2096:. Becker argued that the reasons for such discrimination should be determined by psychologists and sociologists, not by economists, and he sought only to determine the consequences of discrimination as manifested in economic decision-making. The early version of this model was criticized for failing to explain the continued existence of discriminating firms, because it predicts that these firms will be less profitable than their non-discriminating counterparts. Nevertheless, the taste-based model has since become the predominant economic explanation for discriminatory practices.
4332:
40:
4342:
2112:. The German Americans were discriminated against as a consequence of the war and were considered an ethnic minority, creating opportunity for taste-based discrimination in the trade market. The results showed that the discrimination indeed had an effect on the German Americans in the NYSE, where the rates of their rejection doubled. However, the discrimination had no effects on the price of NYSE seats.
2076:. The taste-based model further supposes that employers' preference for employees of certain groups is unrelated to their preference for more productive employees. According to this model, employees that are members of a group that is discriminated against may have to work harder for the same wage or accept a lower wage for the same work as other employees.
2072:. The model further posits that employers discriminate against minority applicants to avoid interacting with them, regardless of the applicant's productivity, and that employers are willing to pay a financial penalty to do so. It is one of the two leading theoretical explanations for labor market discrimination, the other being
2128:
employees' productivity is publicly disclosed. The results showed that the research subjects were choosing players based on their performance, which is measured in points, and the race of the players did not play a role. The research was done over a period of three years and no evidence of taste-based discrimination was found.
2079:
Taste-based discrimination can be observed from the side of employers, customers or co-workers. In the case of an employer's "taste for discrimination", the employer aims to avoid non-monetary costs and does so often based on his own preferences. In the case of co-workers and customers, they may not
2127:
teams. Since this is a virtual game, the players are able to discriminate without real life consequences. There are no real customers and the "workers" (players) do not interact. This allowed the research team to control for statistical discrimination, because all information about potential
3358:
1017:
3327:
978:
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2195:
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2029:
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335:
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495:
2104:
It is difficult for economists to distinguish between taste-based and statistical discrimination. A paper in 2008 studied the effect
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2670:
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305:
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1998:
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883:
714:
176:
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3053:
2080:
want to interact with people belonging to a certain group, which the employer considers during the hiring process.
1652:
1481:
1375:
814:
704:
3569:
3070:
2822:
2625:
2015:
1228:
721:
465:
260:
4381:
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320:
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475:
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3964:
2665:
1929:
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2406:
1186:
1134:
57:
2325:
Moser, Petra (2012). "Taste-based discrimination: evidence from a shift in ethnic preferences after WWI".
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2196:"Economic Scene; Sticks and stones can break bones, but the wrong name can make a job hard to find"
1546:
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23:
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1345:
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119:
109:
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527:
129:
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2477:
2230:
Neilson, William; Ying, Shanshan (2016). "From taste-based to statistical discrimination".
1783:
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8:
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1991:
1902:
1830:
1815:
1598:
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1340:
1248:
1139:
1059:
888:
159:
2123:, which is an online game where players choose their 15 players from 20 participant
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4258:
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3908:
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3006:
3001:
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2158:
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1939:
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657:
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490:
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3180:
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1969:
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31:
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1976:
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1519:
1504:
1360:
1325:
1305:
1176:
1119:
1054:
422:
325:
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1024:
699:
412:
395:
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270:
4305:
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3726:
3534:
3522:
3495:
3485:
3405:
2804:
2799:
2770:
2705:
2554:
1986:
1981:
1862:
1857:
1753:
1729:
1578:
1471:
1429:
1385:
1193:
1181:
1154:
1144:
1064:
439:
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405:
340:
181:
2258:
4206:
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3871:
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2053:
1887:
1835:
1536:
1129:
215:
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4001:
3928:
3579:
3505:
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3370:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2650:
2645:
2590:
1852:
1674:
1593:
1238:
1164:
1069:
1029:
370:
365:
360:
285:
280:
225:
2293:
2655:
2559:
2539:
2512:
2487:
2391:
2099:
290:
186:
166:
139:
114:
39:
3631:
2640:
2544:
2522:
2517:
2467:
1290:
275:
171:
149:
144:
94:
3641:
2472:
1300:
99:
4253:
4082:
2088:
The taste-based discrimination model was first proposed by
1934:
1763:
2147:"Is ethnic discrimination due to distaste or statistics?"
