420:(PBS) interview, the historian Martha Smith argued: "In Japan, it becomes a huge issue in terms of not just the government and its protest against the United States, but all different groups and all different peoples in Japan start to protest. It becomes a big issue in the media. There are all kinds of letters and protests that come from, not surprisingly, Japanese fishermen, the fishermen's wives; there are student groups, all different types of people; that protest against the Americans' use of the Pacific for nuclear testing. They're very concerned about, first of all, why the United States even has the right to be carrying out those kinds of tests in the Pacific. They're also concerned about the health and environmental impact." The Prime Minister of India "voiced the heightened international concern" when he called for the elimination of all nuclear testing worldwide.
900:, hydrogen is created by reaction of iron and other metals from the nuclear device and surrounding equipment. The amount of carbonates and water in the soil and the available iron have to be considered in evaluating the test site containment; water-saturated clay soils may cause structural collapse and venting. Hard basement rock may reflect shock waves of the explosion, also possibly causing structural weakening and venting. The noncondensible gases may stay absorbed in the pores in the soil. Large amount of such gases can however maintain enough pressure to drive the fission products to the ground.
667:
1137:
43:
904:
1073:
1111:
1125:
1061:, and distinguish between the seismic signatures of an underground nuclear explosion and an earthquake. Additionally, eighty radionuclide stations detect radioactive particles vented by underground explosions. Certain radionuclides constitute clear evidence of nuclear tests; the presence of noble gases can indicate whether an underground explosion has taken place. Finally, eleven hydroacoustic stations and sixty infrasound stations monitor underwater and atmospheric tests.
462:
573:
20:
3969:
1097:
627:
616:
865:
1085:
3957:
797:
769:. The shock-induced motion and high internal pressure cause this cavity to expand outwards, which continues over several tenths of a second until the pressure has fallen sufficiently, to a level roughly comparable with the weight of the rock above, and can no longer grow. Although not observed in every explosion, four distinct zones (including the melt cavity) have been described in the surrounding rock. The
3981:
642:
explosive force will seal off the non-curved portion of tunnel nearest the detonation before gases and fission fragments can be vented around the curve of the tunnel's hook". This test would become the prototype for larger, more powerful tests. Rainier was announced in advance, so that seismic stations could attempt to record a signal.
590:' (ADM). It was detonated 20.4 m (67 ft) underground, in a shaft lined with corrugated steel, which was then back-filled with sandbags and dirt. Because the ADM was buried underground, the explosion blew tons of earth upwards, creating a crater 91 m (300 ft) wide and 39 m (128 ft) deep. The resulting
541:
1028:(TTBT) which banned underground tests with yields greater than 150 kilotons. By the 1990s, technologies to monitor and detect underground tests had matured to the point that tests of one kiloton or over could be detected with high probability, and in 1996 negotiations began under the auspices of the
1020:
Signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963, by representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United
Kingdom, the Limited Test Ban Treaty agreed to ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater. Due to the Soviet government's concern about the need for on-site inspections,
1045:
In the late 1940s, the United States began to develop the capability to detect atmospheric testing using air sampling; this system was able to detect the first Soviet test in 1949. Over the next decade, this system was improved, and a network of seismic monitoring stations was established to detect
1036:
was signed in 1996 by the United States, Russia, United
Kingdom, France, and China. However, following the United States Senate decision not to ratify the treaty in 1999, it is still yet to be ratified by 8 of the required 44 'Annex 2' states and so has not entered into force as United Nations law.
641:
was detonated at 899 ft (274 m) underground on 19 September 1957. The 1.7 kt explosion was the first to be entirely contained underground, producing no fallout. The test took place in a 1,600 – 2,000 ft (488 – 610 m) horizontal tunnel in the shape of a hook. The hook "was designed so
447:
signed the
Limited Test Ban Treaty, forbidding testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater. Agreement was facilitated by the decision to allow underground testing, eliminating the need for on-site inspections that concerned the Soviets. Underground testing was allowed,
807:
Several minutes to days later, once the heat dissipates enough, the steam condenses, and the pressure in the cavity falls below the level needed to support the overburden, the rock above the void falls into the cavity. Depending on various factors, including the yield and characteristics of the
333:
The first underground test took place in 1951. Further tests soon led scientists to conclude that even notwithstanding environmental and diplomatic considerations, underground testing was of far greater scientific value than all other forms of testing. This understanding strongly influenced the
1057:(IMS) consists of a network of 321 monitoring stations, and 16 radionuclide laboratories. Fifty "primary" seismic stations send data continuously to the International Data Center, along with 120 "auxiliary" stations which send data on request. The resulting data is used to locate the
645:
Analysis of samples collected after the test enabled scientists to develop an understanding of underground explosions that "persists essentially unaltered today". The information would later provide a basis for subsequent decisions to agree to the
Limited Test Ban Treaty.
