396:
11124:
11104:
10954:
10874:
10847:
10778:
10546:
10263:
10137:
10056:
10051:
10036:
10021:
10011:
9927:
9902:
9737:
9693:
9657:
9625:
9566:
9544:
9525:
9388:
9341:
9292:
9287:
9245:
8485:
8438:
8420:
8416:
8400:
8344:
8285:
7770:
7411:
5658:
4896:
4671:
4133:
Wilke, Claus O.; Wang, Jia Lan; Ofria, Charles; Lenski, Richard E.; Adami, Christoph (2001).
3828:
2071:
2052:
1954:
1798:
1701:
1602:
1591:
1490:, Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g.
1394:
932:
928:
814:
504:
484:
275:
267:
134:
4388:
1342:
A cougar, mountain lion, panther, or puma, among other common names: its scientific name is
11609:
11416:
11401:
11369:
11356:
11217:
11129:
10997:
10964:
10939:
10793:
10757:
10651:
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10237:
10132:
10066:
9867:
9782:
9698:
9610:
9593:
9520:
9510:
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9112:
8452:
8260:
7678:
7635:
7096:
7008:
6222:
6187:
6136:
5971:
5912:
5849:
5732:
5214:
5066:
4757:
4524:
4489:
4434:
4149:
4087:
4030:
2993:
2936:
2357:
2105:
1970:
1863:
1846:
1111:
1020:
920:
822:
496:
429:
311:
228:. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time.
225:
198:
194:
106:
9872:
9742:
7914:
7209:
4834:
2493:
2485:
1605:
and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called
511:
and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species.
420:
8:
11676:
11441:
11226:
11144:
10685:
10629:
10556:
10300:
10258:
10208:
10127:
9975:
9967:
9897:
9877:
9823:
9667:
9420:
9363:
9225:
9208:
9186:
8632:
8489:
8305:
8227:
7899:
Prodromus historiae generalis plantarum in quo familiae plantarum per tabulas disponuntur
5016:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 299. Springer. pp. 1–31.
4135:"Evolution of digital organisms at high mutation rates leads to survival of the flattest"
2322:
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1117:
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82:
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5975:
5916:
5853:
5736:
5218:
5070:
4761:
4528:
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4153:
4091:
4034:
2997:
2361:
1853:
of research results, for example making measurements of how abundant a species is in an
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32:
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10898:
10857:
10773:
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10273:
10225:
10218:
9815:
9727:
9588:
9549:
9373:
9317:
9307:
9267:
9181:
9176:
9171:
9089:
8871:
8815:
8800:
8782:
8504:
8196:
8021:
7924:
7766:
7748:
7534:
7518:
7350:
7325:
7301:
7276:
7176:
7163:
7146:
7119:
7083:
7064:
6919:
6894:
6811:
6764:
6523:
6434:
6336:
6300:
6275:
6256:
6160:
5995:
5935:
5896:
5872:
5838:"Natural hybridization in heliconiine butterflies: the species boundary as a continuum"
5837:
5810:
5775:
5756:
5705:
5619:
5564:
5398:
5237:
5202:
5154:
5129:
5082:
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4927:
4862:
4781:
4636:
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4457:
4422:
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4333:
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4282:
4219:
4192:
4173:
4077:
3800:
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3751:
3726:
3652:
3491:
3466:
3447:
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3253:
3224:
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3150:
3091:
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3016:
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2962:
2883:
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2768:
2611:
2573:
2565:
2517:
2408:
2292:
2265:
2243:
2212:
2176:
2131:
2111:
2020:
1634:
1454:
988:
792:
708:
701:
299:
206:
86:
7577:
6541:
5485:
4536:
747:
proposed the widely used Biological Species Concept of reproductive isolation in 1942.
327:
for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3)
11727:
11720:
11714:
11497:
11492:
11406:
11208:
10949:
10916:
10783:
10644:
10592:
10551:
10529:
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10361:
10315:
10041:
9989:
9767:
9583:
9484:
9447:
9442:
9398:
9393:
9346:
9312:
8932:
8886:
8881:
8768:
8763:
8757:
8651:
8555:
8527:
8509:
8475:
8231:
8208:
8182:
8178:
8148:
8117:
8079:
8065:
8039:
7966:
7861:
7850:
7819:
7776:
7752:
7709:
7690:
7651:
7647:
7581:
7526:
7484:; Gittleman, John L.; Mace, Georgina M.; Marshall, Jonathon C.; Purvis, Andy (2004).
7481:
7415:
7380:
7355:
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7250:
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7168:
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6999:
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6815:
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6768:
6484:
6438:
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6248:
6212:
6152:
6058:
5987:
5940:
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5815:
5748:
5744:
5664:
5624:
5606:
5568:
5522:
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5458:
5436:
5426:
5390:
5382:
5334:
5303:
5293:
5265:
5242:
5159:
5035:
5025:
4994:
4949:
4902:
4854:
4773:
4730:
4641:
4592:
4563:
4540:
4501:
4462:
4365:
4314:
4249:
4224:
4165:
4115:
4110:
4065:
4046:
3997:
3884:
3805:
3756:
3705:
3644:
3609:
3568:
3496:
3439:
3397:
3347:
3323:
3229:
3180:
3096:
3082:
3021:
2966:
2954:
2924:
2888:
2717:
2577:
2525:
2497:
2481:
2461:
2373:
2369:
2297:
2217:
2079:
1946:
1934:
1850:
1696:
1390:
1076:
910:
724:
536:
456:
347:
310:
Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from
243:
7180:
7068:
6164:
5760:
5402:
5086:
4866:
4785:
4480:
Hopf, F. A.; Hopf, F. W. (1985). "The role of the Allee effect on species packing".
3656:
3279:
2772:
2391:
Masters, J. C.; Spencer, H. G. (1989). "Why We Need a New Genetic Species Concept".
1559:
employs an "organism mnemonic" of not more than five alphanumeric characters, e.g.,
11755:
10926:
10867:
10656:
10599:
9907:
9474:
9452:
9260:
9050:
9007:
8959:
8948:
8748:
8738:
8727:
8519:
8480:
8013:
7809:
7797:
7738:
7686:
7643:
7573:
7538:
7510:
7460:
7345:
7337:
7296:
7288:
7242:
7158:
7114:
7104:
7056:
7016:
6958:
6914:
6906:
6795:
6756:
6515:
6474:
6424:
6295:
6287:
6260:
6238:
6230:
6195:
6178:
Martens, Jochen; Päckert, Martin (2007). "Ring species – Do they exist in birds?".
6144:
6102:
5979:
5930:
5920:
5867:
5857:
5805:
5797:
5740:
5697:
5614:
5598:
5556:
5514:
5480:
5470:
5374:
5232:
5222:
5149:
5141:
5074:
5017:
4984:
4976:
4939:
4846:
4765:
4720:
4680:
4631:
4621:
4532:
4497:
4452:
4442:
4355:
4345:
4304:
4294:
4214:
4204:
4177:
4157:
4105:
4095:
4038:
3795:
3787:
3746:
3738:
3636:
3599:
3558:
3548:
3486:
3478:
3451:
3431:
3389:
3315:
3265:
3219:
3211:
3170:
3162:
3086:
3078:
3011:
3001:
2946:
2878:
2870:
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2760:
2657:
2641:
2603:
2557:
2400:
2365:
2287:
2277:
2146:
2088:
mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for convenience sake.
1942:
1938:
1802:
1788:
1756:
1579:
urn:lsid:catalogueoflife.org:taxon:4da6736d-d35f-11e6-9d3f-bc764e092680:col20170225
1303:
1280:
1245:
1184:
1138:
1132:
1072:
1026:
868:
764:
that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in the wild.
688:
584:
579:
and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to
471:
178:
110:
10798:
9752:
7961:
Reveal, James L.; Pringle, James S. (1993). "7. Taxonomic Botany and Floristics".
6643:
6503:
5999:
5187:
4660:"Combining morphology and DNA barcoding resolves the taxonomy of Western Malagasy
3534:
605:
comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing
11666:
11557:
11522:
11431:
11319:
11213:
11169:
11149:
11022:
10738:
10717:
10472:
10268:
9892:
9719:
9708:
9662:
9605:
9554:
9334:
9138:
9032:
9018:
8985:
8974:
8968:
8922:
8917:
8912:
8906:
8900:
8895:
8861:
8856:
8851:
8846:
8840:
8834:
8600:
8442:
8374:
8099:
7600:
6054:
The Species Problem: Biological Species, Ontology, and the Metaphysics of Biology
5128:
Lahr, D. J.; Laughinghouse, H. D.; Oliverio, A. M.; Gao, F.; Katz, L. A. (2014).
4283:"International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses and the 3,142 unassigned species"
3465:
Taylor, J. W.; Turner, E.; Townsend, J. P.; Dettman, J. R.; Jacobson, D. (2006).
3379:
2910:
2706:
2282:
2099:
2028:
1982:
believed that species breed true and do not change, even though variations exist.
1760:
1193:
1015:
1005:
924:
838:
796:
373:
182:
159:
7743:
7730:
5983:
4980:
4042:
3823:
Government of Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.
3421:
2902:
This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under the
1755:
Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through
711:
is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly
224:
until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the
11159:
11139:
11049:
10742:
10634:
10509:
10108:
9980:
9922:
9282:
9277:
9215:
9193:
8711:
8608:
8432:
7623:
7042:
7020:
6990:
6567:
6429:
6354:
5542:
3344:
Climate Change, Ecology and Systematics. Systematics Association Special Series
3006:
2903:
2591:
2067:
1834:
1692:
1478:, are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence".
1471:
1458:
1426:
992:
906:
342:
229:
114:
90:
7522:
7246:
6451:
One example of an abstract of an article naming a new species can be found at
6199:
6106:
5440:
5378:
5307:
5078:
4725:
4708:
3791:
3742:
3393:
3319:
2950:
2874:
2808:
2791:
2764:
2661:
11749:
11661:
11604:
11594:
11154:
10974:
10934:
10930:
10921:
10764:
10733:
10722:
10712:
10639:
10541:
10435:
10310:
10188:
10147:
9993:
9747:
9415:
9410:
9061:
8612:
7823:
7655:
6807:
5925:
5610:
5454:
5386:
5285:
4350:
3305:
2221:
2016:
1990:
1723:
1648:
1440:
1369:
1344:
1159:
Hybridisation of carrion and hooded crows permits gene flow between 'species'
972:
861:
850:
846:
680:
664:
658:
646:
492:
271:
210:
118:
7109:
6728:(1945). "The Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals".
6148:
5510:
The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature
5362:
5021:
4769:
4747:
4626:
4447:
4100:
3604:
3587:
3553:
3536:
43:
The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A
11451:
10752:
10729:
10305:
10253:
10198:
10031:
10026:
9620:
9378:
8446:
8395:
8390:
7814:
7585:
7530:
7359:
7310:
7254:
7172:
7128:
7028:
6928:
6910:
6488:
6479:
6454:
6309:
6291:
6252:
6156:
5991:
5944:
5881:
5862:
5833:
5819:
5801:
5752:
5628:
5602:
5423:
Species problems and beyond: contemporary issues in philosophy and practice
5394:
5290:
Species problems and beyond: contemporary issues in philosophy and practice
5246:
5227:
5163:
5145:
5039:
4998:
4953:
4858:
4777:
4734:
4645:
4466:
4369:
4318:
4299:
4228:
4209:
4169:
4119:
4050:
3809:
3760:
3648:
3613:
3572:
3500:
3482:
3443:
3435:
3401:
3327:
3233:
3215:
3184:
3166:
3100:
3025:
2958:
2892:
2702:
2684:
Paterson, H. E. H. (1985). "Species and Speciation". In Vrba, E. S. (ed.).
2561:
2545:
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2301:
2203:
1998:
1922:
1918:
1879:
1764:
1535:
1495:
1286:
1231:
1218:
1212:
1170:
1142:
1011:
959:
875:
580:
508:
444:
377:
324:
190:
186:
94:
72:
10376:
7228:"Cladogenesis, coalescence and the evolution of the three domains of life"
5905:
species complex (Anura, Hylidae) with the description of four new species"
5518:
5324:
Mishler, Brent D. (1999). "Getting Rid of Species?". In Wilson, R. (ed.).
4685:
4544:
4064:
van Nimwegen, Erik; Crutchfield, James P.; Huynen, Martijn (August 1999).
11590:
11502:
11446:
11284:
11069:
10768:
10587:
10332:
10203:
9932:
9467:
9297:
9203:
9161:
8256:
7376:
The Biology of Rarity: Causes and consequences of rare–common differences
7341:
7292:
6760:
6280:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
5591:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
5586:
4082:
2744:
2167:
2136:
1958:
1435:
1359:
1199:
1149:
459:
gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by
165:
68:
9772:
6669:
6544:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany.
6412:
6243:
6234:
4850:
4242:
King, Andrew M.Q.; Lefkowitz, E.; Adams, M. J.; Carstens, E. B. (2012).
1882:; alternative measures of phylogenetic biodiversity have been proposed.
11537:
11532:
11249:
10984:
10524:
10193:
10094:
10016:
10003:
9637:
9437:
9324:
9302:
9255:
9250:
9198:
9166:
9081:
9044:
8531:
8470:
8385:
8328:
8025:
7852:
The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution, and inheritance
7731:"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals"
7277:"Highlight: Applying the Biological Species Concept across All of Life"
7142:
6527:
6340:
5709:
5363:"Understanding explosive diversification through cichlid fish genomics"
5127:
4383:
3640:
3563:
2615:
2412:
2348:
Mallet, James (1995). "A species definition for the modern synthesis".
2141:
1871:
1822:
1806:
1784:
1710:
1688:
1678:
1093:
1055:
1044:
1039:
952:
948:
940:
834:
805:
752:
744:
684:
610:
552:
531:
361:
328:
319:
287:
239:
7465:
7448:
6963:
6946:
6799:
5776:"Ecological and evolutionary opportunities of apomixis: insights from
3876:
3471:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3155:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3151:"The unholy trinity: taxonomy, species delimitation and DNA barcoding"
3067:"BOLD: The Barcode of Life Data System (http://www.barcodinglife.org)"
2569:
1986:
1338:
11199:
10327:
10178:
9787:
9405:
9153:
8954:
8825:
8820:
8811:
8276:
European Species Names in Linnaean, Czech, English, German and French
7479:
5587:"Least-inclusive taxonomic unit: a new taxonomic concept for biology"
4161:
3535:
Heller, R.; Frandsen, P.; Lorenzen, E. D.; Siegismund, H. R. (2013).
2075:
2023:
1906:
1875:
1854:
1684:
1616:
1322:
1227:
1223:
1050:
944:
712:
672:
606:
479:
401:
385:
381:
283:
221:
214:
202:
126:
98:
78:
75:
47:
contains one or more species. Minor intermediate ranks are not shown.
8017:
6994:
6783:
6519:
5701:
5459:"The Hunting of the SNaRC: A Snarky Solution to the Species Problem"
4191:
Elena, S. F.; Agudelo-Romero, P.; Carrasco, P.; et al. (2008).
2748:
2645:
2607:
2404:
1975:
521:
11651:
11411:
11116:
10230:
9432:
9001:
8980:
7885:. Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. p. 17.
7837:
7514:
7060:
6568:"International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, Recommendation 25C"
5560:
2941:
2003:
1979:
1818:
1810:
1748:
1430:
1326:
1035:
842:
830:
614:
559:
448:
315:
259:
251:
60:
8680:
8292:
8270:
6410:
4334:"Viral taxonomy needs a spring clean; its exploration era is over"
4190:
740:
9615:
8535:
8004:
Mahoney, Edward P. (1987). "Lovejoy and the Hierarchy of Being".
7913:
Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de (1656-1708) Auteur du texte (1694).
6467:
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
3198:
Whitworth, T. L.; Dawson, R. D.; Magalon, H.; Baudry, E. (2007).
2431:
The Units of Biodiversity – Species in Practice Special Volume 54
1826:
1814:
1794:
1653:
1556:
1510:. However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised.