2259:"Lecture Note: The Economics of Discrimination — Theory"
4217:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
2280:International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
1898:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
4358:
3877:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
2351:
2232:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
1542:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
3359:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
2352:Bryson, Alex; Chevalier, Arnaud (2014-08-15).
2100:Distinguishing from statistical discrimination
1018:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
2407:
2023:
3575:List of people killed for being transgender
2229:
1234:List of people killed for being transgender
2414:
2400:
2145:Baert, Stijn; Pauw, Ann-Sophie De (2014).
2108:had on German Americans as traders at the
2068:, meaning that they can be said to have a
2030:
2016:
2170:
2144:
2671:Social determinants of health in poverty
2386:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2354:"Is there a 'taste for discrimination'?"
2292:
306:Social determinants of health in poverty
2193:
2117:Center for Economic and Policy Research
4359:
2270:
2268:
2225:
2223:
2138:
2395:
2324:
2256:
4341:
3381:Capital punishment for homosexuality
2676:Social determinants of mental health
2320:
2318:
2316:
2064:can have negative results in hiring
1040:Capital punishment for homosexuality
311:Social determinants of mental health
3501:Genital modification and mutilation
2265:
2220:
1160:Genital modification and mutilation
13:
2421:
14:
4393:
2374:
2313:
4340:
4331:
4330:
3980:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
3817:Law for Protection of the Nation
3717:White genocide conspiracy theory
2327:Explorations in Economic History
1653:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
1482:Law for Protection of the Nation
1376:White genocide conspiracy theory
38:
16:Economic model of discrimination
3822:MSM blood donation restrictions
3570:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
2194:Krueger, Alan B. (2002-12-12).
2094:The economics of discrimination
1487:MSM blood donation restrictions
1229:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
3835:(as religious or racial quota)
2345:
2286:
2250:
2187:
2115:In 2014, researchers from the
1500:(as religious or racial quota)
1:
4249:Second-generation gender bias
3965:Constitutional colorblindness
2666:Social determinants of health
2163:10.1016/j.econlet.2014.09.020
2131:
2052:which argues that employers'
1930:Second-generation gender bias
1638:Constitutional colorblindness
301:Social determinants of health
2307:10.1016/j.labeco.2011.07.002
7:
4160:Medical model of disability
4012:Hate speech laws by country
2276:"Discrimination, Taste For"
2257:Autor, David (2003-11-24).
1841:Medical model of disability
1685:Hate speech laws by country
10:
4398:
4269:Social model of disability
2721:Discrimination against men
2244:10.1016/j.jebo.2016.06.001
2083:
2074:statistical discrimination
2043:Taste-based discrimination
1950:Social model of disability
356:Discrimination against men
4367:Employment discrimination
4326:
4065:
3942:
3735:
3622:Opposition to immigration
3346:
2976:
2813:
2573:
2523:Race / Ethnicity
2460:
2429:
2339:10.1016/j.eeh.2011.12.003
2119:conducted a study of the
1281:Opposition to immigration
150:Race / Ethnicity
3617:Occupational segregation
3386:Compulsory sterilization
2070:taste for discrimination
2045:is an economic model of
1276:Occupational segregation
1045:Compulsory sterilization
4145:Internalized oppression
4007:Fighting Discrimination
3997:Fat acceptance movement
3955:Anti-discrimination law
3595:Native American mascots
2110:New York Stock Exchange
1826:Internalized oppression
1680:Fighting Discrimination
1670:Fat acceptance movement
1628:Anti-discrimination law
1254:Native American mascots
4264:Social identity threat
4237:Reverse discrimination
4227:Racial color blindness
3707:Violence against women
3687:Sex-selective abortion
2121:Fantasy Premier League
2058:organisational culture
1945:Social identity threat
1918:Reverse discrimination
1908:Racial color blindness
1366:Violence against women
1346:Sex-selective abortion
4382:Sociological theories
4232:Religious intolerance
4192:Political correctness
4022:Intersex human rights
3970:Cultural assimilation
3652:Religious persecution
3416:Disability hate crime
3191:Jewish / Antisemitism
1913:Religious intolerance
1873:Political correctness
1695:Intersex human rights
1643:Cultural assimilation
1311:Religious persecution
1075:Disability hate crime
842:Jewish / Antisemitism
3637:Political repression
2626:Anti-left handedness
2616:Anti-intellectualism
2092:in 1957 in his book
1296:Political repression
261:Anti-left handedness
251:Anti-intellectualism
4140:Historical eugenics
3677:Segregation academy
3657:Religious terrorism
3446:Enemy of the people
3354:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
2858:Jehovah's Witnesses
2746:Perpetual foreigner
1821:Historical eugenics
1336:Segregation academy
1316:Religious terrorism
1105:Enemy of the people
1013:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