957:
composition differs by the type of releases; large prompt venting releases significant fraction (up to 10%) of fission products, while late-time seeps contain only the most volatile gases. Soil absorbs the reactive chemical compounds, so the only
1480:
Some sources identify later tests as the "first". Adushkin (2001) defines such a test as "the near-simultaneous detonation of one or more nuclear charges inside one underground excavation (a tunnel, shaft or borehole)", and identifies
682:, with no venting of gases or other contaminants to the environment. In contrast, if the device is buried at insufficient depth ("underburied"), then rock may be expelled by the explosion, forming a subsidence crater surrounded by
568:
weapon. The explosion resulted in a cloud that rose to 3,500 m (11,500 ft), and deposited fallout to the north and north-northeast. The resulting crater was 79 m (260 ft) wide and 16 m (53 ft) deep.
789:. A few seconds later the molten rock starts collecting on the bottom of the cavity and the cavity content begins cooling. The rebound after the shock wave causes compressive forces to build up around the cavity, called a
944:
is performed; the gases are filtered, diluted by air and released to atmosphere when the winds will disperse them over sparsely populated areas. Small activity leaks resulting from operational aspects of tests are called
435:. Talks between the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, and the Soviet Union began in May 1955 on the subject of an international agreement to end nuclear tests. On August 5, 1963, representatives of the
887:
level), rockfalls, and ground slump. Most of the gas in the cavity is composed of steam; its volume decreases dramatically as the temperature falls and the steam condenses. There are however other gases, mostly
1008:
arising as a result of underground tests, there is no evidence that this has occurred. However, fault movements and ground fractures have been reported, and explosions often precede a series of
816:, 95 percent of tests conducted at a scaled depth of burial (SDOB) of less than 150 caused surface collapse, compared with about half of tests conducted at a SDOB of less than 180. The radius
686:, and releasing high-pressure gases to the atmosphere (the resulting crater is usually conical in profile, circular, and may range between tens to hundreds of metres in diameter and depth).
1046:
underground tests. Development of the
Threshold Test Ban Treaty in the mid-1970s led to an improved understanding of the relationship between test yield and resulting seismic magnitude.
2732:
612:!" As compared with an above-ground test, the radioactive debris released to the atmosphere was reduced by a factor of ten. Theoretical work began on possible containment schemes.
1266:"Monitoring distant fallout: The role of the Atomic Energy Commission Health and Safety Laboratory during the Pacific tests, with special attention to the events following Bravo"
448:
provided that it does not cause "radioactive debris to be present outside the territorial limits of the State under whose jurisdiction or control such explosion is conducted".
3318:
1049:
When negotiations began in the mid-1990s to develop a comprehensive test ban, the international community was reluctant to rely upon the detection capabilities of individual
936:
are releases of noncondensable gases days or weeks after the blast, by diffusion through pores and crack, probably assisted by a decrease of atmospheric pressure (so called
608:
was detonated at the bottom of a 148 m (486 ft) shaft. According to one description, it "ushered in the era of underground testing with a magnificent pyrotechnic
1012:, thought to be a result of cavity collapse and chimney formation. In a few cases, seismic energy released by fault movements has exceeded that of the explosion itself.
859:
757:. In the following few microseconds, the test hardware and surrounding rock are vaporised, with temperatures of several million degrees and pressures of several million
560:, which detonated 5.2 m (17 ft) beneath ground level. The test was designed as a scaled-down investigation of the effects of a 23-kiloton ground-penetrating
2071:"The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions", Project Director Gregory E van der Vink, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ISC-414, (Oct 1989).