1507:
1382:
1364:
980:
977:
544:
452:
291:
255:
8265:
6604:
Describing species. Practical taxonomic procedure for biologists
5012:
Biebricher, C. K.; Eigen, M. (2006). "What is a Quasispecies?".
4894:
3585:
2925:"A complete domain-to-species taxonomy for Bacteria and Archaea"
641:
8793:
8777:
7708:. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Pr. p. xiv + 235.
6945:
Vaux, Felix; Trewick, Steven A.; Morgan-Richards, Mary (2017).
6542:"Botanical nomenclature, types, & standard reference works"
5203:"Do orthologous gene phylogenies really support tree-thinking?"
1715:
1573:(ITIS) provides a unique number for each species. The LSID for
1503:
1374:
1373:
in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean the
800:
676:
618:
475:
432:
122:
7603:. In Scott, J. Michael; Goble, D. D.; Davis, Frank W. (eds.).
5832:
3586:
Cotterill, F.; Taylor, P.; Gippoliti, S.; et al. (2014).
1070:
Blackberries belong to any of hundreds of microspecies of the
9536:
8995:
8297:
6274:
Liebers, Dorit; Knijff, Peter de; Helbig, Andreas J. (2004).
4063:
3537:"Are there really twice as many bovid species as we thought?"
2898:
1950:
1926:
1747:
between widely separated species complicate the phylogeny of
1628:
1398:
1262:
857:
is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.
540:
380:
proposed a variation on the morphological species concept, a
138:
130:
44:
7668:
6459:
sp. nov., a novel species isolated from the leaf surface of
3197:
2922:
2244:"UN report: Humans accelerating extinction of other species"
1825:
periods. Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including
1611:. Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called
1010:
The species concept is further weakened by the existence of
799:
are limited to morphological evidence when deciding whether
141:
to which the species belongs. The second part is called the
8252:
8173:
Claridge, M. F.; Dawah, H. A.; Wilson, M. R., eds. (1997).
7453:
Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research
3464:
2042:(a ladder) inherently implied the possibility of climbing.
2038:. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, the
1930:
1914:
1910:
1244:
group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the
556:
425:
7789:
7562:
Hey, Jody (July 2001). "The mind of the species problem".
6944:
5957:
4241:
2979:
2904:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
2825:"Taxonomic parameters revisited: tarnished gold standards"
2490:
In: The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History
2458:
Kingfisher Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Ireland
1121:
species complex contains at least six species of treefrog.
282:; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and
7225:
5109:
4831:
4514:
943:, and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of
913:
are almost identical in appearance but do not interbreed.
719:. It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but
409:
102:
64:
7722:
7326:"Biological Species Are Universal across Life's Domains"
6971:
6606:. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 141–144.
5578:
3993:
Applying Evolutionary Archaeology: A Systematic Approach
3870:
350:
share the same coloration, unmistakably identifying the
7486:"The Impact of Species Concept on Biodiversity Studies"
7404:
Stearns, Beverly Peterson; Stearns, Stephen C. (2000).
4184:
3776:"Speciation in Mammals and the Genetic Species Concept"
3727:"Speciation in Mammals and the Genetic Species Concept"
3507:
3204:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2859:"Insights from 20 years of bacterial genome sequencing"
2266:"How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?"
2263:
1726:), without increasing the number of resultant species.
337:
7796:
Rigato, Emanuele; Minelli, Alessandro (28 June 2013).
6895:"What role does natural selection play in speciation?"
6382:"What's in a name? Why scientific names are important"
6032:
4612:
Hanage, William P. (2013), "Fuzzy species revisited",
3254:"An amplification of the phylogenetic species concept"
1909:
used the term γένος (génos) to mean a kind, such as a
562:
and can attract conservation legislation and funding.
384:
species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar
278:. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by
7428:
6452:
6126:
5502:
5500:
5498:
5496:
5425:. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
5292:. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
5097:
2714:
Encyclopaedia of Ecology and Environmental Management
7624:"Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity"
6775:
6445:
5447:
4926:
Rosselló-Mora, Ramon; Amann, Rudolf (January 2001).
4132:
3852:"What Really is an Evolutionarily Significant Unit?"
2855:
1729:
927:) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g.
735:
539:
of various species. For example, in a study done on
516:
266:, while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to
137:, a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the
59:: species) is often defined as the largest group of
8172:
7397:
6865:
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature
6273:
6081:
5962:, a wind-dispersed ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete".
5836:; Beltrán, M.; Neukirchen, W.; Linares, M. (2007).
5644:
Symposium on Biosystematics, Montreal, October 1962
5014:
Quasispecies: Concept and Implications for Virology
3065:Ratnasingham, Sujeevan; Hebert, Paul D. N. (2007).
2686:
Monograph No. 4: The recognition concept of species
2628:
2437:
1533:, a "stable unique identifier", e.g., the taxid of
723:and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the
394:
220:Species and higher taxa were seen from the time of
16:
Basic unit of taxonomic classification, below genus
8201:Species Concepts and Phylogenetic Theory: A Debate
8140:The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America
7849:
7480:Agapow, Paul-Michael; Bininda-Emonds, Olaf R. P.;
6730:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
6082:Moritz, C.; Schneider, C. J.; Wake, D. B. (1992).
6006:
5493:
4925:
4584:
4557:
4387:
3148:
3064:
2789:
1709:, a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in
1325:of five "species" of greenish warblers around the
787:
649:is defined in a single lineage (solid line) whose
624:
7729:Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (10 January 2022).
6899:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
5789:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
3934:. Memorial University Newfoundland and Labrador.
3883:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. xii + 825.
2822:
2550:The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
11747:
7906:
7317:
7199:"Researchers Trade Insights about Gene Swapping"
7045:(November 1908). "Evolution Without Isolation".
6276:"The herring gull complex is not a ring species"
6088:Complex Confirm the Ring Species Interpretation"
3989:
3880:Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology
3767:
3704:(2nd ed.). Blackwell Science. p. 719.
3627:Laporte, L. O. F. (1994). "Simpson on species".
3346:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 380–438.
2796:International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology
2492:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp.
1637:that guide the naming of species, including the
205:processes cause species to change. This obliges
63:in which any two individuals of the appropriate
7697:
7084:"Natural selection in action during speciation"
5416:
5414:
5412:
5354:
5319:
5317:
5253:
5011:
4587:Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex
4280:
4020:
3142:
1993:created the binomial system for naming species.
596:are divided up tend to produce those clusters.
97:. Other ways of defining species include their
31:
7607:. Washington: Island Press. pp. 150–163.
7403:
7226:Zhaxybayeva, Olga; Peter Gogarten, J. (2004).
6453:Wellner, S.; Lodders, N.; Kämpfer, P. (2012).
6177:
5453:
5184:"Molecular genetics: Horizontal gene transfer"
4423:"Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species"
3149:DeSalle, R.; Egan, M. G.; Siddall, M. (2005).
2424:
2422:
2390:
2208:"Opinion: The 8 Million Species We Don't Know"
1921:within a kind, such as (within the birds) the
1352:
967:over large geographic ranges and time periods.
871:permits substantial gene flow between species.
730:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
10392:
9097:
8696:
8313:
8130:
7965:. Oxford University Press. pp. 160–161.
7960:
7937:
7842:Historia plantarum generalis, Tome I, Libr. I
7795:
7598:
4966:
4193:"Experimental evolution of plant RNA viruses"
4126:
3774:Baker, Robert J.; Bradley, Robert D. (2006).
3725:Baker, Robert J.; Bradley, Robert D. (2006).
3417:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3375:
3373:
2548:(1969). "Definitions of Species in Biology".
2524:. Oxford University Press. pp. 273–274.
2516:
2510:
1527:National Center for Biotechnology Information
1476:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
1266:gulls interbreed in a ring around the Arctic.
999:
8195:
7993:. Columbia University Press. pp. 56–57.
7889:
7880:
6533:
5826:
5716:
5635:
5584:
5469:(20220112). University of Michigan Library.
5409:
5314:
5278:
5194:
4835:"Opinion: Re-evaluating prokaryotic species"
4558:Bernstein, Carol; Bernstein, Harris (1991).
4066:"Neutral evolution of mutational robustness"
4057:
3773:
3724:
3669:
3293:
3251:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3058:
193:. Also, among organisms that reproduce only
10406:
7929:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7728:
7557:
7555:
7473:
7372:
7324:Bobay, Louis-Marie; Ochman, Howard (2017).
7323:
7268:
6597:
6595:
6593:
6591:
6589:
6560:
6357:Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce.
5585:Pleijel, F.; Rouse, G. W. (22 March 2000).
5463:Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology
5186:. Oklahoma State University. Archived from
4895:Edward G. Reekie; Fakhri A. Bazzaz (2005).
4709:"Species concepts and species delimitation"
4274:
3990:O'Brien, Michael J.; Lyman, R. Lee (2007).
3825:"COSEWIC's Assessment Process and Criteria"
2646:"A Radical Solution to the Species Problem"
2419:
2259:
2257:
2160:
2015:In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist
1278:Opposite ends of the ring: a herring gull (
864:, as breeding experiments are not possible.
853:are commonly used in these cases. The term
10399:
10385:
9104:
9090:
8703:
8689:
8320:
8306:
7919:. Paris: L’Imprimerie Royale. p. 562.
7912:
7772:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
7373:Kunin, W. E.; Gaston, Kevin, eds. (1996).
6888:
6886:
6495:
5894:
5360:
5259:
5177:
5175:
5173:
4888:
4706:
4605:
4420:
4416:
4414:
4412:
4410:
3686:. Oxford University Press. pp. 57–75.
3681:
3408:
3370:
2474:
2241:
1622:
1284:) (front) and a lesser black-backed gull (
7813:
7742:
7703:
7504:
7464:
7349:
7300:
7162:
7135:
7118:
7108:
6962:
6951:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6918:
6747:Chase, Bob (2005). "Upstart Antichrist".
6501:
6478:
6428:
6299:
6242:
5934:
5924:
5871:
5861:
5809:
5767:
5618:
5484:
5474:
5236:
5226:
5153:
4988:
4943:
4879:
4724:
4684:
4635:
4625:
4456:
4446:
4359:
4349:
4325:
4308:
4298:
4218:
4208:
4109:
4099:
4081:
3799:
3750:
3603:
3562:
3552:
3490:
3269:
3240:
3223:
3174:
3114:Stoeckle, Mark (November–December 2013).
3090:
3015:
3005:
2940:
2882:
2849:
2807:
2697:
2695:
2291:
2281:
1840:
817:, but breaks down in several situations:
587:'s "General Lineage Concept of Species".
416:Bacterial taxonomy § Species concept
11563:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
10338:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
9111:
7798:"The great chain of being is still here"
7759:
7599:Haig, Susan M.; Allendorf, F.W. (2006).
7552:
6940:
6938:
6586:
6267:
5722:
5656:
5200:
4479:
3932:"Evolutionary species and chronospecies"
3849:
3340:
3113:
3107:
2790:Stackebrandt, E.; Goebel, B. M. (1994).
2749:"The biosemiotic concept of the species"
2683:
2640:
2313:
2311:
2254:
1985:
1974:
1739:
1585:
1420:
1337:
791:
739:
640:
520:
419:
341:
27:
8003:
7985:
7943:
7193:
6883:
6724:
6601:
6504:"The Type Concept in Systematic Botany"
6322:
6084:"Evolutionary Relationships Within the
5895:Ron, Santiago; Caminer, Marcel (2014).
5641:
5541:
5420:
5323:
5284:
5181:
5170:
5052:
4967:Andino, Raul; Domingo, Esteban (2015).
4407:
3626:
2455:
1961:, and still, to a lower extent, today.
1917:, and εἶδος (eidos) to mean a specific
1571:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
1543:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
1517:
569:
11748:
8221:
8143:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp.
8136:
8098:
7895:
7446:
7434:
7393:from the original on 5 September 2015.
7274:
6977:
6947:"Speciation through the looking-glass"
6892:
6828:
6781:
6548:from the original on 16 September 2015
6050:
6038:
5687:
5681:
5506:
5201:Bapteste, E.; et al. (May 2005).
5115:
5103:
5055:"The Species-Concept in Palaeontology"
4611:
4582:
4394:. New York: Columbia University Press.
3690:
3513:
2701:
2692:
2443:
2428:
2347:
2202:
2166:
1866:which hybridises with the unprotected
1718:of the same gene, as described in the
1695:was the first to describe the role of
1416:
1333:
767:
574:An evolutionary species, suggested by
435:is used to distinguish species in the
410:Genetic similarity and barcode species
11055:Psychological effects of Internet use
10380:
10101:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
9085:
8684:
8301:
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8064:
7881:Davis, P. H.; Heywood, V. H. (1973).
7765:
7621:
7611:from the original on 7 February 2018.
7548:from the original on 11 January 2018.
7407:Watching, from the Edge of Extinction
6983:
6935:
6746:
6680:from the original on 27 November 2012
6620:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 19 October 2012.
6539:
6392:from the original on 15 February 2017
6355:"A Word About Species Names ..."
6116:from the original on 12 January 2018.
6016:. University of California Berkeley.
5964:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
5677:from the original on 7 February 2018.
5350:from the original on 10 January 2018.
5327:Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays
4928:"The species concept for prokaryotes"
4696:from the original on 1 December 2016.
4390:Systematics and the Origin of Species
4331:
4281:Fauquet, C. M.; Fargette, D. (2005).
4262:from the original on 10 December 2017
4010:from the original on 7 February 2018.
3684:Endless forms: species and speciation
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2863:Functional & Integrative Genomics
2779:from the original on 7 February 2018.
2733:from the original on 19 October 2016.
2590:
2480:
2308:
2184:from the original on 19 February 2024
1705:. Speciation depends on a measure of
715:environment, and hence governed by a
695:
590:
93:of an organism, as well as a unit of
8720:
8639:
8071:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
7944:Jussieu, Antoine-Laurent de (1789).
7847:
7141:
7041:
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6650:from the original on 14 October 2012
6624:from the original on 7 February 2018
6379:
5773:
5361:Salzburger, Walter (November 2018).
4884:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 3–27.
4813:from the original on 21 October 2012
4657:
4382:
3956:
3929:
3858:from the original on 5 February 2017
2823:Stackebrandt, E.; Ebers, J. (2006).
2743:
2544:
2002:scorpions and certain biting ants).
1797:of that species dies, but it may be
1529:(NCBI) employs a numeric 'taxid' or
338:Typological or morphological species
248:greatly extended in the 20th century
11035:Digital media use and mental health
8710:
8663:
7836:
7622:Faith, Daniel P. (1 January 1992).
7561:
7264:from the original on 26 March 2009.
7081:
6071:from the original on 12 March 2017.
5093:from the original on 14 March 2017.
4023:Systematic and Applied Microbiology
3979:from the original on 13 March 2017.
3911:from the original on 1 October 2014
2845:from the original on 25 March 2018.
1506:and species are usually printed in
1238:complex around the North pole, the
809:bivalves formed a separate species.
163:is one of the species of the genus
56:
13:
10666:Automatic and controlled processes
9506:Evolutionary developmental biology
8175:Species: The Units of Biodiversity
8046:from the original on 30 April 2011
7164:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1982.tb05483.x
6871:from the original on 2 August 2017
6706:from the original on 12 March 2017
6644:"KEGG Organisms: Complete Genomes"
6361:from the original on 24 March 2017
6020:from the original on 13 March 2017
4945:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x
4915:from the original on 17 June 2013.
3938:from the original on 10 March 2016
3696:
3672:, pp. 70–92, 146–160, 198–208
3271:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1990.tb00541.x
3116:"DNA Barcoding Ready for Breakout"
2594:(1981). "Three Species Concepts".
2329:from the original on 14 March 2017
1953:. A kind was distinguished by its
1941:thus named; today the birds are a
1890:
751:Most modern textbooks make use of
599:
258:. Genetic variability arises from
14:
11797:
11075:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
8246:
8105:Evolution: The History of an Idea
7883:Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy
7802:Evolution: Education and Outreach
5897:"Systematics of treefrogs of the
4898:Reproductive allocation in plants
3629:Journal of the History of Biology
2629:Claridge, Dawah & Wilson 1997
2460:. Kingfisher Books. p. 246.