501:Jehovah's Witnesses
381:Perpetual foreigner
4052:Social integration
4047:Self-determination
4037:Racial integration
3985:Diversity training
3975:Cultural pluralism
3950:Affirmative action
3850:Racial segregation
3760:Crime of apartheid
3662:Religious violence
3155:Indigenous people
2550:Sexual orientation
2200:The New York Times
2062:prohibited grounds
2056:or dislikes in an
1725:Social integration
1720:Self-determination
1710:Racial integration
1658:Diversity training
1648:Cultural pluralism
1623:Affirmative action
1515:Racial segregation
1425:Crime of apartheid
1321:Religious violence
806:Indigenous people
177:Sexual orientation
4377:Economic theories
4354:
4353:
4222:Racism by country
4150:Intersectionality
4135:Heteronormativity
3934:Voter suppression
3682:Sexual harassment
3481:Forced conversion
3401:Cultural genocide
3054:African Americans
2868:post–Cold War era
2853:Eastern Orthodoxy
2611:Anti-drug addicts
2606:Anti-homelessness
2533:Scientific racism
2151:Economics Letters
2040:
2039:
1903:Racism by country
1831:Intersectionality
1816:Heteronormativity
1599:Voter suppression
1341:Sexual harassment
1140:Forced conversion
1060:Cultural genocide
705:African Americans
511:post–Cold War era
496:Eastern Orthodoxy
246:Anti-drug addicts
241:Anti-homelessness
160:Scientific racism
4389:
4372:Labour economics
4344:
4343:
4334:
4333:
4274:Social privilege
4259:Social exclusion
4187:Police brutality
4108:Multiculturalism
4078:Amatonormativity
3909:Social exclusion
3745:Age of candidacy
3545:Homeless dumping
3451:Ethnic cleansing
2416:
2409:
2402:
2393:
2392:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2322:
2311:
2310:
2295:Labour Economics
2290:
2284:
2283:
2272:
2263:
2262:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2227:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2174:
2142:
2066:minority workers
2032:
2025:
2018:
1955:Social privilege
1940:Social exclusion
1868:Police brutality
1789:Multiculturalism
1759:Amatonormativity
1574:Social exclusion
1410:Age of candidacy
1204:Homeless dumping
1110:Ethnic cleansing
42:
19:
18:
4397:
4396:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4357:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4322:
4197:Polyculturalism
4093:Civil liberties
4061:
4042:Reappropriation
3943:Countermeasures
3938:
3867:Racial steering
3833:Numerus clausus
3737:
3731:
3456:Ethnic conflict
3391:Corrective rape
3342:
2972:
2927:minority Muslim
2809:
2701:HIV/AIDS stigma
2569:
2518:Mental disorder
2456:
2425:
2420:
2377:
2372:
2371:
2362:
2360:
2350:
2346:
2323:
2314:
2291:
2287:
2274:
2273:
2266:
2255:
2251:
2228:
2221:
2212:
2210:
2192:
2188:
2172:1854/LU-5704419
2143:
2139:
2134:
2102:
2086:
2036:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1878:Polyculturalism
1774:Civil liberties
1746:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1715:Reappropriation
1615:
1614:Countermeasures
1607:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1532:Racial steering
1498:Numerus clausus
1402:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1115:Ethnic conflict
1050:Corrective rape
1005:
997:
996:
995:
994:
993:
630:
619:
618:
617:
616:
615:
570:minority Muslim
458:
448:
447:
446:
445:
444:
336:HIV/AIDS stigma
208:
200:
199:
198:
197:
196:
145:Mental disorder
87:
79:
78:
77:
76:
75:
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4395:
4385:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4348:
4338:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4320:
4315:
4314:
4313:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4245:
4244:
4242:Reverse racism
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4212:Prisoner abuse
4209:
4204:
4202:Power distance
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4168:
4167:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4120:Ethnic penalty
4117:
4116:
4115:
4113:Neurodiversity
4110:
4100:
4098:Dehumanization
4095:
4090:
4088:Cisnormativity
4085:
4080:
4075:
4069:
4067:
4066:Related topics
4063:
4062:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3946:
3944:
3940:
3939:
3937:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3924:State religion
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3905:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3860:Nuremberg Laws
3857:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3802:Ghetto benches
3799:
3797:Gerrymandering
3794:
3789:
3784:
3782:Gender pay gap
3779:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3741:
3739:
3736:Discriminatory
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3565:Lavender scare
3562:
3560:Kill Haole Day
3557:
3555:Indian rolling
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3531:
3530:
3520:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3441:Eliminationism
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3376:Cancel culture
3373:
3368:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3350:
3348:
3347:Manifestations
3344:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3233:Middle Eastern
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2983:
2981:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2968:Zoroastrianism