3512:
765:, a bubble of high-pressure gas and steam is formed. The heat and expanding shock wave cause the surrounding rock to vaporise, or be melted further away, creating a
1313:
2920:
1780:"Nuclear Flashback: Report of a Greenpeace Scientific Expedition to Amchitka Island, Alaska – Site of the Largest Underground Nuclear Test in U.S. History"
1779:
993:
are concentrated in the milk of grazing cows; cow milk is therefore a convenient, sensitive fallout indicator. Soft tissues of animals can be analyzed for
2109:
2075:
318:
The extreme heat and pressure of an underground nuclear explosion causes changes in the surrounding rock. The rock closest to the location of the test is
2447:
2742:
175:
326:
rock. Following the explosion, the rock above the cavity may collapse, forming a rubble chimney. If this chimney reaches the surface, a bowl-shaped
3623:
2150:
2087:
3768:
1546:
247:
1578:
472:
2427:
424:
181:
1265:
4007:
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2180:
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was initially selected for these tests in 1950, but the site was later deemed unsuitable and the tests were moved to the Nevada Test Site.
242:
2092:
1681:
231:
2515:
1021:
underground tests were excluded from the ban. 108 countries would eventually sign the treaty, with the significant exception of China.
812:
is created. Such a crater is usually bowl-shaped, and ranges in size from a few tens of metres to over a kilometre in diameter. At the
252:
1457:
3018:
283:
3257:
2036:
484:
226:
3468:
3308:
3247:
2018:
428:
3388:
1866:
3213:
2000:
530:
196:
186:
1760:
2442:
1982:
1700:
1033:
339:
212:
201:
191:
1364:
3264:
1433:
116:
3985:
3181:
2727:
2122:
1050:
165:
1823:
McEwan, A. C. (1988). "Environmental effects of underground nuclear explosions". In
Goldblat, Jozef; Cox, David (eds.).
701:
of the yield in kilotons. It is estimated that, in order to ensure containment, this figure should be greater than 100.
3879:
3463:
2110:
https://web.archive.org/web/20041218041325/http://www.ingv.it/~roma/SITOINGLESE/research_projects/CTBTO/explosions.html
1136:
1195:
678:, as well as the nature of the surrounding rock. If the test is conducted at sufficient depth, the test is said to be
2543:
2422:
1966:
1832:
1317:
506:
1382:
3773:
3638:
2173:
918:. Massive, prompt, uncontrolled releases of fission products, driven by the pressure of steam or gas, are known as
338:
in 1963, which banned all nuclear tests except for those performed underground. From then until the signing of the
3716:
3550:
3152:
3030:
2687:
2548:
1054:
1786:
3706:
3555:
3013:
2151:
https://web.archive.org/web/20090227073933/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml
2088:
https://web.archive.org/web/20060908032343/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/pdf/3_3-4Adushkin.pdf
1173:
3480:
3313:
2737:
2665:
480:
276:
94:
773:, about two times the radius of the cavity, consists of rock that has lost all of its former integrity. The
354:
Public concern about fallout from nuclear testing grew in the early 1950s. Fallout was discovered after the
3823:
3560:
3269:
3023:
2520:
777:, about three times the cavity radius, consists of rock with radial and concentric fissures. Finally, the
391:
had "scientific, political and social implications that have continued for more than 40 years". The multi-
4012:
3973:
3886:
3858:
3815:
3780:
3618:
3445:
3383:
3208:
3112:
2998:
2466:
2166:
417:
257:
3807:
3666:
3345:
2863:
2820:
2672:
1198:. The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
896:, which do not condense and remain gaseous. The carbon dioxide is produced by thermal decomposition of
587:
525:
in 1946, inquiries were made regarding the possible military value of an underground explosion. The US
217:
62:
1555:
1072:
654:, the last test at the facility on Amchitka, was detonated on 6 November 1971. At approximately five
3961:
3643:
3252:
3035:
1587:
1025:
413:(Lucky Dragon). Prior to this test, there was "insufficient" appreciation of the dangers of fallout.
1053:(especially the United States), and instead wanted an international detection system. The resulting
3891:
3733:
3633:
3545:
2754:
2640:
2600:
2412:
598:
drifted in an easterly direction, travelling as far as 225 km (140 mi) from ground zero.