2350:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2074:provided a compelling account of
1862:America is that of the protected
1805:such as those at the ends of the
1730:Exchange of genes between species
1054:treefrogs, and fungi such as the
1048:butterflies, vertebrates such as
736:Mayr's biological species concept
517:Phylogenetic or cladistic species
296:balance of mutation and selection
11726:
11713:
11701:
11700:
11100:Mobile phones and driving safety
10360:
10351:
10350:
8740:
8729:
8662:
8650:
8638:
8627:
8626:
8092:
8058:
8032:
7997:
7979:
7954:
7874:
7830:
7662:
7615:
7592:
7440:
7366:
7219:
7187:
7075:
7035:
6853:
6822:
6740:
6718:
6692:
6662:
6636:
6610:
6574:from the original on 8 June 2011
6417:South African Journal of Science
6404:
6373:
6347:
6316:
6206:
6171:
6120:
6075:
6057:. Lexington Books. p. 330.
6044:
5951:
5888:
5745:10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00807.x
5507:Laurin, Michel (3 August 2023).
5476:10.3998/ptpbio.16039257.0010.001
4791:
3850:DeWeerdt, Sarah (29 July 2002).
3083:10.1111/j.1471-8286.2007.01678.x
3046:from the original on 1 July 2017
2897:
1964:
1481:
1314:
1295:
1271:
1253:
1192:
1177:
1163:
1126:
1102:
1084:
1063:
895:
886:
636:
478:, using regions of about 10,000
395:Recognition and cohesion species
294:are a special case, driven by a
11003:Computer-mediated communication
10163:Extended evolutionary synthesis
9352:Gene-centered view of evolution
8934:
8873:
8006:Journal of the History of Ideas
7565:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
7493:The Quarterly Review of Biology
7147:"Speciation and Macroevolution"
6782:Laurin, Michel (23 July 2023).
5650:
5535:
5513:. CRC Press. p. xv + 209.
5333:. MIT Press. pp. 307–315.
5121:
5046:
5005:
4960:
4919:
4882:Speciation and its Consequences
4873:
4825:
4807:"Darwin 1859 Chapter II, p. 59"
4799:
4741:
4700:
4651:
4576:
4551:
4508:
4473:
4398:
4376:
4235:
4014:
3983:
3950:
3923:
3897:
3843:
3827:. Cosepac.gc.ca. Archived from
3816:
3718:
3675:
3663:
3620:
3579:
3528:
3519:
3458:
3361:
3334:
3299:
3286:
3191:
3032:
2973:
2916:
2816:
2783:
2737:
2716:. Blackwell. pp. 709–711.
2677:
2668:
2634:
2622:
2584:
2538:
2449:
1720:Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model
1699:in speciation in his 1859 book
1206:
788:When Mayr's concept breaks down
631:evolutionarily significant unit
625:Evolutionarily significant unit
11280:Empathising–systemising theory
10583:female intrasexual competition
10520:Evolutionarily stable strategy
10291:Hologenome theory of evolution
10158:History of molecular evolution
9384:Evolutionarily stable strategy
9273:Last universal common ancestor
9063:
9052:
9020:
9009:
8802:
8784:
8327:
8259:that anyone can edit from the
8199:; Meier, Rudolf, eds. (2000).
8110:University of California Press
8108:(3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA:
7775:. Bloomsbury. pp. 88–90.
7208:. 334–335: 335. Archived from
6995:"Factors of species-formation"
4901:. Academic Press. p. 99.
4517:Journal of Theoretical Biology
4482:Theoretical Population Biology
3996:. Springer. pp. 146–149.
2384:
2341:
2235:
2196:
1793:A species is extinct when the
1097:contains many similar species.
679:as evidence, the concept of a
1:
11640:Standard social science model
10693:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
10085:Renaissance and Enlightenment
7991:Principles of Animal Taxonomy
7902:(in Latin). Pech. p. 79.
7578:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02145-0
7089:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
5260:Williamson, David I. (2003).
4537:10.1016/S0022-5193(85)80246-0
3966:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
2688:. Pretoria: Transvaal Museum.
2153:
2045:
1778:
1672:
1018:. For example, the dandelion
305:
11488:Missing heritability problem
11080:Social aspects of television
10703:Evolution of nervous systems
10671:Computational theory of mind
10296:Missing heritability problem
9923:Gamete differentiation/sexes
7844:. p. Chap. XX, page 40.
7691:10.1016/0006-3207(91)90030-D
7648:10.1016/0006-3207(92)91201-3
7330:Genome Biology and Evolution
7281:Genome Biology and Evolution
4502:10.1016/0040-5809(85)90014-0
3854:. University of Washington.
2370:10.1016/0169-5347(95)90031-4
2283:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127
437:Barcode of Life Data Systems
173:being the species' epithet.
7:
11734:Evolutionary biology portal
8657:Evolutionary biology Portal
8040:"Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)"
7744:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1
6893:Barton, N. H. (June 2010).
6831:"sensu stricto, sensu lato"
6602:Winston, Judith E. (1999).
6380:Hone, Dave (19 June 2013).
5984:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.04.029
5774:Dijk, Peter J. van (2003).
5457:; Wilkins, John S. (2018).
4981:10.1016/j.virol.2015.03.022
4839:Nature Reviews Microbiology
4583:Michod, Richard E. (1995).
4433:(Supplement 1): 6600–6607.
4043:10.1016/j.syapm.2009.11.001
3424:Fungal Genetics and Biology
3382:Fungal Genetics and Biology
3308:Fungal Genetics and Biology
2092:
1353:Common and scientific names
1228:co-exist in the same region
958:The evolutionary biologist
501:Barcode of Life Data System
468:average nucleotide identity
376:, Theodore J. Crovello and
10:
11802:
11695:Evolutionary psychologists
11568:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
11483:Human–animal communication
11195:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
11045:Imprinted brain hypothesis
11013:Human–computer interaction
9928:Life cycles/nuclear phases
9480:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
8165:
7704:Pellegrin, Pierre (1986).
7082:Via, Sara (16 June 2009).
7021:10.1126/science.23.587.506
6508:American Journal of Botany
5486:2027/spo.16039257.0010.001
4562:. Boston: Academic Press.
4560:Aging, sex, and DNA repair
3007:10.1038/s41467-021-24129-1
2433:. Systematics Association.
1968:
1894:
1885:
1782:
1733:
1676:
1626:
1589:
1446:
1395:in two parts used together
1381:) of Latin America or the
1210:
1130:
1003:
1000:Aggregates of microspecies
717:mutation–selection balance
699:
656:
413:
290:for a variety of reasons.
85:. It is the basic unit of
18:
11689:
11615:Environmental determinism
11586:Cultural selection theory
11578:
11473:Evolutionary epistemology
11460:
11387:evolutionary neuroscience
11349:
11342:
11240:
11115:
11060:Rank theory of depression
10983:
10907:
10809:
10615:
10608:
10562:Parent–offspring conflict
10471:
10414:
10346:
10246:
10171:
10075:
10002:
9958:
9813:
9717:
9534:
9493:
9426:Parent–offspring conflict
9362:
9231:Earliest known life forms
9152:
9119:
8718:
8622:
8569:
8518:
8461:
8409:
8363:
8335:
8222:Zachos, Frank E. (2016).
8205:Columbia University Press
7856:. Belknap Press. p.
7447:Zachos, Frank E. (2015).
7275:Venton, Danielle (2017).
7247:10.1016/j.tig.2004.02.004
6502:Hitchcock, A. S. (1921),
6457:Methylobacterium cerastii
6200:10.1016/j.jcz.2007.07.004
6051:Stamos, David N. (2003).
5663:. CRC Press. p. 92.
5379:10.1038/s41576-018-0043-9
5079:10.1017/S001675680008660X
4932:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
4726:10.1080/10635150701701083
3792:10.1644/06-MAMM-F-038R2.1
3743:10.1644/06-MAMM-F-038R2.1
3700:. "The Idea of Species".
3394:10.1016/j.fgb.2008.02.001
3320:10.1016/j.fgb.2008.02.001
2951:10.1038/s41587-020-0501-8
2875:10.1007/s10142-015-0433-4
2809:10.1099/00207713-44-4-846
2765:10.1007/s12304-016-9259-2
1745:Horizontal gene transfers
1664:
1308:Phylloscopus trochiloides
921:morphological convergence
246:. That understanding was
11508:Cultural group selection
11392:Biocultural anthropology
11085:Societal impacts of cars
11018:Media naturalness theory
10708:Fight-or-flight response
10279:Cultural group selection
10143:The eclipse of Darwinism
10115:On the Origin of Species
10090:Transmutation of species
8500:Nonecological speciation
6749:History Workshop Journal
6618:"Home – Taxonomy – NCBI"
6430:10.17159/sajs.2022/14495
6323:Highton, R. (1998). "Is
5926:10.3897/zookeys.370.6291
5842:BMC Evolutionary Biology
5657:Pimentel, David (2014).
5545:(June 1984). "Species".
5207:BMC Evolutionary Biology
5182:Melcher, Ulrich (2001).
4809:. Darwin-online.org.uk.
4351:10.1186/1743-422X-10-254
3930:Carr, Steven M. (2005).
3670:Wheeler & Meier 2000
3040:"What Is DNA Barcoding?"
2674:Claridge et al.:408–409.
2061:transmutation of species
1736:Horizontal gene transfer
1236:lesser black-backed gull
985:East African Great Lakes
937:horizontal gene transfer
845:multi-celled organisms.
776:On the Origin of Species
470:(ANI) method quantifies
298:, and can be treated as
280:horizontal gene transfer
235:On the Origin of Species
21:Species (disambiguation)
11786:Zoological nomenclature
11708:Evolutionary psychology
11672:Sociocultural evolution
11513:Dual inheritance theory
10970:Personality development
10431:Theoretical foundations
10408:Evolutionary psychology
10284:Dual inheritance theory
10123:History of paleontology
7987:Simpson, George Gaylord
7896:Magnol, Petrus (1689).
7671:Biological Conservation
7628:Biological Conservation
7110:10.1073/pnas.0901397106
7048:The American Naturalist
6829:Wilson, Philip (2016).
6726:Simpson, George Gaylord
6149:10.1126/science.1105201
6107:10.1093/sysbio/41.3.273
5367:Nature Reviews Genetics
5053:Teueman, A. E. (2009).
5022:10.1007/3-540-26397-7_1
4770:10.1126/science.1159388
4707:De Queiroz, K. (2007).
4627:10.1186/1741-7007-11-41
4448:10.1073/pnas.0502030102
4421:de Queiroz, K. (2005).
4101:10.1073/pnas.96.17.9716
3294:Wheeler & Meier2000
3071:Molecular Ecology Notes
2909:16 October 2017 at the
2662:10.1093/sysbio/23.4.536
2242:Borenstein, S. (2019).
2122:Lists of animal species
2036:or great chain of being
1623:Broad and narrow senses
827:single-celled organisms
683:can be applied. During
185:of hundreds of similar
155:zoological nomenclature
117:use the concept of the
11776:Botanical nomenclature
11761:Bacterial nomenclature
11630:Social constructionism
11625:Psychological nativism
11600:Biological determinism
11548:Recent human evolution
11543:Punctuated equilibrium
11366:Behavioral epigenetics
11361:evolutionary economics
11330:Variability hypothesis
11275:Emotional intelligence
11008:Engineering psychology
10698:Evolution of the brain
9972:Punctuated equilibrium
9293:Non-adaptive radiation
9241:Evolutionary arms race
8605:Punctuated equilibrium
8561:Character displacement
8381:Reproductive isolation
8350:Laboratory experiments
8137:Menand, Louis (2001).
7963:Flora of North America
7815:10.1186/1936-6434-6-18
7735:Comptes Rendus Palevol
7095:(Suppl 1): 9939–9946.
6911:10.1098/rstb.2010.0001
6480:10.1099/ijs.0.030767-0
6461:Cerastium holosteoides
6325:Ensatina eschscholtzii
6292:10.1098/rspb.2004.2679
6086:Ensatina eschscholtzii
5863:10.1186/1471-2148-7-28
5802:10.1098/rstb.2003.1302
5603:10.1098/rspb.2000.1048
5228:10.1186/1471-2148-5-33
5146:10.1002/bies.201400056
4300:10.1186/1743-422X-2-64
4210:10.1038/sj.hdy.6801088
3483:10.1098/rstb.2006.1923
3436:10.1006/fgbi.2000.1228
3216:10.1098/rspb.2007.0062
3167:10.1098/rstb.2005.1722
2712:. In Calow, P. (ed.).
2707:"Species, Concepts of"
2486:"A Quahog is a Quahog"
2456:Gooders, John (1986).
2127:Lists of plant species
2090:
2013:
1997:When observers in the
1994:
1983:
1868:California spotted owl
1841:Practical implications
1752:
1707:reproductive isolation
1468:validly published name
1444:
1349:
1241:Ensatina eschscholtzii
969:
935:stages). In addition,
815:multi-celled organisms
810:
803:life-forms like these
785:
761:
748:
721:evolutionarily neutral
654:
576:George Gaylord Simpson
527:
440:
355:
268:geographical isolation
151:botanical nomenclature
48:
11657:Multilineal evolution
11620:Nature versus nurture
11579:Theoretical positions
11427:Functional psychology
11422:Evolutionary medicine
11397:Biological psychiatry
11105:Texting while driving
11095:Lead–crime hypothesis
10955:Cognitive development
10940:Caregiver deprivation
10451:Gene selection theory
10264:Evolutionary medicine
10138:Mendelian inheritance
9846:Biological complexity
9834:Programmed cell death
9526:Phenotypic plasticity
9246:Evolutionary pressure
9236:Evidence of evolution
9134:Timeline of evolution
8486:Ecological speciation
8401:Evidence of evolution
8286:Stanford Encyclopedia
7414:. p. preface x.
7412:Yale University Press
7410:. New Haven, London:
6702:. Catalogue of Life.
6180:Zoologischer Anzeiger
5548:Philosophy of Science
5519:10.1201/9781003092827
5262:The Origins of Larvae
4686:10.5733/afin.051.0210
4672:African Invertebrates
4332:Gibbs, A. J. (2013).
3605:10.1093/sysbio/syu003
3554:10.1093/sysbio/syt004
2986:Nature Communications
2705:(28 September 1999).
2522:Evolutionary Genetics
2085:
2072:Alfred Russel Wallace
2057:Zoological Philosophy
2053:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
2008:
1989:
1978:
1783:Further information:
1743:
1702:The Origin of Species
1592:Lumpers and splitters
1586:Lumping and splitting
1453:A species is given a
1424:
1363:, or the cat family,
1341:
964:
929:phenotypic plasticity
795:
781:
757:
743:
644:
524:
505:Genetic introgression
485:Pseudomonas avellanae
461:DNA–DNA hybridisation
423:
345:
42:
11610:Cultural determinism
11417:Evolutionary biology
11402:Cognitive psychology
11350:Academic disciplines
10998:Cognitive ergonomics
10965:Language acquisition
10945:Childhood attachment
10758:Wason selection task
10652:Behavioral modernity
10441:Cognitive revolution
10424:Evolutionary thought
10238:Teleology in biology
10133:Blending inheritance
9511:Genetic assimilation
9374:Artificial selection
9113:Evolutionary biology
8266:Barcoding of species
8261:Wikimedia Foundation
7848:Mayr, Ernst (1982).
7601:"Hybrids and Policy"
7215:on 18 February 2006.
6700:"ITIS: Homo sapiens"
6014:"Defining a species"
5899:Hypsiboas calcaratus
4969:"Viral quasispecies"
3907:. Oxford Reference.
3780:Journal of Mammalogy
3731:Journal of Mammalogy
2929:Nature Biotechnology
2642:Ghiselin, Michael T.
2562:10.1093/bjps/20.2.97
2170:(19 February 2024).