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2890:Untouchability
2887:
2877:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2819:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2711:Leprosy stigma
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2423:Discrimination
2419:
2418:
2411:
2404:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2376:
2375:External links
2373:
2370:
2369:
2344:
2333:(2): 167–188.
2312:
2285:
2264:
2249:
2219:
2186:
2157:(2): 270–273.
2136:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2125:Premier League
2101:
2098:
2085:
2082:
2050:discrimination
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1923:Reverse racism
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1893:Prisoner abuse
1890:
1885:
1883:Power distance
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1801:Ethnic penalty
1798:
1797:
1796:
1794:Neurodiversity
1791:
1781:
1779:Dehumanization
1776:
1771:
1769:Cisnormativity
1766:
1761:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1745:Related topics
1744:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1661:
1660:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1589:State religion
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1525:Nuremberg Laws
1522:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1467:Ghetto benches
1464:
1462:Gerrymandering
1459:
1454:
1449:
1447:Gender pay gap
1444:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1224:Lavender scare
1221:
1219:Kill Haole Day
1216:
1214:Indian rolling
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1100:Eliminationism
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1035:Cancel culture
1032:
1027:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1004:Manifestations
1003:
1002:
999:
998:
992:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
886:
884:Middle Eastern
881:
876:
871:
866:
861:
856:
851:
850:
849:
839:
834:
829:
824:
823:
822:
817:
812:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
718:
717:
712:
707:
697:
692:
687:
686:
685:
680:
675:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
634:
633:
632:
631:
625:
624:
621:
620:
614:
613:
611:Zoroastrianism
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
587:
586:
576:
575:
574:
573:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
537:
536:
535:
533:Untouchability
530:
520:
515:
514:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
483:
478:
473:
468:
462:
461:
460:
459:
454:
453:
450:
449:
443:
442:
437:
432:
431:
430:
425:
420:
410:
409:
408:
403:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
346:Leprosy stigma
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
223:
218:
212:
211:
210:
209:
206:
205:
202:
201:
195:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
163:
162:
157:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
91:
90:
89:
88:
85:
84:
81:
80:
74:
73:
70:
65:
60:
54:
53:
52:
51:
48:
47:
44:
43:
35:
34:
32:Discrimination
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4394:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4347:
4339:
4337:
4329:
4328:
4325:
4319:
4316:
4312:
4309:
4308:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4296:Social stigma
4294:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4276:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4243:
4240:
4239:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4064:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3919:State atheism
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3855:Jim Crow laws
3853:
3852:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3840:One-drop rule
3838:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3755:Blood quantum
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3702:Victimisation
3700:
3698:
3697:Trans bashing
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3667:Religious war
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3647:Racialization
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3518:Glass ceiling
3516:
3512:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3461:Ethnic hatred
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3396:Counter-jihad
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3169:United States
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3032:United States
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2953:Protestantism
2951:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2937:
2934:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2863:LDS or Mormon
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2788:Transmisogyny
2786:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2691:Gerontophobia
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2621:Anti-intersex
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2596:Anti-albinism
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2437:Institutional
2435:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2412:
2410:
2405:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2359:
2355:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2308:
2304:
2301:: S146–S159.