488:
269:
82:
3796:
3763:
3738:
3352:
3129:
2935:
2858:
2815:
2798:
2759:
2682:
1163:
1153:
1124:
674:
The effects of an underground nuclear test may vary according to factors including the depth and
609:
561:
556:
335:
300:
111:
77:
3721:
2145:
2136:
1403:
1296:
835:
533:(AEC) to perform experiments on both surface and sub-surface detonations. The Alaskan island of
3628:
2915:
2459:
1738:
1404:
Amchitka Island, Alaska: Potential U.S. Department of Energy site responsibilities (DOE/NV-526)
360:
test, the first ever atomic bomb test, in 1945. Photographic film manufacturers later reported
307:
that is performed underground. When the device being tested is buried at sufficient depth, the
1685:
1110:
3922:
3658:
3613:
3075:
3003:
2930:
2925:
2890:
2677:
2645:
2432:
2359:
1384:
For the Record – A History of the
Nuclear Test Personnel Review Program, 1978–1986 (DNA 601F)
1221:
1168:
876:
758:
526:
374:
361:
323:
151:
136:
72:
1464:
409:
3833:
3608:
3593:
2910:
2868:
2704:
2610:
2538:
2076:
IAEA review of the 1968 book: The constructive uses of nuclear explosions by Edward Teller.
1233:
1102:
521:
312:
99:
87:
1657:
1518:, but the AEC merged the plans into a single operation on 19 June 1951. See Gladeck, 1986.
932:; these have little to no energy, are not visible and have to be detected by instruments.
8:
3932:
3743:
3528:
3122:
2990:
2968:
2793:
2650:
2417:
2379:
2212:
2070:
1914:
1624:
1531:
1096:
782:
595:
141:
2040:
1607:
1237:
322:, forming a cavity. Farther away, there are zones of crushed, cracked, and irreversibly
3912:
3648:
3485:
3412:
3223:
2873:
2843:
2827:
2810:
2454:
2344:
2292:
2242:
2189:
2131:
1344:"Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water"
603:
551:
The first underground nuclear test was conducted on 29 November 1951. This was the 1.2
2104:
2022:
364:; this was traced to packaging materials sourced from Indiana crops, contaminated by
2980:
2773:
2660:
2635:
2573:
2530:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2207:
1962:
1873:
1828:
1288:
1284:
1158:
809:
666:
327:
308:
146:
131:
126:
121:
57:
2054:
2004:
1458:"USGS Open File Report 01-312: Containment of Soviet underground nuclear explosions"
1437:
3828:
2883:
2848:
2605:
2595:
2483:
2471:
2312:
2307:
2297:
2287:
2282:
1764:
1709:
1407:
1401:
1280:
1245:
1241:
978:
861:; an 8 kiloton explosion will create a cavity with radius of 110 feet (34 m).
813:
369:
342:
in 1996, most nuclear tests were performed underground, which prevented additional
24:
2114:
1986:
1084:
3726:
3686:
3140:
2954:
2878:
2853:
2699:
2492:
2394:
2384:
2349:
2227:
2217:
2126:
924:
880:
781:
consists of rock deformed by the pressure. The following layer undergoes only an
343:
67:
3218:
1932:
1343:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3421:
3328:
3297:
3279:
2803:
2709:
2655:
2620:
2553:
2500:
2354:
2247:
2232:
2222:
1029:
889:
655:
591:
444:
432:
400:
396:
392:
304:
156:
104:
34:
3701:
2119:
1548:
Shots Sugar and Uncle: The final tests of the Buster-Jangle series (DNA 6025F)
903:
697:(SDOB) This figure is calculated as the burial depth in metres divided by the
4001:
3866:
3157:
2563:
2404:
1638:
994:
950:
928:
test. Slow, low-pressure uncontrolled releases of radioactivity are known as
689:
One figure used in determining how deeply the device should be buried is the
675:
586:, on 23 March 1955. The one-kiloton explosion was an operational test of an '
565:
436:
388:
3432:
2568:
2510:
2437:
2389:
2259:
1580:
Shots Ess through Met and Shot
Zucchini: The final Teapot tests (DNA 6013F)
1199:
1116:
986:
954:
786:
440:
383:
356:
1292:
372:, over 1,000 miles (≈1600 kilometres) away. Intense fallout from the 1953
3843:
3490:
3080:
2587:
2558:
1388:
990:
949:; they may occur e.g. during drilling into the explosion location during
884:
762:
754:
572:
19:
3196:
1009:
1005:
982:
967:
626:
615:
540:
864:
796:
3838:
3201:
3191:
2319:
2272:
2237:
2158:
1959:
Technical Issues
Related to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1402:
U.S. Department of Energy, Nevada
Operations Office (December 1998).