2106:Encyclopedia of Life
1971:Great chain of being
1864:northern spotted owl
1799:functionally extinct
1641:for animals and the
1518:Identification codes
1112:Hypsiboas calcaratus
1091:The butterfly genus
1021:Taraxacum officinale
689:phyletically extinct
570:Evolutionary species
497:cytochrome c oxidase
430:cytochrome c oxidase
226:great chain of being
153:, also sometimes in
19:For other uses, see
11771:Biology terminology
11766:Biological concepts
11677:Unilineal evolution
11442:Population genetics
11227:Sexy son hypothesis
11165:Hormonal motivation
11145:Concealed ovulation
10686:Dual process theory
10557:Parental investment
10301:Molecular evolution
10259:Ecological genetics
10128:Transitional fossil
9918:Sexual reproduction
9758:endomembrane system
9687:pollinator-mediated
9643:dolphins and whales
9421:Parental investment
8769:Infrakingdom/Branch
8490:Parallel speciation
7767:Leroi, Armand Marie
7683:1991BCons..55..235V
7640:1992BCons..61....1F
7101:2009PNAS..106.9939V
7013:1906Sci....23..506C
6905:(1547): 1825–1840.
6235:10.1038/nature13285
6227:2014Natur.511...83A
6192:2007ZooAn.246..315M
6141:2005Sci...307..414I
5976:2008MolPE..48..694G
5917:2014ZooK..370....1C
5903:Hypsiboas fasciatus
5854:2007BMCEE...7...28M
5796:(1434): 1113–1121.
5737:1999MolEc...8.2023W
5219:2005BMCEE...5...33B
5118:, pp. 156–157.
5071:1924GeoM...61..355T
5059:Geological Magazine
4851:10.1038/nrmicro1236
4762:2009Sci...323..741F
4529:1985JThBi.117..665B
4494:1985TPBio..27...27H
4439:2005PNAS..102.6600D
4154:2001Natur.412..331W
4092:1999PNAS...96.9716V
4035:2010SyApM..33....1V
3477:(1475): 1947–1963.
3210:(1619): 1731–1739.
3161:(1462): 1905–1916.
3126:(5). Archived from
3042:. Barcode of Life.
2998:2021NatCo..12.4060R
2518:Maynard Smith, John
2362:1995TEcoE..10..294M
2323:Scientific American
2117:Global biodiversity
1945:, the cranes are a
1897:Aristotle's biology
1635:nomenclatural codes
1531:Taxonomy identifier
1449:Species description
1417:Species description
1334:Taxonomy and naming
1260:Seven "species" of
1024:and the blackberry
823:reproduce asexually
768:The species problem
669:comparative anatomy
549:taxonomic inflation
314:and moving towards
276:selection pressures
240:species could arise
83:sexual reproduction
11635:Social determinism
11518:Fisher's principle
11478:Great ape language
11468:Cultural evolution
11437:Philosophy of mind
11270:Division of labour
11232:Westermarck effect
11180:Mating preferences
11090:Distracted driving
10824:Literary criticism
10681:Domain specificity
10661:modularity of mind
10274:Cultural evolution
9389:Fisher's principle
9318:Handicap principle
9308:Parallel evolution
9172:Adaptive radiation
9041:
8998:
8977:
8951:
8909:
8843:
8808:
8796:
8760:
8751:
8570:Speciation in taxa
8505:Assortative mating
8179:Chapman & Hall
8114:177–223 and passim
8066:Gould, Stephen Jay
7482:Crandall, Keith A.
7342:10.1093/gbe/evx026
7293:10.1093/gbe/evx045
7235:Trends in Genetics
7195:Pennisi, Elizabeth
6761:10.1093/hwj/dbi042
6540:Nicholson, Dan H.
6327:a ring species?".
6095:Systematic Biology
4975:. 479–480: 46–51.
4713:Systematic Biology
4591:. Addison-Wesley.
4404:Wheeler, pp. 17–29
3641:10.1007/BF01058629
3592:Systematic Biology
3541:Systematic Biology
2832:Microbiology Today
2650:Systematic Biology
2482:Gould, Stephen Jay
2393:Systematic Zoology
2319:"Species Concepts"
2213:The New York Times
2177:The New York Times
2132:Outline of zoology
2112:Endangered species
1995:
1984:
1949:, and the crows a
1753:
1470:(in botany) or an
1445:
1350:
1016:species aggregates
989:Charles Tate Regan
811:
749:
702:Viral quasispecies
696:Viral quasispecies
655:
591:Ecological species
530:A phylogenetic or
528:
441:
356:
348:Eurasian blue tits
286:; and species may
49:
11743:
11742:
11721:Psychology portal
11685:
11684:
11528:Hologenome theory
11498:Unit of selection
11493:Primate cognition
11407:Cognitive science
11338:
11337:
11209:Sexual attraction
11185:Mating strategies
10950:Cinderella effect
10880:Moral foundations
10784:Visual perception
10676:Domain generality
10645:Facial expression
10593:Sexual dimorphism
10552:Natural selection
10498:Hamiltonian spite
10374:
10373:
9990:Uniformitarianism
9943:Sex-determination
9448:Sexual dimorphism
9443:Natural selection
9347:Unit of selection
9313:Signalling theory
9079:
9078:
9074:
9073:
9037:
8994:
8973:
8947:
8905:
8839:
8798:
8792:
8756:
8749:
8678:
8677:
8556:Secondary contact
8528:Hybrid speciation
8476:Natural selection
8463:Isolating factors
8271:Catalogue of Life
8257:species directory
8237:978-3-319-44964-7
8214:978-0-231-10143-1
8188:978-0-412-63120-7
8154:978-0-374-70638-8
8123:978-0-520-23693-6
8085:978-0-674-00613-3
8042:. UCMP Berkeley.
7972:978-0-19-505713-3
7782:978-1-4088-3622-4
7737:(in French) (1).
7466:10.1111/jzs.12088
7421:978-0-300-08469-6
7386:978-0-412-63380-5
6993:(30 March 1906).
6980:, pp. 77–96.
6964:10.1111/bij.12872
6861:"Glossary: sensu"
6800:10.1111/zsc.12625
6788:Zoologica Scripta
6473:(Pt 4): 917–924.
6286:(1542): 893–901.
6064:978-0-7391-6118-0
5731:(12): 2023–2035.
5725:Molecular Ecology
5670:978-1-4200-4166-8
5646:. pp. 26–36.
5597:(1443): 627–630.
5528:978-1-003-09282-7
5455:Mishler, Brent D.
5432:978-0-367-85560-4
5299:978-0-367-85560-4
5286:Mishler, Brent D.
5271:978-1-4020-1514-4
5031:978-3-540-26397-5
4908:978-0-12-088386-8
4756:(5915): 741–746.
4658:Koch, H. (2010).
4598:978-0-201-44232-8
4569:978-0-12-092860-6
4255:978-0-12-384684-6
4148:(6844): 331–333.
4076:(17): 9716–9720.
4003:978-0-306-47468-2
3957:Dzik, J. (1985).
3711:978-0-86542-495-1
3516:, pp. 91–92.
3353:978-0-521-76609-8
2723:978-0-632-05546-3
2531:978-0-19-854215-5
2503:978-0-393-30023-9
2467:978-0-86272-139-8
2325:. 20 April 2012.
2204:Wilson, Edward O.
2080:natural selection
1827:volcanic activity
1697:natural selection
1077:species aggregate
947:, including some
725:fitness landscape
671:(morphology) and
537:mitochondrial DNA
457:16S ribosomal RNA
244:natural selection
11793:
11730:
11717:
11704:
11703:
11347:
11346:
11343:Related subjects
11130:Adult attachment
10657:Cognitive module
10613:
10612:
10600:Social selection
10574:Costly signaling
10569:Sexual selection
10456:Modern synthesis
10401:
10394:
10387:
10378:
10377:
10364:
10354:
10353:
10153:Modern synthesis
9913:Multicellularity
9908:Mosaic evolution
9793:auditory ossicle
9475:Social selection
9458:Flowering plants
9453:Sexual selection
9106:
9099:
9092:
9083:
9082:
9065:
9054:
9022:
9011:
8936:
8875:
8804:
8786:
8742:
8731:
8721:
8705:
8698:
8691:
8682:
8681:
8666:
8665:
8654:
8642:
8641:
8630:
8629:
8481:Sexual selection
8410:Geographic modes
8322:
8315:
8308:
8299:
8298:
8241:
8218:
8197:Wheeler, Quentin
8192:
8159:
8158:
8134:
8128:
8127:
8100:Bowler, Peter J.
8096:
8090:
8089:
8062:
8056:
8055:
8053:
8051:
8036:
8030:
8029:
8001:
7995:
7994:
7983:
7977:
7976:
7958:
7952:
7951:
7941:
7935:
7934:
7928:
7920:
7910:
7904:
7903:
7893:
7887:
7886:
7878:
7872:
7871:
7855:
7845:
7834:
7828:
7827:
7817:
7793:
7787:
7786:
7763:
7757:
7756:
7746:
7726:
7720:
7719:
7701:
7695:
7694:
7666:
7660:
7659:
7619:
7613:
7612:
7596:
7590:
7589:
7559:
7550:
7549:
7547:
7508:
7490:
7477:
7471:
7470:
7468:
7444:
7438:
7432:
7426:
7425:
7401:
7395:
7394:
7370:
7364:
7363:
7353:
7321:
7315:
7314:
7304:
7272:
7266:
7265:
7263:
7232:
7223:
7217:
7216:
7214:
7203:
7191:
7185:
7184:
7166:
7157:(6): 1119–1132.
7139:
7133:
7132:
7122:
7112:
7079:
7073:
7072:
7055:(503): 727–731.
7039:
7033:
7032:
7007:(587): 506–507.
6987:
6981:
6975:
6969:
6968:
6966:
6942:
6933:
6932:
6922:
6890:
6881:
6880:
6878:
6876:
6857:
6851:
6850:
6848:
6846:
6835:AZ of tree terms
6826:
6820:
6819:
6779:
6773:
6772:
6744:
6738:
6737:
6722:
6716:
6715:
6713:
6711:
6696:
6690:
6689:
6687:
6685:
6666:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6640:
6634:
6633:
6631:
6629:
6614:
6608:
6607:
6599:
6584:
6583:
6581:
6579:
6564:
6558:
6557:
6555:
6553:
6537:
6531:
6530:
6499:
6493:
6492:
6482:
6449:
6443:
6442:
6432:
6408:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6397:
6377:
6371:
6370:
6368:
6366:
6351:
6345:
6344:
6320:
6314:
6313:
6303:
6271:
6265:
6264:
6246:
6210:
6204:
6203:
6175:
6169:
6168:
6124:
6118:
6117:
6115:
6092:
6079:
6073:
6072:
6048:
6042:
6036:
6030:
6029:
6027:
6025:
6010:
6004:
6003:
5960:Amanita muscaria
5955:
5949:
5948:
5938:
5928:
5892:
5886:
5885:
5875:
5865:
5830:
5824:
5823:
5813:
5771:
5765:
5764:
5720:
5714:
5713:
5685:
5679:
5678:
5654:
5648:
5647:
5639:
5633:
5632:
5622:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5539:
5533:
5532:
5504:
5491:
5490:
5488:
5478:
5451:
5445:
5444:
5418:
5407:
5406:
5358:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5332:
5321:
5312:
5311:
5282:
5276:
5275:
5257:
5251:
5250:
5240:
5230:
5198:
5192:
5191:
5190:on 4 March 2016.
5179:
5168:
5167:
5157:
5125:
5119:
5113:
5107:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5050:
5044:
5043:
5009:
5003:
5002:
4992:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4947:
4923:
4917:
4916:
4892:
4886:
4885:
4877:
4871:
4870:
4829:
4823:
4822:
4820:
4818:
4803:
4797:
4796:
4795:
4789:
4745:
4739:
4738:
4728:
4704:
4698:
4697:
4695:
4688:
4668:
4655:
4649:
4648:
4639:
4629:
4609:
4603:
4602:
4590:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4477:
4471:
4470:
4460:
4450:
4418:
4405:
4402:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4363:
4353:
4338:Virology Journal
4329:
4323:
4322:
4312:
4302:
4287:Virology Journal
4278:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4267:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4222:
4212:
4188:
4182:
4181:
4162:10.1038/35085569
4139:
4130:
4124:
4123:
4113:
4103:
4085:
4083:adap-org/9903006
4061:
4055:
4054:
4018:
4012:
4011:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3963:
3954:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3943:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3916:
3901:
3895:
3894:
3874:
3868:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3838:
3836:
3831:on 12 April 2015
3820:
3814:
3813:
3803:
3771:
3765:
3764:
3754:
3722:
3716:
3715:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3679:
3673:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3607:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3566:
3556:
3532:
3526:
3523:
3517:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3494:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3419:
3406:
3405:
3377:
3368:
3365:
3359:
3357:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3303:
3297:
3296:, pp. 55–69
3290:
3284:
3283:
3273:
3249:
3238:
3237:
3227:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3178:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3094:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3019:
3009:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2944:
2935:(9): 1079–1086.
2920:
2914:
2901:
2896:
2886:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2829:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2711:
2699:
2690:
2689:
2681:
2675:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2638:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2426:
2417:
2416:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2334:
2315:
2306:
2305:
2295:
2285:
2261:
2252:
2251:
2248:Associated Press
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2206:(3 March 2018).
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2164:
2147:Pseudospeciation
2059:, described the
1847:conservationists
1803:mass extinctions
1789:Extinction event
1488:species pluralis
1407:specific epithet
1318:
1304:greenish warbler
1299:
1281:Larus argentatus
1275:
1257:
1246:greenish warbler
1196:
1181:
1167:
1133:Hybrid (biology)
1106:
1088:
1073:Rubus fruticosus
1067:
1027:Rubus fruticosus
899:
890:
797:Palaeontologists
585:Kevin de Queiroz
472:genetic distance
424:A region of the
199:conservationists
157:). For example,
147:specific epithet
111:ecological niche
109:, behaviour, or
58:
11801:
11800:
11796:
11795:
11794:
11792:
11791:
11790:
11746:
11745:
11744:
11739:
11681:
11667:Neoevolutionism
11574:
11558:Species complex
11523:Group selection
11461:Research topics
11456:
11432:Neuropsychology
11334:
11320:Substance abuse
11242:Sex differences
11236:
11150:Coolidge effect
11111:
11023:Neuroergonomics
10988:
10979:
10903:
10805:
10739:Folk psychology
10620:
10604:
10474:
10467:
10410:
10405:
10375:
10370:
10342:
10269:Group selection
10242:
10167:
10071:
9998:
9960:Tempo and modes
9954:
9809:
9713:
9530:
9489:
9365:
9358:
9335:Species complex
9148:
9139:History of life
9115:
9110:
9080:
9075:
9033:Species complex
8783:Superdivision (
8714:
8712:Taxonomic ranks
8709:
8679:
8674:
8618:
8601:Paleopolyploidy
8565:
8520:Hybrid concepts
8514:
8457:
8405:
8375:Species complex
8359:
8331:
8326:
8281:"Species" entry
8249:
8244:
8238:
8215:
8189:
8168:
8163:
8162:
8155:
8135:
8131:
8124:
8097:
8093:
8086:
8063:
8059:
8049:
8047:
8038:
8037:
8033:
8018:10.2307/2709555
8002:
7998:
7984:
7980:
7973:
7959:
7955:
7942:
7938:
7922:
7921:
7911:
7907:
7894:
7890:
7879:
7875:
7868:
7835:
7831:
7794:
7790:
7783:
7764:
7760:
7727:
7723:
7716:
7702:
7698:
7667:
7663:
7620:
7616:
7597:
7593:
7560:
7553:
7545:
7506:10.1.1.535.2974
7488:
7478:
7474:
7445:
7441:
7433:
7429:
7422:
7402:
7398:
7387:
7371:
7367:
7322:
7318:
7273:
7269:
7261:
7230:
7224:
7220:
7212:
7201:
7192:
7188:
7140:
7136:
7080:
7076:
7043:Cook, Orator F.
7040:
7036:
6991:Cook, Orator F.