2300:
2296:
2289:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2269:
2260:
2253:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2224:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2137:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2081:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1977:Social stigma
1975:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
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1859:
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1843:
1842:
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1827:
1824:
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1814:
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1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
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1790:
1787:
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1785:
1782:
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1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1742:
1741:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
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1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1611:
1610:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1584:State atheism
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1520:Jim Crow laws
1518:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1505:One-drop rule
1503:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1420:Blood quantum
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1398:
1397:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1361:Victimisation
1359:
1357:
1356:Trans bashing
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1326:Religious war
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1306:Racialization
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1177:Glass ceiling
1175:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1120:Ethnic hatred
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1055:Counter-jihad
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1001:
1000:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
855:
852:
848:
845:
844:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
821:
820:United States
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
807:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
720:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
702:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
684:
683:United States
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
670:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
629:
623:
622:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
596:Protestantism
594:
592:
589:
585:
582:
581:
580:
577:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
547:
546:
543:
542:
541:
538:
534:
531:
529:
526:
525:
524:
521:
519:
516:
512:
509:
507:
506:LDS or Mormon
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
488:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
463:
457:
452:
451:
441:
438:
436:
433:
429:
426:
424:
423:Transmisogyny
421:
419:
416:
415:
414:
411:
407:
404:
402:
399:
398:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
326:Gerontophobia
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
256:Anti-intersex
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
231:Anti-albinism
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
213:
204:
203:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
161:
158:
156:
153:
152:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
92:
83:
82:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
58:Institutional
56:
55:
46:
45:
41:
37:
36:
33:
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
4130:Gender-blind
4017:Human rights
3845:Racial quota
3832:
3812:Jewish quota
3792:Gerontocracy
3787:Gender roles
3765:Disabilities
3750:Blood purity
3722:Wife selling
3712:White flight
3692:Slut-shaming
3672:Scapegoating
3590:Murder music
3253:Palestinians
3196:Anti-Zionism
3064:South Africa
3049:Black people
3027:South Africa
2843:Christianity
2833:Baháʼí Faith
2756:Sectarianism
2696:Heterosexism
2661:Ephebiphobia
2631:Anti-Masonry
2498:Hair texture
2451:
2384:
2361:. Retrieved
2357:
2347:
2330:
2326:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2279:
2252:
2235:
2231:
2211:. Retrieved
2199:
2189:
2154:
2150:
2140:
2114:
2103:
2093:
2087:
2078:
2069:
2047:labor market
2042:
2041:
1811:Gender-blind
1690:Human rights
1510:Racial quota
1497:
1477:Jewish quota
1457:Gerontocracy
1452:Gender roles
1430:Disabilities
1415:Blood purity
1381:Wife selling
1371:White flight
1351:Slut-shaming
1331:Scapegoating
1249:Murder music
904:Palestinians
847:Anti-Zionism
715:South Africa
700:Black people
678:South Africa
486:Christianity
476:Baháʼí Faith
391:Sectarianism
331:Heterosexism
296:Ephebiphobia
266:Anti-Masonry
125:Hair texture
4032:Nonviolence
4027:LGBT rights
3992:Empowerment
3960:Anti-racism
3882:Segregation
3827:No kid zone
3627:Persecution
3540:Hate speech
3491:Gay bashing
3466:Ethnic joke
3421:Dog whistle
3366:Blood libel
3044:Azerbaijani
2948:Neopaganism
2941:Persecution
2902:Persecution
2885:Persecution
2848:Catholicism
2828:Exclusivism
2778:Transphobia
2761:Supremacism
2716:Lesbophobia
2636:Aporophobia
2601:Anti-autism
2452:Taste-based
2447:Statistical
2238:: 116–128.