1058:
998:
971:
963:
897:
821:
698:
319:
3696:
2039:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
2021:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
2003:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
1985:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization. Archived from
1436:. The Center for the Study of Technology and Society. Archived from
670:
Relative crater sizes and shapes resulting from various burst depths
3927:
3570:
3565:
3505:
3174:
3102:
3085:
3070:
3045:
2788:
2277:
1412:
893:
650:
534:
3896:
3848:
3711:
3691:
3090:
3065:
2505:
2336:
2324:
2302:
2267:
1463:. US Department of the Interior Geological Survey. Archived from
959:
594:
rose to a height of 3,700 m (12,000 ft) and subsequent
552:
3500:
3495:
3475:
3455:
3440:
3323:
3060:
3040:
3008:
808:
burial, this collapse may extend to the surface. If it does, a
683:
519:
Following analysis of underwater detonations that were part of
1001:, and blood, urine and soft tissues are analyzed for tritium.
3917:
3874:
3537:
3393:
3186:
3050:
2137:
http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1215_web.pdf
1196:"History of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)"
471:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
404:
334:
governments of the first three nuclear powers to sign of the
42:
1956:
3398:
3287:
3097:
3055:
1024:
In 1974, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the
703:
2142:
The Soviet Program for Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Explosions
1220:
Ortmeyer, Pat; Makhijani, Arjun (November–December 1997).
564:
that was then being considered for use as a cratering and
27:
in the 1990s as the diagnostic cables are being installed.
3371:
3235:
2096:
1763:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from
1658:"Field Testing: The Physical Proof of Design Principles"
1641:
is described as "slight", but was approximately 55 tons.
753:
The energy of the nuclear explosion is released in one
451:
1933:"The Making of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1958–1963"
1456:
Adushkin, Vitaly V.; Leith, William (September 2001).
1455:
2057:. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
1510:
were initially conceived as separate operations, and
875:
Other surface features may include disturbed ground,
838:
658:, it was the largest underground test in US history.
2132:
http://www.atomictraveler.com/UndergroundTestOTA.pdf
914:
Escape of radioactivity from the cavity is known as
2105:
http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications.html
1032:to develop a comprehensive test ban. The resulting
395:test caused fallout to occur on the islands of the
23:Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the
2921:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
1367:. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
962:filtered through soil into the atmosphere are the
853:
1915:The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions
1676:
1674:
1219:
953:, or during the sampling of explosion gases. The
785:; the strain and subsequent release then forms a
3999:
1872:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from
1825:Nuclear Weapon Tests: Prohibition Or Limitation?
416:The test became an international incident. In a
378:test was documented as far as Albany, New York.
2115:http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/ugt.htm
1896:Hawkins and Wohletz specify a figure of 90–125.
1651:
1649:
1647:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1314:"Martha Smith on: The Impact of the Bravo Test"
820:(in feet) of the cavity is proportional to the
1671:
1637:According to the Nuclear Weapons Archive, the
1380:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
16:Test detonation of nuclear weapons underground
3624:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
2174:
1708:. Centers for Disease Control. Archived from
1572:
1570:
1568:
1376:
1374:
1316:. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from
469:The examples and perspective in this article
277:
1702:ORAU Team: NIOSH Dose Reconstruction Project
1644:
1444:
1395:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1338:
1336:
1334:
940:). When the test tunnel has to be accessed,
2120:https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/ugt-nts.htm
2037:"Verification Technologies: Hydroacoustics"
1827:. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–79.
1755:
1753:
1751:
1577:Ponton, Jean; et al. (November 1981).