6988:
6984:
6976:
6972:
6943:
6936:
6891:
6884:
6874:
6872:
6859:
6858:
6854:
6844:
6842:
6827:
6823:
6780:
6776:
6745:
6741:
6723:
6719:
6709:
6707:
6698:
6697:
6693:
6683:
6681:
6668:
6667:
6663:
6653:
6651:
6642:
6641:
6637:
6627:
6625:
6616:
6615:
6611:
6600:
6587:
6577:
6575:
6566:
6565:
6561:
6551:
6549:
6538:
6534:
6520:10.2307/2434993
6500:
6496:
6450:
6446:
6409:
6405:
6395:
6393:
6378:
6374:
6364:
6362:
6353:
6352:
6348:
6321:
6317:
6272:
6268:
6221:(7507): 83–85.
6211:
6207:
6176:
6172:
6135:(5708): 414–6.
6125:
6121:
6113:
6090:
6080:
6076:
6065:
6049:
6045:
6037:
6033:
6023:
6021:
6012:
6011:
6007:
5956:
5952:
5893:
5889:
5831:
5827:
5772:
5768:
5721:
5717:
5702:10.2307/1222833
5686:
5682:
5671:
5655:
5651:
5640:
5636:
5583:
5579:
5543:Kitcher, Philip
5540:
5536:
5529:
5505:
5494:
5452:
5448:
5433:
5419:
5410:
5373:(11): 705–717.
5359:
5355:
5347:
5341:
5330:
5322:
5315:
5300:
5283:
5279:
5272:
5258:
5254:
5199:
5195:
5180:
5171:
5140:(10): 950–959.
5126:
5122:
5114:
5110:
5102:
5098:
5051:
5047:
5032:
5010:
5006:
4965:
4961:
4924:
4920:
4909:
4893:
4889:
4878:
4874:
4830:
4826:
4816:
4814:
4805:
4804:
4800:
4790:
4746:
4742:
4705:
4701:
4693:
4666:
4656:
4652:
4610:
4606:
4599:
4581:
4577:
4570:
4556:
4552:
4513:
4509:
4478:
4474:
4419:
4408:
4403:
4399:
4381:
4377:
4330:
4326:
4279:
4275:
4265:
4263:
4256:
4240:
4236:
4189:
4185:
4137:
4131:
4127:
4062:
4058:
4019:
4015:
4004:
3988:
3984:
3976:
3961:
3955:
3951:
3941:
3939:
3928:
3924:
3914:
3912:
3905:"Chronospecies"
3903:
3902:
3898:
3891:
3875:
3871:
3861:
3859:
3848:
3844:
3834:
3832:
3821:
3817:
3772:
3768:
3723:
3719:
3712:
3695:
3691:
3680:
3676:
3668:
3664:
3625:
3621:
3584:
3580:
3533:
3529:
3524:
3520:
3512:
3508:
3463:
3459:
3420:
3409:
3378:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3354:
3339:
3335:
3304:
3300:
3291:
3287:
3250:
3241:
3196:
3192:
3147:
3143:
3133:
3131:
3130:on 3 April 2014
3112:
3108:
3063:
3059:
3049:
3047:
3038:
3037:
3033:
2978:
2974:
2921:
2917:
2911:Wayback Machine
2854:
2850:
2842:
2827:
2821:
2817:
2788:
2784:
2742:
2738:
2730:
2724:
2709:
2700:
2693:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2639:
2635:
2627:
2623:
2608:10.2307/1219942
2592:Lewin, Ralph A.
2589:
2585:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2454:
2450:
2442:
2438:
2427:
2420:
2405:10.2307/2992287
2389:
2385:
2346:
2342:
2332:
2330:
2317:
2316:
2309:
2276:(8): e1001127.
2262:
2255:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2185:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2095:
2048:
2031:hierarchy, the
1973:
1967:
1899:
1893:
1891:Classical forms
1888:
1845:Biologists and
1843:
1795:last individual
1791:
1781:
1761:antigenic shift
1738:
1732:
1681:
1675:
1667:
1631:
1625:
1594:
1588:
1520:
1484:
1464:cryptic species
1451:
1439:, described by
1419:
1387:Panthera pardus
1355:
1336:
1329:
1319:
1310:
1300:
1291:
1276:
1267:
1258:
1215:
1209:
1202:
1197:
1188:
1187:with dark belly
1182:
1173:
1168:
1135:
1129:
1122:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1080:
1068:
1008:
1006:Species complex
1002:
962:concludes that
925:cryptic species
917:
916:
915:
914:
902:
901:
900:
892:
891:
839:parthenogenetic
821:When organisms
790:
770:
738:
704:
698:
661:
639:
627:
602:
600:Genetic species
593:
572:
519:
474:between entire
418:
412:
397:
374:Robert R. Sokal
340:
308:
254:and population
183:species complex
160:Boa constrictor
115:paleontologists
113:. In addition,
81:, typically by
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
11799:
11789:
11788:
11783:
11781:Plant taxonomy
11778:
11773:
11768:
11763:
11758:
11741:
11740:
11738:
11737:
11724:
11711:
11698:
11690:
11687:
11686:
11683:
11682:
11680:
11679:
11674:
11669:
11664:
11659:
11654:
11649:
11644:
11643:
11642:
11637:
11632:
11627:
11622:
11617:
11612:
11607:
11602:
11588:
11582:
11580:
11576:
11575:
11573:
11572:
11571:
11570:
11565:
11560:
11555:
11550:
11545:
11540:
11535:
11530:
11525:
11520:
11515:
11510:
11505:
11495:
11490:
11485:
11480:
11475:
11470:
11464:
11462:
11458:
11457:
11455:
11454:
11449:
11444:
11439:
11434:
11429:
11424:
11419:
11414:
11409:
11404:
11399:
11394:
11389:
11372:
11363:
11353:
11351:
11344:
11340:
11339:
11336:
11335:
11333:
11332:
11327:
11322:
11317:
11312:
11307:
11302:
11297:
11292:
11287:
11282:
11277:
11272:
11267:
11262:
11257:
11252:
11246:
11244:
11238:
11237:
11235:
11234:
11229:
11224:
11211:
11202:
11197:
11192:
11187:
11182:
11177:
11172:
11167:
11162:
11157:
11152:
11147:
11142:
11137:
11132:
11127:
11121:
11119:
11113:
11112:
11110:
11109:
11108:
11107:
11102:
11097:
11092:
11082:
11077:
11072:
11067:
11062:
11057:
11052:
11050:Mind-blindness
11047:
11042:
11037:
11032:
11027:
11026:
11025:
11020:
11015:
11010:
11005:
10994:
10992:
10981:
10980:
10978:
10977:
10972:
10967:
10962:
10957:
10952:
10947:
10942:
10937:
10924:
10919:
10913:
10911:
10905:
10904:
10902:
10901:
10896:
10895:
10894:
10884:
10883:
10882:
10872:
10871:
10870:
10865:
10860:
10850:
10845:
10844:
10843:
10833:
10832:
10831:
10826:
10815:
10813:
10807:
10806:
10804:
10803:
10802:
10801:
10796:
10791:
10781:
10776:
10771:
10762:
10761:
10760:
10755:
10745:
10743:theory of mind
10736:
10727:
10726:
10725:
10720:
10715:
10705:
10700:
10695:
10690:
10689:
10688:
10683:
10678:
10673:
10668:
10654:
10649:
10648:
10647:
10642:
10637:
10626:
10624:
10610:
10606:
10605:
10603:
10602:
10597:
10596:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10576:
10566:
10565:
10564:
10554:
10549:
10544:
10539:
10538:
10537:
10527:
10522:
10517:
10512:
10510:Baldwin effect
10507:
10506:
10505:
10500:
10495:
10485:
10479:
10477:
10469:
10468:
10466:
10465:
10460:
10459:
10458:
10453:
10448:
10443:
10438:
10428:
10427:
10426:
10415:
10412:
10411:
10404:
10403:
10396:
10389:
10381:
10372:
10371:
10369:
10368:
10358:
10347:
10344:
10343:
10341:
10340:
10335:
10330:
10325:
10320:
10319:
10318:
10308:
10303:
10298:
10293:
10288:
10287:
10286:
10281:
10276:
10266:
10261:
10256:
10250:
10248:
10244:
10243:
10241:
10240:
10235:
10234:
10233:
10228:
10223:
10222:
10221:
10211:
10206:
10201:
10196:
10191:
10181:
10175:
10173:
10169:
10168:
10166:
10165:
10160:
10155:
10150:
10145:
10140:
10135:
10130:
10125:
10120:
10119:
10118:
10109:Charles Darwin
10106:
10105:
10104:
10092:
10087:
10081:
10079:
10073:
10072:
10070:
10069:
10064:
10059:
10054:
10049:
10047:Non-ecological
10044:
10039:
10034:
10029:
10024:
10019:
10014:
10008:
10006:
10000:
9999:
9997:
9996:
9987:
9978:
9964:
9962:
9956:
9955:
9953:
9952:
9947:
9946:
9945:
9940:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9915:
9910:
9905:
9900:
9895:
9890:
9885:
9880:
9875:
9870:
9865:
9864:
9863:
9853:
9848:
9843:
9838:
9837:
9836:
9831:
9820:
9818:
9811:
9810:
9808:
9807:
9806:
9805:
9800:
9798:nervous system
9795:
9790:
9785:
9777:
9776:
9775:
9770:
9765:
9760:
9755:
9750:
9740:
9735:
9730:
9724:
9722:
9715:
9714:
9712:
9711:
9706:
9701:
9696:
9691:
9690:
9689:
9679:
9678:
9677:
9672:
9671:
9670:
9665:
9655:
9650:
9645:
9640:
9635:
9634:
9633:
9628:
9618:
9608:
9603:
9602:
9601:
9591:
9586:
9581:
9576:
9575:
9574:
9564:
9559:
9558:
9557:
9547:
9541:
9539:
9532:
9531:
9529:
9528:
9523:
9518:
9513:
9508:
9503:
9497:
9495:
9491:
9490:
9488:
9487:
9482:
9477:
9472:
9471:
9470:
9465:
9460:
9450:
9445:
9440:
9435:
9430:
9429:
9428:
9423:
9413:
9408:
9403:
9402:
9401:
9391:
9386:
9381:
9376:
9370:
9368:
9360:
9359:
9357:
9356:
9355:
9354:
9344:
9339:
9338:
9337:
9332:
9322:
9321:
9320:
9310:
9305:
9300:
9298:Origin of life
9295:
9290:
9285:
9283:Microevolution
9280:
9278:Macroevolution
9275:
9270:
9265:
9264:
9263:
9253:
9248:
9243:
9238:
9233:
9228:
9223:
9218:
9216:Common descent
9213:
9212:
9211:
9201:
9196:
9194:Baldwin effect
9191:
9190:
9189:
9184:
9174:
9169:
9164:
9158:
9156:
9150:
9149:
9147:
9146:
9141:
9136:
9131:
9126:
9120:
9117:
9116:
9109:
9108:
9101:
9094:
9086:
9077:
9076:
9072:
9071:
9070:
9069:
9058:
9047:
9042:
9035:
9028:
9027:
9026:
9015:
9004:
8999:
8990:
8989:
8988:
8983:
8978:
8971:
8964:
8963:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8945:
8940:
8927:
8926:
8925:
8920:
8915:
8910:
8903:
8898:
8891:
8890:
8889:
8884:
8879:
8866:
8865:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8844:
8837:
8830:
8829:
8828:
8823:
8818:
8809:
8790:
8773:
8772:
8771:
8766:
8761:
8754:
8746:
8735:
8719:
8716:
8715:
8708:
8707:
8700:
8693:
8685:
8676:
8675:
8673:
8672:
8660:
8648:
8636:
8623:
8620:
8619:
8617:
8616:
8609:Macroevolution
8594:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8573:
8571:
8567:
8566:
8564:
8563:
8558:
8553:
8543:
8524:
8522:
8516:
8515:
8513:
8512:
8510:Haldane's rule
8507:
8502:
8497:
8483:
8478:
8473:
8467:
8465:
8459:
8458:
8456:
8455:
8450:
8436:
8433:Founder effect
8413:
8411:
8407:
8406:
8404:
8403:
8398:
8393:
8388:
8383:
8378:
8367:
8365:
8364:Basic concepts
8361:
8360:
8358:
8357:
8352:
8347:
8342:
8336:
8333:
8332:
8325:
8324:
8317:
8310:
8302:
8296:
8295:
8290:
8278:
8273:
8268:
8263:
8248:
8247:External links
8245:
8243:
8242:
8236:
8219:
8213:
8193:
8187:
8169:
8167:
8164:
8161:
8160:
8153:
8129:
8122:
8091:
8084:
8057:
8031:
8012:(2): 211–230.
7996:
7978:
7971:
7953:
7936:
7905:
7888:
7873:
7866:
7829:
7788:
7781:
7758:
7721:
7714:
7696:
7677:(3): 235–254.
7661:
7614:
7591:
7572:(7): 326–329.
7551:
7523:10.1086/383542
7515:10.1086/383542
7499:(2): 161–179.
7472:
7459:(2): 180–184.
7439:
7427:
7420:
7396:
7385:
7365:
7336:(3): 491–501.
7316:
7287:(3): 502–503.
7267:
7241:(4): 182–187.
7218:
7186:
7134:
7074:
7061:10.1086/279001
7034:
6982:
6970:
6957:(2): 480–488.
6934:
6882:
6852:
6821:
6794:(6): 543–555.
6774:
6755:(1): 202–206.
6739:
6717:
6691:
6661:
6635:
6609:
6585:
6559:
6532:
6514:(5): 251–255,
6494:
6444:
6403:
6372:
6346:
6335:(2): 254–278.
6315:
6266:
6205:
6186:(4): 315–324.
6170:
6119:
6101:(3): 273–291.
6074:
6063:
6043:
6041:, p. 188.
6031:
6005:
5970:(2): 694–701.
5950:
5887:
5825:
5766:
5715:
5696:(3): 552–583.
5680:
5669:
5649:
5634:
5577:
5561:10.1086/289182
5555:(2): 308–333.
5534:
5527:
5492:
5446:
5431:
5408:
5353:
5340:978-0262731232
5339:
5313:
5298:
5277:
5270:
5252:
5193:
5169:
5120:
5108:
5106:, p. 101.
5096:
5065:(8): 355–360.
5045:
5030:
5004:
4959:
4918:
4907:
4887:
4872:
4824:
4798:
4740:
4719:(6): 879–886.
4699:
4679:(2): 413–421.
4650:
4604:
4597:
4575:
4568:
4550:
4523:(4): 665–690.
4507:
4472:
4406:
4397:
4375:
4324:
4273:
4254:
4234:
4203:(5): 478–483.
4183:
4125:
4056:
4013:
4002:
3982:
3972:(1–2): 71–92.
3949:
3922:
3896:
3890:978-1351189576
3889:
3869:
3842:
3815:
3786:(4): 643–662.
3766:
3737:(4): 643–662.
3717:
3710:
3689:
3674:
3662:
3635:(1): 141–159.
3619:
3598:(5): 819–832.
3578:
3547:(3): 490–493.
3527:
3518:
3506:
3457:
3407:
3388:(6): 791–802.
3369:
3360:
3352:
3333:
3314:(6): 791–802.
3298:
3285:
3264:(3): 211–223.
3239:
3190:
3141:
3106:
3077:(3): 355–364.
3057:
3031:
2972:
2942:10.1101/771964
2915:
2869:(2): 141–161.
2848:
2838:(4): 152–155.
2815:
2802:(4): 846–849.
2782:
2736:
2722:
2691:
2676:
2667:
2656:(4): 536–544.
2633:
2621:
2602:(3): 609–613.
2583:
2537:
2530:
2509:
2502:
2473:
2466:
2448:
2436:
2418:
2399:(3): 270–279.
2383:
2356:(7): 294–299.