2106:World War I
2090:Gary Becker
1705:Nonviolence
1700:LGBT rights
1665:Empowerment
1633:Anti-racism
1547:Segregation
1492:No kid zone
1286:Persecution
1199:Hate speech
1150:Gay bashing
1125:Ethnic joke
1080:Dog whistle
1025:Blood libel
695:Azerbaijani
591:Neopaganism
584:Persecution
545:Persecution
528:Persecution
491:Catholicism
471:Exclusivism
413:Transphobia
396:Supremacism
351:Lesbophobia
271:Aporophobia
236:Anti-autism
72:Taste-based
68:Statistical
4361:Categories
4306:Stereotype
4301:Speciesism
4182:Oppression
4177:Oikophobia
4073:Allophilia
4057:Toleration
3914:Sodomy law
3807:Internment
3727:Witch-hunt
3605:Blackhawks
3535:Hate group
3523:Hate crime
3496:Gendercide
3486:Freak show
3476:Excellence
3436:Employment
3406:Defamation
3333:Vietnamese
3328:Venezuelan
3213:Lithuanian
2875:Falun Gong
2805:Xenophobia
2800:Vegaphobia
2783:Non-binary
2741:Pedophobia
2706:Homophobia
2528:Skin color
2488:Disability
2461:Attributes
2442:Structural
2363:2018-02-03
2213:2018-02-03
2132:References
2060:rooted in
1987:Stereotype
1982:Speciesism
1863:Oppression
1858:Oikophobia
1754:Allophilia
1730:Toleration
1579:Sodomy law
1472:Internment
1386:Witch-hunt
1264:Blackhawks
1194:Hate group
1182:Hate crime
1155:Gendercide
1145:Freak show
1135:Excellence
1095:Employment
1065:Defamation
984:Vietnamese
979:Venezuelan
864:Lithuanian
518:Falun Gong
440:Xenophobia
435:Vegaphobia
418:Non-binary
376:Pedophobia
341:Homophobia
155:Skin color
115:Disability
86:Attributes
63:Structural
4279:Christian
4207:Prejudice
4155:Masculism
4103:Diversity
3897:religious
3872:Redlining
3471:Ethnocide
3431:Education
3318:Ukrainian
3248:Pakistani
3238:Mongolian
3159:Australia
3141:Hungarian
3096:Colombian
3076:Bulgarian
2958:Rastafari
2907:Ahmadiyya
2815:Religious
2793:Trans men
2751:Pregnancy
2686:Gayphobia
2681:Fatphobia
2586:Acephobia
2581:Arophobia
2565:Viewpoint
2358:VoxEU.org
2208:0362-4331
2181:154444808
2054:prejudice
1960:Christian
1888:Prejudice
1836:Masculism
1784:Diversity
1562:religious
1537:Redlining
1130:Ethnocide
1090:Education
969:Ukrainian
899:Pakistani
889:Mongolian
810:Australia
792:Hungarian
747:Colombian
727:Bulgarian
601:Rastafari
550:Ahmadiyya
456:Religious
428:Trans men
386:Pregnancy
321:Gayphobia
316:Fatphobia
221:Acephobia
216:Arophobia
192:Viewpoint
4336:Category
4318:The talk
4254:Snobbery
4172:Net bias
4002:Feminism
3929:Ugly law
3770:Catholic
3738:policies
3585:Mortgage
3580:Lynching
3511:examples
3506:Genocide
3426:Economic
3411:Democide
3371:Bullying
3283:Scottish
3278:Romanian
3243:Nigerian
3186:Japanese
3121:Georgian
3106:Filipino
3039:Assyrian
3012:Armenian
3002:American
2997:Albanian
2979:National
2963:Yazidism
2880:Hinduism
2838:Buddhism
2736:Nepotism
2731:Misogyny
2726:Misandry
2651:Clannism
2646:Biphobia
2591:Adultism
2508:Language
1999:The talk
1935:Snobbery
1853:Net bias
1675:Feminism
1594:Ugly law
1435:Catholic
1401:Policies
1244:Mortgage
1239:Lynching
1170:examples
1165:Genocide
1085:Economic
1070:Democide
1030:Bullying
934:Scottish
929:Romanian
894:Nigerian
837:Japanese
772:Georgian
757:Filipino
690:Assyrian
663:Armenian
653:American
648:Albanian
628:national
606:Yazidism
523:Hinduism
481:Buddhism
371:Nepotism
366:Misogyny
361:Misandry
286:Clannism
281:Biphobia
226:Adultism
135:Language
24:a series
22:Part of
4346:Commons
4125:Figleaf
3550:Housing
3313:Turkish
3258:Pashtun
3228:Mexican
3208:Kurdish
3181:Italian
3131:Haitian
3116:Finnish
3091:Chinese
3086:Chechen
3081:Catalan
3071:Bengali
2992:African
2977:Ethnic/
2936:Judaism
2922:Sunnism
2912:Shi'ism
2823:Atheism
2656:Elitism
2555:Species
2493:Genetic
2483:Dialect
2282:. 2008.