1252:
1206:
883:, water movement (including changes to the
2181:
2167:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1850:
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1846:
1844:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1565:
1434:"Today in Technology History: November 29"
1371:
284:
270:
41:
2019:"Verification Technologies: Radionuclide"
1867:"Visual Inspection for CTBT Verification"
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1619:
1617:
1602:
1600:
1538:
1526:
1524:
1411:
1365:"JFK in History: Nuclear Test Ban Treaty"
1350:
1331:
1015:
1004:Although there were early concerns about
547:, the first underground nuclear explosion
507:Learn how and when to remove this message
3536:
1983:"An Overview of the Verification Regime"
1975:
1748:
1655:
1586:. Defense Nuclear Agency. Archived from
1554:. Defense Nuclear Agency. Archived from
1387:. Defense Nuclear Agency. Archived from
1263:
902:
863:
795:
665:
625:
614:
571:
539:
18:
2055:"Verification Technologies: Infrasound"
2001:"Verification Technologies: Seismology"
1899:
1864:
1841:
1726:
1698:
1545:Ponton, Jean; et al. (June 1982).
1190:
1188:
1179:
4000:
3551:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
2188:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1822:
1803:
1684:. Department of Energy. Archived from
1614:
1597:
1576:
1544:
1521:
531:United States Atomic Energy Commission
3793:
3556:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
2965:
2952:
2162:
2098:The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1957:National Academy of Sciences (2002).
1426:
1034:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
340:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
311:may be contained, with no release of
3980:
2953:
1502:(e.g., DOE/NV-526, 1998). Operation
1185:
997:, bones and liver for strontium and
922:; an example of such failure is the
455:
452:Early history of underground testing
429:concern about the global environment
4008:Underground nuclear weapons testing
3561:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1939:
1935:. The George Washington University.
1920:
1656:Campbell, Bob; et al. (1983).
1142:Nevada Test Site subsidence craters
529:thus obtained the agreement of the
346:from entering into the atmosphere.
13:
3370:
2521:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
2064:
1917:. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
1777:
1494:Some sources refer to the test as
977:The released nuclides can undergo
14:
4024:
2544:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
2443:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
2081:
1744:. Los Alamos National Laboratory.
1381:Gladeck, F.; Johnson, A. (1986).
1226:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
3979:
3968:
3967:
3955:
3644:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
1406:(Report). Department of Energy.
1285:10.1097/00004032-199707000-00002
1135:
1123:
1109:
1095:
1083:
1071:
460:
381:The fallout from the March 1954
2733:Historical stockpiles and tests
2047:
2029:
2011:
1993:
1890:
1771:
1692:
1631:
1488:
1474:
1055:International Monitoring System
3634:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
2516:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
1761:"Accomplishments in the 1950s"
1627:. The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
1610:. The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
1534:. The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
1306:
1264:Eisenbud, Merril (July 1997).
1246:10.1080/00963402.1997.11456789
1174:List of induced seismic events
582:The next underground test was
1:
3962:Nuclear technology portal
1040:
907:Radioactivity release during
349:
3824:Field-reversed configuration
3434:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
981:. Radioactive isotopes like
800:Subsidence crater formed by
7:
3781:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
2966:
2728:States with nuclear weapons
1147:
779:zone of irreversible strain
744:Zone of irreversible strain
483:, discuss the issue on the
418:Public Broadcasting Service
297:Underground nuclear testing
10:
4029:
3794:
3619:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
2743:Tests in the United States
1498:(e.g., Adushkin, 2001) or
1064:
854:{\displaystyle {\sqrt{y}}}
661:
588:Atomic Demolition Munition
407:fishing boat known as the
3949:
3905:
3857:
3814:
3804:
3756:
3744:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
3657:
3639:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
3604:
3587:
3527:
3454:
3446:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
3420:
3411:
3363:
3343:
3296:
3278:
3234:
3139:
3121:
2989:
2976:
2961:
2948:
2903:
2836:
2781:
2772:
2720:
2628:
2619:
2586:
2529:
2491:
2482:
2403:
2335:
2258:
2200:
2196:
1865:Hawkins, Wohletz (1996).
1532:"Operation Buster-Jangle"
1346:. US Department of State.