2340:
2307:
2253:
2234:
2195:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2068:Charles Darwin
2055:, in his 1809
2047:
2044:
1969:Main article:
1966:
1963:
1895:Main article:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1842:
1839:
1835:compilospecies
1831:climate change
1780:
1777:
1734:Main article:
1731:
1728:
1693:Charles Darwin
1677:Main article:
1674:
1671:
1666:
1663:
1627:Main article:
1624:
1621:
1590:Main article:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1568:
1554:
1540:
1519:
1516:
1483:
1480:
1472:available name
1447:Main article:
1418:
1415:
1354:
1351:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1330:
1320:
1313:
1311:
1301:
1294:
1292:
1277:
1270:
1268:
1259:
1252:
1211:Main article:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1191:
1189:
1183:
1176:
1174:
1169:
1162:
1160:
1131:Main article:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1108:
1101:
1099:
1090:
1083:
1081:
1069:
1062:
1004:Main article:
1001:
998:
993:Philip Kitcher
907:willow warbler
904:
903:
894:
893:
885:
884:
883:
882:
881:
880:
879:
872:
865:
858:
789:
786:
769:
766:
737:
734:
700:Main article:
697:
694:
657:Main article:
638:
635:
626:
623:
601:
598:
592:
589:
571:
568:
518:
515:
499:. A database,
411:
408:
396:
393:
372:In the 1970s,
339:
336:
307:
304:
288:become extinct
238:explained how
230:Charles Darwin
133:) are given a
91:taxonomic rank
87:classification
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11798:
11787:
11784:
11782:
11779:
11777:
11774:
11772:
11769:
11767:
11764:
11762:
11759:
11757:
11754:
11753:
11751:
11736:
11735:
11729:
11725:
11723:
11722:
11716:
11712:
11710:
11709:
11699:
11697:
11696:
11692:
11691:
11688:
11678:
11675:
11673:
11670:
11668:
11665:
11663:
11662:Neo-Darwinism
11660:
11658:
11655:
11653:
11650:
11648:
11647:Functionalism
11645:
11641:
11638:
11636:
11633:
11631:
11628:
11626:
11623:
11621:
11618:
11616:
11613:
11611:
11608:
11606:
11605:Connectionism
11603:
11601:
11598:
11597:
11596:
11595:indeterminism
11592:
11589:
11587:
11584:
11583:
11581:
11577:
11569:
11566:
11564:
11561:
11559:
11556:
11554:
11551:
11549:
11546:
11544:
11541:
11539:
11536:
11534:
11531:
11529:
11526:
11524:
11521:
11519:
11516:
11514:
11511:
11509:
11506:
11504:
11501:
11500:
11499:
11496:
11494:
11491:
11489:
11486:
11484:
11481:
11479:
11476:
11474:
11471:
11469:
11466:
11465:
11463:
11459:
11453:
11450:
11448:
11445:
11443:
11440:
11438:
11435:
11433:
11430:
11428:
11425:
11423:
11420:
11418:
11415:
11413:
11410:
11408:
11405:
11403:
11400:
11398:
11395:
11393:
11390:
11388:
11384:
11380:
11376:
11373:
11371:
11367:
11364:
11362:
11358:
11355:
11354:
11352:
11348:
11345:
11341:
11331:
11328:
11326:
11323:
11321:
11318:
11316:
11315:Schizophrenia
11313:
11311:
11308:
11306:
11303:
11301:
11300:Mental health
11298:
11296:
11293:
11291:
11288:
11286:
11283:
11281:
11278:
11276:
11273:
11271:
11268:
11266:
11263:
11261:
11258:
11256:
11253:
11251:
11248:
11247:
11245:
11243:
11239:
11233:
11230:
11228:
11225:
11223:
11219:
11215:
11212:
11210:
11206:
11203:
11201:
11198:
11196:
11193:
11191:
11188:
11186:
11183:
11181:
11178:
11176:
11175:Mate guarding
11173:
11171:
11168:
11166:
11163:
11161:
11158:
11156:
11153:
11151:
11148:
11146:
11143:
11141:
11138:
11136:
11135:Age disparity
11133:
11131:
11128:
11126:
11123:
11122:
11120:
11118:
11114:
11106:
11103:
11101:
11098:
11096:
11093:
11091:
11088:
11087:
11086:
11083:
11081:
11078:
11076:
11073:
11071:
11068:
11066:
11065:Schizophrenia
11063:
11061:
11058:
11056:
11053:
11051:
11048:
11046:
11043:
11041:
11038:
11036:
11033:
11031:
11028:
11024:
11021:
11019:
11016:
11014:
11011:
11009:
11006:
11004:
11001:
11000:
10999:
10996:
10995:
10993:
10991:
10990:Mental health
10986:
10985:Human factors
10982:
10976:
10975:Socialization
10973:
10971:
10968:
10966:
10963:
10961:
10958:
10956:
10953:
10951:
10948:
10946:
10943:
10941:
10938:
10936:
10935:paternal bond
10932:
10928:
10925:
10923:
10920:
10918:
10915:
10914:
10912:
10910:
10906:
10900:
10897:
10893:
10890:
10889:
10888:
10885:
10881:
10878:
10877:
10876:
10873:
10869:
10866:
10864:
10861:
10859:
10856:
10855:
10854:
10851:
10849:
10846:
10842:
10839:
10838:
10837:
10834:
10830:
10827:
10825:
10822:
10821:
10820:
10817:
10816:
10814:
10812:
10808:
10800:
10799:Naïve physics
10797:
10795:
10792:
10790:
10787:
10786:
10785:
10782:
10780:
10777:
10775:
10772:
10770:
10766:
10765:Motor control
10763:
10759:
10756:
10754:
10751:
10750:
10749:
10746:
10744:
10740:
10737:
10735:
10731:
10728:
10724:
10723:Ophidiophobia
10721:
10719:
10716:
10714:
10713:Arachnophobia
10711:
10710:
10709:
10706:
10704:
10701:
10699:
10696:
10694:
10691:
10687:
10684:
10682:
10679:
10677:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10663:
10662:
10658:
10655:
10653:
10650:
10646:
10643:
10641:
10640:Display rules
10638:
10636:
10633:
10632:
10631:
10628:
10627:
10625:
10623:
10618:
10614:
10611:
10607:
10601:
10598:
10594:
10591:
10589:
10586:
10584:
10580:
10577:
10575:
10572:
10571:
10570:
10567:
10563:
10560:
10559:
10558:
10555:
10553:
10550:
10548:
10545:
10543:
10542:Kin selection
10540:
10536:
10533:
10532:
10531:
10528:
10526:
10523:
10521:
10518:
10516:
10513:
10511:
10508:
10504:
10501:
10499:
10496:
10494:
10491:
10490:
10489:
10486:
10484:
10481:
10480:
10478:
10476:
10470:
10464:
10461:
10457:
10454:
10452:
10449:
10447:
10444:
10442:
10439:
10437:
10436:Adaptationism
10434:
10433:
10432:
10429:
10425:
10422:
10421:
10420:
10417:
10416:
10413:
10409:
10402:
10397:
10395:
10390:
10388:
10383:
10382:
10379:
10367:
10363:
10359:
10357:
10349:
10348:
10345:
10339:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10321:
10317:
10314:
10313:
10312:
10311:Phylogenetics
10309:
10307:
10304:
10302:
10299:
10297:
10294:
10292:
10289:
10285:
10282:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10271:
10270:
10267:
10265:
10262:
10260:
10257:
10255:
10252:
10251:
10249:
10245:
10239:
10236:
10232:
10229:
10227:
10224:
10220:
10217:
10216:
10215:
10214:Structuralism
10212:
10210:
10207:
10205:
10202:
10200:
10197:
10195:
10192:
10190:
10189:Catastrophism
10187:
10186:
10185:
10182:
10180:
10177:
10176:
10174:
10170:
10164:
10161:
10159:
10156:
10154:
10151:
10149:
10148:Neo-Darwinism
10146:
10144:
10141:
10139:
10136:
10134:
10131:
10129:
10126:
10124:
10121:
10117:
10116:
10112:
10111:
10110:
10107:
10103:
10102:
10098:
10097:
10096:
10093:
10091:
10088:
10086:
10083:
10082:
10080:
10078:
10074:
10068:
10065:
10063:
10062:Reinforcement
10060:
10058:
10055:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10038:
10035:
10033:
10030:
10028:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10013:
10010:
10009:
10007:
10005:
10001:
9995:
9994:Catastrophism
9991:
9988:
9986:
9985:Macromutation
9982:
9981:Micromutation
9979:
9977:
9973:
9969:
9966:
9965:
9963:
9961:
9957:
9951:
9948:
9944:
9941:
9939:
9936:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9920:
9919:
9916:
9914:
9911:
9909:
9906:
9904:
9901:
9899:
9896:
9894:
9891:
9889:
9888:Immune system
9886:
9884:
9881:
9879:
9876:
9874:
9871:
9869:
9866:
9862:
9859:
9858:
9857:
9854:
9852:
9849:
9847:
9844:
9842:
9839:
9835:
9832:
9830:
9827:
9826:
9825:
9822:
9821:
9819:
9817:
9812:
9804:
9801:
9799:
9796:
9794:
9791:
9789:
9786:
9784:
9781:
9780:
9778:
9774:
9771:
9769:
9766:
9764:
9761:
9759:
9756:
9754:
9751:
9749:
9748:symbiogenesis
9746:
9745:
9744:
9741:
9739:
9736:
9734:
9731:
9729:
9726:
9725:
9723:
9721:
9716:
9710:
9707:
9705:
9702:
9700:
9697:
9695:
9692:
9688:
9685:
9684:
9683:
9680:
9676:
9673:
9669:
9666:
9664:
9661:
9660:
9659:
9656:
9654:
9651:
9649:
9646:
9644:
9641:
9639:
9636:
9632:
9629:
9627:
9624:
9623:
9622:
9619:
9617:
9614:
9613:
9612:
9609:
9607:
9604:
9600:
9597:
9596:
9595:
9592:
9590:
9587:
9585:
9582:
9580:
9577:
9573:
9570:
9569:
9568:
9565:
9563:
9560:
9556:
9553:
9552:
9551:
9548:
9546:
9543:
9542:
9540:
9538:
9533:
9527:
9524:
9522:
9519:
9517:
9514:
9512:
9509:
9507:
9504:
9502:
9499:
9498:
9496:
9492:
9486:
9483:
9481:
9478:
9476:
9473:
9469:
9466:
9464:
9461:
9459:
9456:
9455:
9454:
9451:
9449:
9446:
9444:
9441:
9439:
9436:
9434:
9431:
9427:
9424:
9422:
9419:
9418:
9417:
9416:Kin selection
9414:
9412:
9411:Genetic drift
9409:
9407:
9404:
9400:
9397:
9396:
9395:
9392:
9390:
9387:
9385:
9382:
9380:
9377:
9375:
9372:
9371:
9369:
9367:
9361:
9353:
9350:
9349:
9348:
9345:
9343:
9340:
9336:
9333:
9331:
9328:
9327:
9326:
9323:
9319:
9316:
9315:
9314:
9311:
9309:
9306:
9304:
9301:
9299:
9296:
9294:
9291:
9289:
9286:
9284:
9281:
9279:
9276:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9262:
9259:
9258:
9257:
9254:
9252:
9249:
9247:
9244:
9242:
9239:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9227:
9224:
9222:
9219:
9217:
9214:
9210:
9207:
9206:
9205:
9202:
9200:
9197:
9195:
9192:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9180:
9179:
9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9159:
9157:
9155:
9151:
9145:
9142:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9132:
9130:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9121:
9118:
9114:
9107:
9102:
9100:
9095:
9093:
9088:
9087:
9084:
9068:
9067:
9059:
9057:
9056:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9040:
9036:
9034:
9031:
9030:
9029:
9025:
9024:
9016:
9014:
9013:
9005:
9003:
9000:
8997:
8993:
8992:
8991:
8987:
8984:
8982:
8979:
8976:
8972:
8970:
8967:
8966:
8965:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8950:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8938:
8930:
8929:
8928:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8908:
8904:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8893:
8892:
8888:
8885:
8883:
8880:
8878:
8877:
8869:
8868:
8867:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8848:
8845:
8842:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8832:
8831:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8813:
8810:
8807:
8806:
8795:
8791:
8789:
8788:
8779:
8776:
8775:
8774:
8770:
8767:
8765:
8762:
8759:
8755:
8753:
8752:/Superkingdom
8747:
8745:
8744:
8736:
8734:
8733:
8725:
8724:
8723:
8722:
8717:
8713:
8706:
8701:
8699:
8694:
8692:
8687:
8686:
8683:
8671:
8670:
8661:
8659:
8658:
8653:
8649:
8647:
8646:
8637:
8635:
8634:
8625:
8624:
8621:
8614:
8613:Chronospecies
8610:
8606:
8602:
8598:
8595:
8593:
8590:
8588:
8585:
8583:
8580:
8578:
8575:
8574:
8572:
8568:
8562:
8559:
8557:
8554:
8551:
8547:
8546:Reinforcement
8544:
8541:
8540:Recombination
8537:
8533:
8529:
8526:
8525:
8523:
8521:
8517:
8511:
8508:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8495:
8491:
8487:
8484:
8482:
8479:
8477:
8474:
8472:
8469:
8468:
8466:
8464:
8460:
8454:
8451:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8437:
8434:
8430:
8426:
8422:
8418:
8415:
8414:
8412:
8408:
8402:
8399:
8397:
8394:
8392:
8389:
8387:
8384:
8382:
8379:
8376:
8372:
8369:
8368:
8366:
8362:
8356:
8353:
8351:
8348:
8346:
8343:
8341:
8338:
8337:
8334:
8330:
8323:
8318:
8316:
8311:
8309:
8304:
8303:
8300:
8294:
8291:
8289:of Philosophy
8288:
8287:
8282:
8279:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8264:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8251:
8250:
8239:
8233:
8229:
8225:
8220:
8216:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8198:
8194:
8190:
8184:
8180:
8176:
8171:
8170:
8156:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8141:
8133:
8125:
8119:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8106:
8101:
8095:
8087:
8081:
8077:
8073:
8072:
8067:
8061:
8045:
8041:
8035:
8027:
8023:
8019:
8015:
8011:
8007:
8000:
7992:
7988:
7982:
7974:
7968:
7964:
7957:
7949:
7948:
7940:
7932:
7926:
7918:
7917:
7909:
7901:
7900:
7892:
7884:
7877:
7869:
7867:9780674364455
7863:
7859:
7854:
7853:
7843:
7839:
7833:
7825:
7821:
7816:
7811:
7807:
7803:
7799:
7792:
7784:
7778:
7774:
7773:
7768:
7762:
7754:
7750:
7745:
7740:
7736:
7732:
7725:
7717:
7711:
7707:
7700:
7692:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7676:
7672:
7665:
7657:
7653:
7649:
7645:
7641:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7618:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7595:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7566:
7558:
7556:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7520:
7516:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7487:
7483:
7476:
7467:
7462:
7458:
7454:
7450:
7443:
7437:, p. 82.
7436:
7431:
7423:
7417:
7413:
7409:
7408:
7400:
7392:
7388:
7382:
7378:
7377:
7369:
7361:
7357:
7352:
7347:
7343:
7339:
7335:
7331:
7327:
7320:
7312:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7278:
7271:
7260:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7236:
7229:
7222:
7211:
7207:
7200:
7196:
7190:
7182:
7178:
7174:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7156:
7152:
7148:
7144:
7138:
7130:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7102:
7098:
7094:
7091:
7090:
7085:
7078:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7050:
7049:
7044:
7038:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7018:
7014:
7010:
7006:
7002:
7001:
6996:
6992:
6986:
6979:
6974:
6965:
6960:
6956:
6952:
6948:
6941:
6939:
6930:
6926:
6921:
6916:
6912:
6908:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6889:
6887:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6856:
6840:
6836:
6832:
6825:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6778:
6770:
6766:
6762:
6758:
6754:
6750:
6743:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6721:
6705:
6701:
6695:
6679:
6675:
6671:
6665:
6649:
6646:. Genome.jp.
6645:
6639:
6623:
6619:
6613:
6605:
6598:
6596:
6594:
6592:
6590:
6573:
6569:
6563:
6547:
6543:
6536:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6513:
6509:
6505:
6498:
6490:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6472:
6468:
6464:
6462:
6458:
6448:
6440:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6422:
6418:
6414:
6407:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6376:
6360:
6356:
6350:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6329:Herpetologica
6326:
6319:
6311:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6270:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6245:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6209:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6174:
6166:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6123:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6089:
6087:
6078:
6070:
6066:
6060:
6056:
6055:
6047:
6040:
6035:
6019:
6015:
6009:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5954:
5946:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5911:(370): 1–68.