2084:History
1806:Figleaf
1209:Housing
964:Turkish
909:Pashtun
879:Mexican
859:Kurdish
832:Italian
782:Haitian
767:Finnish
742:Chinese
737:Chechen
732:Catalan
722:Bengali
643:African
626:Ethnic/
579:Judaism
565:Sunnism
555:Shi'ism
466:Atheism
291:Elitism
182:Species
120:Genetic
110:Dialect
4311:threat
4165:autism
3902:sexual
3892:racial
3775:Jewish
3632:Pogrom
3610:Chiefs
3600:Braves
3323:Uyghur
3298:Somali
3293:Slavic
3273:Romani
3268:Quebec
3263:Polish
3203:Korean
3164:Canada
3151:Indian
3136:Hazara
3111:Fulani
3022:France
2987:Afghan
2917:Sufism
2641:Audism
2574:Social
2503:Height
2206:
2179:
1992:threat
1846:autism
1567:sexual
1557:racial
1440:Jewish
1291:Pogrom
1269:Chiefs
1259:Braves
974:Uyghur
949:Somali
944:Slavic
924:Romani
919:Quebec
914:Polish
854:Korean
815:Canada
802:Indian
787:Hazara
762:Fulani
673:France
638:Afghan
560:Sufism
276:Audism
207:Social
130:Height
4289:white
3642:Purge
3338:Welsh
3303:Tatar
3223:Māori
3218:Malay
3176:Irish
3126:Greek
3101:Croat
3059:China
3017:Asian
2897:Islam
2766:White
2513:Looks
2478:Class
2473:Caste
2430:Forms
2381:Entry
2177:S2CID
1970:white
1301:Purge
989:Welsh
954:Tatar
874:Māori
869:Malay
827:Irish
777:Greek
752:Croat
710:China
668:Asian
540:Islam
401:White
140:Looks
105:Class
100:Caste
49:Forms
4284:male
4083:Bias
3528:LGBT
3308:Thai
3288:Serb
3146:Igbo
3007:Arab
2771:Male
2560:Size
2540:Rank
2204:ISSN
1965:male
1764:Bias
1187:LGBT
959:Thai
939:Serb
797:Igbo
658:Arab
406:Male
187:Size
167:Rank
3887:age
2545:Sex
2468:Age
2383:in
2335:doi
2303:doi
2240:doi
2236:129
2167:hdl
2159:doi
2155:125
1552:age
172:Sex
95:Age
4363::
2356:.
2331:49
2329:.
2315:^
2299:18
2297:.
2278:.
2267:^
2234:.
2222:^
2202:.
2198:.
2175:.
2165:.
2153:.
2149:.
26:on
2415:e
2408:t
2401:v
2366:.
2341:.
2337::
2309:.
2305::
2261:.
2246:.
2242::
2216:.
2183:.
2169::
2161::
2031:e
2024:t
2017:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