5910:
5906:
5904:
5900:
5891:
5883:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5834:Mallet, James
5829:
5821:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5790:
5785:
5783:
5779:
5770:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5719:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5684:
5676:
5672:
5666:
5662:
5661:
5653:
5645:
5638:
5630:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5581:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5549:
5544:
5538:
5530:
5524:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5511:
5503:
5501:
5499:
5497:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5450:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5424:
5417:
5415:
5413:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5357:
5346:
5342:
5336:
5329:
5328:
5320:
5318:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5281:
5273:
5267:
5263:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5197:
5189:
5185:
5178:
5176:
5174:
5165:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5124:
5117:
5112:
5105:
5100:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5049:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5008:
5000:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4963:
4955:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4922:
4914:
4910:
4904:
4900:
4899:
4891:
4883:
4876:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4828:
4812:
4808:
4802:
4794:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4744:
4736:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4703:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4673:
4665:
4663:
4654:
4647:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4608:
4600:
4594:
4589:
4588:
4579:
4571:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4511:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4476:
4468:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4401:
4392:
4391:
4385:
4379:
4371:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4328:
4320:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4261:
4257:
4251:
4247:
4246:
4238:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4187:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4129:
4121:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4060:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4017:
4009:
4005:
3999:
3995:
3994:
3986:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3960:
3953:
3937:
3933:
3926:
3910:
3906:
3900:
3892:
3886:
3882:
3881:
3873:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3830:
3826:
3819:
3811:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3770:
3762:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3721:
3713:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3685:
3678:
3671:
3666:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3623:
3615:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3582:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3531:
3522:
3515:
3510:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3374:
3364:
3355:
3349:
3345:
3337:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3302:
3295:
3289:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3186:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3145:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3045:
3041:
3035:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2919:
2912:
2908:
2905:
2900:
2894:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2852:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2786:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2704:
2703:Mallet, James
2698:
2696:
2687:
2680:
2671:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2631:, p. 404
2630:
2625:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2587:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2556:(2): 97–119.
2555:
2551:
2547:
2546:Ruse, Michael
2541:
2533:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2505:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2446:, p. 79.
2445:
2440:
2432:
2425:
2423:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2344:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2314:
2312:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2260:
2258:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2163:
2159:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2089:
2084:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2035:
2034:scala naturae
2030:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2017:Carl Linnaeus
2012:
2007:
2005:
2000:
1992:
1991:Carl Linnaeus
1988:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1965:Fixed species
1962:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1939:Linnean terms
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1786:
1776:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1757:hybridisation
1750:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1727:
1725:
1724:chronospecies
1721:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1680:
1670:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1649:sensu stricto
1644:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1593:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1482:Abbreviations
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1459:type specimen
1456:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1436:Lacerta plica
1432:
1428:
1427:type specimen
1423:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1379:Panthera onca
1376:
1372:
1371:
1370:Puma concolor
1366:
1362:
1361:
1347:
1346:
1345:Puma concolor
1340:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1282:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1256:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1214:
1201:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1180:
1175:
1172:
1166:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1153:Corvus cornix
1151:
1147:
1146:Corvus corone
1144:
1140:
1139:hybridisation
1134:
1127:Hybridisation
1120:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1066:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1032:hybridisation
1029:
1028:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1007:
997:
994:
990:
986:
982:
979:
974:
973:Brent Mishler
971:The botanist
968:
963:
961:
956:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
912:
908:
898:
889:
877:
873:
870:
869:hybridisation
866:
863:
862:palaeontology
859:
856:
852:
851:phylogenetics
848:
847:DNA barcoding
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
819:
818:
816:
808:
807:
802:
798:
794:
784:
780:
778:
777:
765:
760:
756:
754:
746:
742:
733:
731:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
703:
693:
690:
686:
682:
681:chronospecies
678:
674:
670:
666:
665:palaeontology
660:
659:Chronospecies
652:
648:
647:chronospecies
643:
637:Chronospecies
634:
632:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
597:
588:
586:
582:
577:
567:
563:
561:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
533:
523:
514:
512:
510:
509:endosymbionts
506:
502:
498:
494:
493:DNA barcoding
490:
487:
486:
481:
477:
473:
469:
464:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
438:
434:
431:
427:
422:
417:
407:
405:
403:
392:
390:
387:
383:
379:
375:
370:
368:
367:morphospecies
364:
363:
353:
352:morphospecies
349:
344:
335:
333:
330:
326:
321:
317:
313:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
274:with varying
273:
272:genetic drift
269:
265:
264:recombination
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
236:
232:'s 1859 book
231:
227:
223:
218:
216:
212:
211:chronospecies
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
179:hybridisation
174:
172:
168:
167:
162:
161:
156:
152:
148:
144:
143:specific name
140:
136:
135:two-part name
132:
128:
124:
120:
119:chronospecies
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
77:
74:
70:
66:
62:
54:
46:
30:
26:
22:
11732:
11719:
11706:
11693:
11552:
11452:Sociobiology
11310:Neuroscience
11290:Intelligence
10836:Anthropology
10789:Color vision
10774:Multitasking
10753:Flynn effect
10748:Intelligence
10730:Folk biology
10473:Evolutionary
10323:Polymorphism
10306:Astrobiology
10254:Biogeography
10209:Saltationism
10199:Orthogenesis
10184:Alternatives
10113:
10099:
10032:Cospeciation
10027:Cladogenesis
9976:Saltationism
9933:Mating types
9856:Color vision
9841:Avian flight
9763:mitochondria
9501:Canalisation
9379:Biodiversity
9329:
9124:Introduction
9060:
9049:
9038:
9017:
9006:
8931:
8870:
8799:
8781:
8737:
8726:
8667:
8655:
8643:
8631:
8447:Ring species
8396:Cospeciation
8391:Cladogenesis
8370:
8340:Introduction
8284:
8223:
8200:
8174:
8139:
8132:
8104:
8094:
8070:
8060:
8048:. Retrieved
8034:
8009:
8005:
7999:
7990:
7981:
7962:
7956:
7946:
7939:
7915:
7908:
7898:
7891:
7882:
7876:
7851:
7846:, quoted in
7841:
7832:
7805:
7801:
7791:
7771:
7761:
7734:
7724:
7705:
7699:
7674:
7670:
7664:
7631:
7627:
7617:
7604:
7594:
7569:
7563:
7496:
7492:
7475:
7456:
7452:
7442:
7430:
7406:
7399:
7379:. Springer.
7375:
7368:
7333:
7329:
7319:
7284:
7280:
7270:
7238:
7234:
7221:
7210:the original
7205:
7189:
7154:
7150:
7137:
7092:
7087:
7077:
7052:
7046:
7037:
7004:
6998:
6985:
6973:
6954:
6950:
6902:
6898:
6873:. Retrieved
6855:
6843:. Retrieved
6834:
6824:
6791:
6787:
6777:
6752:
6748:
6742:
6733:
6729:
6720:
6708:. Retrieved
6694:
6682:. Retrieved
6673:
6664:
6652:. Retrieved
6638:
6626:. Retrieved
6612:
6603:
6576:. Retrieved
6562:
6550:. Retrieved
6535:
6511:
6507:
6497:
6470:
6466:
6460:
6456:
6447:
6420:
6416:
6406:
6394:. Retrieved
6386:The Guardian
6385:
6375:
6363:. Retrieved
6349:
6332:
6328:
6324:
6318:
6283:
6279:
6269:
6244:10261/101651
6218:
6214:
6208:
6183:
6179:
6173:
6132:
6128:
6122:
6098:
6094:
6085:
6077:
6053:
6046:
6034:
6022:. Retrieved
6008:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5953:
5908:
5902:
5898:
5890:
5845:
5841:
5828:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5777:
5769:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5693:
5689:
5683:
5659:
5652:
5643:
5637:
5594:
5590:
5580:
5572:
5552:
5546:
5537:
5509:
5466:
5462:
5449:
5422:
5370:
5366:
5356:
5326:
5289:
5280:
5261:
5255:
5210:
5206:
5196:
5188:the original
5137:
5133:
5123:
5111:
5099:
5062:
5058:
5048:
5013:
5007:
4972:
4962:
4938:(1): 39–67.
4935:
4931:
4921:
4897:
4890:
4881:
4875:
4845:(9): 733–9.
4842:
4838:
4827:
4815:. Retrieved
4801:
4753:
4749:
4743:
4716:
4712:
4702:
4676:
4670:
4664:Moure, 1961"
4661:
4653:
4617:
4613:
4607:
4586:
4578:
4559:
4553:
4520:
4516:
4510:
4488:(1): 27–50.
4485:
4481:
4475:
4430:
4426:
4400:
4389:
4378:
4341:
4337:
4327:
4290:
4286:
4276:
4264:. Retrieved
4248:. Elsevier.
4244:
4237:
4200:
4196:
4186:
4145:
4141:
4128:
4073:
4069:
4059:
4026:
4022:
4016:
3992:
3985:
3969:
3965:
3952:
3940:. Retrieved
3925:
3913:. Retrieved
3899:
3879:
3872:
3860:. Retrieved
3845:
3833:. Retrieved
3829:the original
3818:
3783:
3779:
3769:
3734:
3730:
3720:
3701:
3698:Ridley, Mark
3692:
3683:
3677:
3665:
3632:
3628:
3622:
3595:
3591:
3581:
3544:
3540:
3530:
3521:
3509:
3474:
3470:
3460:
3430:(1): 21–32.
3427:
3423:
3385:
3381:
3363:
3343:
3336:
3311:
3307:
3301:
3288:
3261:
3257:
3207:
3203:
3193:
3158:
3154:
3144:
3132:. Retrieved
3128:the original
3123:
3119:
3109:
3074:
3070:
3060:
3048:. Retrieved
3034:
2989:
2985:
2975:
2932:
2928:
2918:
2866:
2862:
2851:
2835:
2831:
2818:
2799:
2795:
2785:
2756:
2753:Biosemiotics
2752:
2745:Kull, Kalevi
2739:
2713:
2685:
2679:
2670:
2653:
2649:
2636:
2624:
2599:
2595:
2586:
2553:
2549:
2540:
2521:
2512:
2489:
2476:
2457:
2451:
2439:
2430:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2331:. Retrieved
2273:
2270:PLOS Biology
2269:
2247:
2237:
2225:. Retrieved
2211:
2198:
2186:. Retrieved
2175:
2168:Zimmer, Carl
2162:
2104:
2086:
2065:
2056:
2049:
2039:
2033:
2029:Aristotelian
2014:
2009:
1999:Early Modern
1996:
1900:
1880:biodiversity
1860:
1844:
1792:
1773:
1765:reassortment
1754:
1700:
1685:evolutionary
1682:
1668:
1661:
1656:
1647:
1632:
1612:
1606:
1597:
1595:
1575:Homo sapiens
1574:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1546:
1536:Homo sapiens
1534:
1530:
1521:
1512:
1500:
1496:paleontology
1491:
1487:
1485:
1457:name when a
1452:
1434:
1410:
1402:
1393:); they are
1386:
1378:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1343:
1307:
1287:Larus fuscus
1285:
1279:
1261:
1239:
1232:herring gull
1219:ring species
1216:
1213:Ring species
1207:Ring species
1171:Carrion crow
1152:
1145:
1143:carrion crow
1136:
1116:
1110:
1092:
1071:
1049:
1043:
1025:
1019:
1012:microspecies
1009:
970:
965:
960:James Mallet
957:
918:
876:ring species
855:quasispecies
854:
812:
804:
782:
774:
771:
762:
758:
750:
709:quasispecies
705:
667:, with only
662:
628:
603:
594:
581:Willi Hennig
573:
564:
529:
513:
507:mediated by
491:
483:
465:
445:microbiology
442:
406:
398:
391:
378:Peter Sneath
371:
366:
360:
357:
351:
334:
325:agamospecies
309:
300:quasispecies
233:
219:
203:evolutionary
191:ring species
187:microspecies
175:
170:
164:
158:
95:biodiversity
69:mating types
52:
50:
25:
11591:Determinism
11503:Coevolution
11447:Primatology
11285:Gender role
11190:Orientation
11070:Screen time
10927:Affectional
10909:Development
10588:Mate choice
10515:By-products
10483:Adaptations
10446:Cognitivism
10333:Systematics
10204:Mutationism
10022:Catagenesis
9950:Snake venom
9883:Eusociality
9861:in primates
9851:Cooperation
9779:In animals
9599:butterflies
9572:Cephalopods
9562:Brachiopods
9494:Development
9468:Mate choice
9221:Convergence
9204:Coevolution
9162:Abiogenesis
8960:Infrafamily
8943:Superfamily
8857:Subterclass
8826:Microphylum
8821:Infraphylum
8816:Subdivision
8778:Superphylum
8669:WikiProject
8429:Centrifugal
8255:– The free
8253:Wikispecies
8112:. pp.
7634:(1): 1–10.
7435:Zachos 2016
7143:Mayr, Ernst
6978:Zachos 2016
6684:25 November
6674:Uniprot.org
6654:25 November
6628:25 November
6552:17 November
6039:Zachos 2016
5116:Zachos 2016
5104:Zachos 2016
4817:25 November
4614:BMC Biology
4384:Mayr, Ernst
3564:10400.7/566
3514:Zachos 2016
2992:(1): 4060.
2444:Zachos 2016
2188:19 February
2137:Systematics
1959:Renaissance
1903:his biology
1360:Felis catus
1290:) in Norway
1200:Hooded crow
1150:hooded crow
953:echinoderms
949:crustaceans
941:prokaryotes
931:, multiple
835:prokaryotes
621:variants).
611:chromosomes
207:taxonomists
189:, and in a
171:constrictor
11750:Categories
11538:Population
11533:Lamarckism
11379:behavioral
11357:Behavioral
11305:Narcissism
11250:Aggression
11040:Hypophobia
11030:Depression
10917:Attachment
10899:Universals
10863:Psychology
10841:Biological
10829:Musicology
10819:Aesthetics
10718:Basophobia
10525:Exaptation
10503:Reciprocal
10194:Lamarckism
10172:Philosophy
10095:David Hume
10057:Peripatric
10052:Parapatric
10037:Ecological
10017:Anagenesis
10012:Allopatric
10004:Speciation
9968:Gradualism
9893:Metabolism
9753:chromosome
9743:Eukaryotes
9521:Modularity
9438:Population
9364:Population
9325:Speciation
9303:Panspermia
9256:Extinction
9251:Exaptation
9226:Divergence
9199:Cladistics
9187:Reciprocal
9167:Adaptation
9045:Subspecies
8986:Infratribe
8969:Supertribe
8918:Infraorder
8901:Superorder
8872:Division (
8852:Infraclass
8835:Superclass
8801:Division (
8764:Subkingdom
8739:Subrealm (
8532:Polyploidy
8494:Allochrony
8471:Adaptation
8439:Parapatric
8421:Peripatric
8417:Allopatric
8386:Anagenesis
8329:Speciation
8293:VisualTaxa
8050:24 January
7715:0520055020
6670:"Taxonomy"
5782:Chondrilla
5441:1273727987
5308:1273727987
5264:. Kluwer.
5213:(33): 33.
4662:Liotrigona
4620:(41): 41,
4029:(1): 1–6.
3942:12 January
3915:12 January
3862:1 December
3258:Cladistics
3050:11 October
2227:25 January
2154:References
2142:Speciation
2046:Mutability
1955:attributes
1872:barred owl
1823:Cretaceous
1807:Ordovician
1785:Extinction
1779:Extinction
1711:allopatric
1689:speciation
1679:Speciation
1673:Speciation
1657:sensu lato
1598:hypothesis
1565:H. sapiens
1549:is simply
1547:H. sapiens
1405:, and the
1094:Heliconius
1056:fly agaric
1045:Heliconius
1040:polyploidy
945:eukaryotes
933:life-cycle
911:chiffchaff
833:and other
806:Inoceramus
753:Ernst Mayr
745:Ernst Mayr
685:anagenesis
651:morphology
607:karyotypes
553:endangered
526:available.
480:base pairs
414:See also:
402:gene pools
362:Drosophila
346:All adult
329:ecospecies
320:Ernst Mayr
312:morphology
306:Definition
284:polyploidy
127:eukaryotes
107:morphology
105:sequence,
11383:cognitive
11375:Affective
11260:Cognition
11214:Sexuality
11200:Pair bond
10960:Education
10617:Cognition
10535:Inclusive
10475:processes
10463:Criticism
10328:Protocell
10179:Darwinism
10067:Sympatric
9816:processes
9704:Tetrapods
9653:Kangaroos
9579:Dinosaurs
9516:Inversion
9485:Variation
9406:Gene flow
9399:Inclusive
9209:Mutualism
9154:Evolution
9051:Variety (
9008:Section (
8955:Subfamily
8933:Section (
8923:Parvorder
8896:Magnorder
8862:Parvclass
8812:Subphylum
8453:Sympatric
7925:cite book
7838:Ray, John
7824:1936-6434
7808:(1): 18.
7753:245863171
7656:0006-3207
7501:CiteSeerX
7151:Evolution
6875:9 January
6845:9 January
6816:260224728
6808:0300-3256
6769:201790420
6439:252562185
5848:(1): 28.
5778:Taraxacum
5611:0962-8452
5569:224836299
5387:1471-0064
5134:BioEssays
3702:Evolution
3120:GeneWatch
2967:216560589
2759:: 61–71.
2578:121580839
2222:0362-4331
2076:evolution
2066:In 1859,
2024:hierarchy
2021:taxonomic
1907:Aristotle
1876:PhyloCode
1855:ecosystem
1617:PhyloCode
1613:splitting
1455:taxonomic
1327:Himalayas
1323:evolution
1321:Presumed
1224:gene flow
1118:fasciatus
1051:Hypsiboas
843:apomictic
713:mutagenic
673:histology
615:allozymes
609:(sets of
532:cladistic
439:database.
386:phenotype
260:mutations
222:Aristotle
217:species.
215:cladistic
195:asexually
99:karyotype
79:offspring
61:organisms
11652:Memetics
11412:Ethology
11370:genetics
11205:Physical
11170:Jealousy
11125:Activity
10931:maternal
10887:Religion
10875:Morality
10853:Language
10734:taxonomy
10547:Mismatch
10493:Cheating
10488:Altruism
10356:Category
10231:Vitalism
10226:Theistic
10219:Spandrel
9903:Morality
9898:Monogamy
9773:plastids
9738:Flagella
9694:Reptiles
9675:sea cows
9658:primates
9567:Molluscs
9545:Bacteria
9433:Mutation
9366:genetics
9342:Taxonomy
9288:Mismatch
9268:Homology
9182:Cheating
9177:Altruism
9019:Series (
9002:Subgenus
8981:Subtribe
8913:Suborder
8847:Subclass
8633:Category
8550:evidence
8355:Glossary
8228:Springer
8102:(2003).
8068:(2002).
8044:Archived
7989:(1961).
7840:(1686).
7769:(2014).
7609:Archived
7586:11403864
7543:Archived
7531:15232950
7391:Archived
7360:28186559
7311:28391326
7259:Archived
7255:15041172
7197:(2004).
7181:27401899
7173:28563569
7145:(1982).
7129:19528641
7069:84565616
7029:17789700
6929:20439284
6869:Archived
6839:Archived
6710:11 March
6704:Archived
6678:Archived
6648:Archived
6622:Archived
6572:Archived
6546:Archived
6489:21669927
6423:(9/10).
6396:11 March
6390:Archived
6365:11 March
6359:Archived
6310:15255043
6253:24870239
6165:18347146
6157:15662011
6111:Archived
6069:Archived
6024:12 March
6018:Archived
5992:18547823
5945:24478591
5882:17319954
5820:12831477
5761:25180463
5753:10632854
5675:Archived
5629:10787169
5403:52008986
5395:30111830
5345:Archived
5247:15913459
5164:25156897
5091:Archived
5087:84339122
5040:16568894
4999:25824477
4973:Virology
4954:11152940
4913:Archived
4867:41706247
4859:16138101
4811:Archived
4786:15763831
4778:19197054
4735:18027281
4691:Archived
4646:23587266
4467:15851674
4386:(1942).
4370:23938184
4319:16105179
4266:13 April
4260:Archived
4229:18253158
4197:Heredity
4170:11460163
4120:10449760
4051:20005655
4008:Archived
3974:Archived
3936:Archived
3909:Archived
3856:Archived
3810:19890476
3761:19890476
3657:34975382
3649:11639257
3614:24415680
3573:23362112
3501:17062413
3444:11118132
3402:18346919
3328:18346919
3280:84095773
3234:17472911
3185:16214748
3134:25 March
3101:18784790
3044:Archived
3026:34234115
2959:32341564
2913:license.
2907:Archived
2893:25722247
2840:Archived
2777:Archived
2773:18470078
2747:(2016).
2728:Archived
2644:(1974).
2520:(1989).
2484:(1980).
2378:21237047
2333:14 March
2327:Archived
2302:21886479
2182:Archived
2093:See also
2004:John Ray
1980:John Ray
1870:and the
1851:validity
1819:Triassic
1811:Devonian
1749:bacteria
1608:synonymy
1603:priority
1539:is 9606.
1441:Linnaeus
1431:holotype
1411:concolor
1391:homonyms
1148:and the
1137:Natural
1036:apomixis
981:teleosts
831:bacteria
829:such as
825:, as in
560:red list
449:Bacteria
428:for the
382:phenetic
316:genetics
252:genetics
250:through
11756:Species
11553:Species
11325:Suicide
11160:Fantasy
11140:Arousal
10922:Bonding
10811:Culture
10635:Display
10622:Emotion
10530:Fitness
10419:History
10247:Related
10077:History
9938:Meiosis
9873:Empathy
9868:Emotion
9768:nucleus
9709:Viruses
9699:Spiders
9611:Mammals
9594:Insects
9394:Fitness
9330:Species
9129:Outline
9039:Species
8758:Kingdom
8728:Realm (
8645:Commons
8597:Fossils
8587:Insects
8536:Klepton
8425:Quantum
8371:Species
8345:History
8283:at the
8166:Sources
8145:123–124
8076:170–197
8026:2709555
7679:Bibcode
7636:Bibcode
7539:2698838
7351:5381558
7302:5381533
7206:Science
7120:2702801
7097:Bibcode
7009:Bibcode
7000:Science
6920:2871892
6578:18 June
6528:2434993
6341:3893431
6301:1691675
6261:4458956
6223:Bibcode
6188:Bibcode
6137:Bibcode
6129:Science
5972:Bibcode
5936:3904076
5913:Bibcode
5909:ZooKeys
5873:1821009
5850:Bibcode
5811:1693208
5733:Bibcode
5710:1222833
5620:1690571
5238:1156881
5215:Bibcode
5155:4288574
5067:Bibcode
4990:4826558
4758:Bibcode
4750:Science
4637:3626887
4545:4094459
4525:Bibcode
4490:Bibcode
4458:1131873
4435:Bibcode
4361:3751428
4344:: 254.
4310:1208960
4220:7094686
4178:1482925
4150:Bibcode
4088:Bibcode
4031:Bibcode
3835:7 April
3801:2771874
3752:2771874
3492:1764934
3452:2551424
3225:2493573
3176:1609226
3092:1890991
3017:8263725
2994:Bibcode
2937:bioRxiv
2884:4361730
2616:1219942
2494:204–213
2413:2992287
2358:Bibcode
2293:3160336
1935:sparrow
1886:History
1815:Permian
1769:domains
1716:alleles
1654:antonym
1557:UniProt
1508:italics
1443:in 1758
1383:leopard
1365:Felidae
983:of the
978:cichlid
677:fossils
555:in the
545:Bovidae
476:genomes
453:Archaea
292:Viruses
256:ecology
181:, in a
169:, with
145:or the
131:viruses
76:fertile
73:produce
53:species
11731:
11718:
11705:
11295:Memory
11255:Autism
11222:female
11155:Desire
10892:Origin
10868:Speech
10858:Origin
10630:Affect
10366:Portal
10042:Hybrid
9878:Ethics
9720:organs
9682:Plants
9668:lemurs
9663:humans
9648:horses
9638:hyenas
9626:wolves
9621:canids
9555:origin
9062:Form (
8949:Family
8887:Cohort
8882:Legion
8794:Phylum
8750:Domain
8592:Plants
8443:Clines
8234:
8211:
8185:
8151:
8120:
8082:
8024:
7969:
7864:
7822:
7779:
7751:
7712:
7654:
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7537:
7529:
7521:
7503:
7418:
7383:
7358:
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7309:
7299:
7253:
7179:
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7127:
7117:
7067:
7027:
6927:
6917:
6814:
6806:
6767:
6526:
6487:
6437:
6339:
6308:
6298:
6259:
6251:
6215:Nature
6163:
6155:
6061:
6000:619242
5998:
5990:
5943:
5933:
5880:
5870:
5818:
5808:
5759:
5751:
5708:
5667:
5627:
5617:
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5567:
5525:
5439:
5429:
5401:
5393:
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5337:
5306:
5296:
5268:
5245:
5235:
5162:
5152:
5085:
5038:
5028:
4997:
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4952:
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4857:
4784:
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4733:
4644:
4634:
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4543:
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4455:
4368:
4358:
4317:
4307:
4293:: 64.
4252:
4227:
4217:
4176:
4168:
4142:Nature
4118:
4108:
4049:
4000:
3887:
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3798:
3759:
3749:
3708:
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3647:
3612:
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3499:
3489:
3450:
3442:
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3350:
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3278:
3232:
3222:
3183:
3173:
3099:
3089:
3024:
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2965:
2957:
2939:
2891:
2881:
2771:
2720:
2614:
2576:
2570:686173
2568:
2528:
2500:
2464:
2411:
2376:
2300:
2290:
2220:
1947:family
1665:Change
1504:genera
1409:as in
1401:as in
1397:: the
1375:jaguar
1185:Hybrid
837:, and
801:fossil
619:enzyme
613:) and
433:enzyme
123:fossil
121:since
89:and a
11265:Crime
10848:Crime
10779:Sleep
10769:skill
10609:Areas
9829:Death
9824:Aging
9803:brain
9589:Fungi
9550:Birds
9463:Fungi
9261:Event
9144:Index
8996:Genus
8975:Tribe
8907:Order
8841:Class
8577:Birds
8022:JSTOR
7749:S2CID
7546:(PDF)
7535:S2CID
7519:JSTOR
7489:(PDF)
7262:(PDF)
7231:(PDF)
7213:(PDF)
7202:(PDF)
7177:S2CID
7065:S2CID
6812:S2CID
6765:S2CID
6736:: 23.
6524:JSTOR
6435:S2CID
6337:JSTOR
6257:S2CID
6161:S2CID
6114:(PDF)
6091:(PDF)
5996:S2CID
5757:S2CID
5706:JSTOR
5690:Taxon
5565:S2CID
5399:S2CID
5348:(PDF)
5331:(PDF)
5083:S2CID
4863:S2CID
4782:S2CID
4694:(PDF)
4667:(PDF)
4174:S2CID
4138:(PDF)
4111:22276
4078:arXiv
3977:(PDF)
3962:(PDF)
3653:S2CID
3448:S2CID
3276:S2CID
2963:S2CID
2843:(PDF)
2828:(PDF)
2769:S2CID
2731:(PDF)
2710:(PDF)
2612:JSTOR
2596:Taxon
2574:S2CID
2566:JSTOR
2409:JSTOR
2100:Cline
2040:scala
1951:genus
1943:class
1933:, or
1927:eagle
1923:crane
1763:, or
1629:Sensu
1561:HUMAN
1492:Canis
1433:) of
1399:genus
1263:Larus
867:When
675:from
541:fungi
455:with
139:genus
65:sexes
45:genus
11218:male
10579:Male
10316:Tree
9788:hair
9728:Cell
9631:dogs
9616:cats
9606:Life
9584:Fish
9537:taxa
9064:bot.
9053:bot.
9021:bot.
9010:bot.
8935:zoo.
8874:zoo.
8803:bot.
8785:bot.
8741:vir.
8730:vir.
8582:Fish
8232:ISBN
8209:ISBN
8183:ISBN
8149:ISBN
8118:ISBN
8080:ISBN
8052:2018
7967:ISBN
7931:link
7862:ISBN
7820:ISSN
7777:ISBN
7710:ISBN
7652:ISSN
7582:PMID
7527:PMID
7416:ISBN
7381:ISBN
7356:PMID
7307:PMID
7251:PMID
7169:PMID
7125:PMID
7025:PMID
6925:PMID
6877:2018
6847:2018
6804:ISSN
6712:2017
6686:2012
6656:2012
6630:2012
6580:2011
6554:2015
6485:PMID
6398:2017
6367:2017
6306:PMID
6249:PMID
6153:PMID
6059:ISBN
6026:2017
5988:PMID
5941:PMID
5901:and
5878:PMID
5816:PMID
5780:and
5749:PMID
5665:ISBN
5625:PMID
5607:ISSN
5523:ISBN
5437:OCLC
5427:ISBN
5391:PMID
5383:ISSN
5335:ISBN
5304:OCLC
5294:ISBN
5266:ISBN
5243:PMID
5160:PMID
5036:PMID
5026:ISBN
4995:PMID
4950:PMID
4903:ISBN
4855:PMID
4819:2012
4774:PMID
4731:PMID
4642:PMID
4593:ISBN
4564:ISBN
4541:PMID
4463:PMID
4427:PNAS
4366:PMID
4315:PMID
4268:2017
4250:ISBN
4225:PMID
4166:PMID
4116:PMID
4070:PNAS
4047:PMID
3998:ISBN
3944:2018
3917:2018
3885:ISBN
3864:2016
3837:2015
3806:PMID
3757:PMID
3706:ISBN
3645:PMID
3610:PMID
3569:PMID
3497:PMID
3440:PMID
3398:PMID
3348:ISBN
3324:PMID
3230:PMID
3181:PMID
3136:2018
3097:PMID
3052:2017
3022:PMID
2955:PMID
2889:PMID
2718:ISBN
2526:ISBN
2498:ISBN
2462:ISBN
2374:PMID
2335:2017
2298:PMID
2229:2020
2218:ISSN
2190:2024
2070:and
1931:crow
1919:form
1915:fish
1911:bird
1821:and
1787:and
1683:The
1639:ICZN
1633:The
1563:for
1425:The
1403:Puma
1109:The
1038:and
951:and
909:and
905:The
849:and
557:IUCN
466:The
426:gene
270:and
262:and
149:(in
71:can
11117:Sex
10794:Eye
9814:Of
9783:eye
9733:DNA
9718:Of
9535:Of
8014:doi
7858:256
7810:doi
7739:doi
7687:doi
7644:doi
7574:doi
7511:doi
7461:doi
7346:PMC
7338:doi
7297:PMC
7289:doi
7243:doi
7159:doi
7115:PMC
7105:doi
7093:106
7057:doi
7017:doi
6959:doi
6955:120
6915:PMC
6907:doi
6903:365
6796:doi
6757:doi
6516:doi
6475:doi
6425:doi
6421:118
6296:PMC
6288:doi
6284:271
6239:hdl
6231:doi
6219:511
6196:doi
6184:246
6145:doi
6133:307
6103:doi
5980:doi
5931:PMC
5921:doi
5868:PMC
5858:doi
5806:PMC
5798:doi
5794:358
5741:doi
5698:doi
5615:PMC
5599:doi
5595:267
5557:doi
5515:doi
5481:hdl
5471:doi
5375:doi
5233:PMC
5223:doi
5150:PMC
5142:doi
5075:doi
5018:doi
4985:PMC
4977:doi
4940:doi
4847:doi
4766:doi
4754:323
4721:doi
4681:doi
4632:PMC
4622:doi
4533:doi
4521:117
4498:doi
4453:PMC
4443:doi
4431:102
4356:PMC
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