1026:Threshold Test Ban Treaty
942:controlled tunnel purging
706:Zones in surrounding rock
3649:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
3265:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
2601:Electron-beam processing
2101:, September/October 2003
3764:Organic nuclear reactor
2936:Nuclear power phase-out
2859:Nuclear decommissioning
2799:Reactor-grade plutonium
2549:Targeted alpha-particle
2428:Accidents and incidents
1164:Tired mountain syndrome
1154:Nuclear weapons testing
868:Rubble mound formed by
791:stress containment cage
562:gun-type fission weapon
425:fallout and its effects
368:and later tests at the
336:Limited Test Ban Treaty
1961:. National Academies.
1739:"Plumbbob Photographs"
1699:Rollins, Gene (2004).
1514:was at first known as
1051:nuclear weapons states
1016:International treaties
911:
872:
855:
804:
793:, sealing the cracks.
691:scaled depth of burial
676:yield of the explosion
671:
635:
623:
579:
548:
28:
2926:Anti-nuclear movement
1792:on September 28, 2006
1169:Nuclear bunker buster
906:
867:
856:
799:
669:
629:
618:
575:
543:
527:Joint Chiefs of Staff
313:radioactive materials
22:
3834:Reversed field pinch
3629:Traveling-wave (TWR)
3113:Supercritical (SCWR)
2611:Gemstone irradiation
2146:UCRL-ID-12441O Rev 2
1682:"Operation Plumbbob"
1625:"Operation Plumbbob"
1302:on October 14, 2006.
1222:"Worse Than We Knew"
1180:Notes and references
947:operational releases
836:
522:Operation Crossroads
489:create a new article
481:improve this article
166:Nuclear-armed states
2999:Aqueous homogeneous
2794:Reprocessed uranium
2467:Safety and security
1238:1997BuAtS..53f..46O
1078:Buster-Jangle Uncle
938:atmospheric pumping
916:containment failure
783:elastic deformation
708:
596:radioactive fallout
557:Buster-Jangle Uncle
545:Buster-Jangle Uncle
315:to the atmosphere.
4013:1951 introductions
3913:Dense plasma focus
2828:Actinide chemistry
2293:Isotope separation
2190:Nuclear technology
2125:2015-04-09 at the
1665:Los Alamos Science
1608:"Operation Teapot"
912:
873:
851:
805:
704:
672:
636:
624:
580:
549:
427:grew, and with it
410:Daigo Fukuryū Maru
29:
3995:
3994:
3945:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3892:Magnetized-target
3789:
3788:
3752:
3751:
3583:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3523:
3522:
3407:
3406:
3339:
3338:
2944:
2943:
2899:
2898:
2768:
2767:
2755:Weapon-free zones
2582:
2581:
2574:Radiopharmacology
2144:, M. D. Nordyke,
1500:Project Windstorm
1159:Subsidence crater
849:
810:subsidence crater
751:
750:
601:On 26 July 1957,
517:
516:
509:
491:, as appropriate.
328:subsidence crater
309:nuclear explosion
294:
293:
58:Nuclear explosion
4020:
3983:
3982:
3971:
3970:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3870:
3829:Levitated dipole
3799:
3791:
3790:
3739:Helium gas (GFR)
3602:
3601:
3597:
3534:
3533:
3418:
3417:
3368:
3367:
3361:
3360:
3356:
3355:
3137:
3136:
3133:
3132:
2971:
2963:
2962:
2955:Nuclear reactors
2950:
2949:
2849:High-level (HLW)
2779:
2778:
2626:
2625:
2606:Food irradiation
2596:Atomic gardening
2489:
2488:
2472:Nuclear meltdown
2298:Nuclear material
2288:Fissile material
2283:Fertile material
2198:
2197:
2183:
2176:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2093:Nuclear Pursuits
2059:
2058:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1954:
1937:
1936:
1929:
1918:
1912:
1897:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1878:
1871:
1862:
1839:
1838:
1820:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1791:
1785:. Archived from
1784:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1757:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1735:
1724:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1714:
1707:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1678:
1669:
1668:
1662:
1653:
1642:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1621:
1612:
1611:
1604:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1585:
1574:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1553:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1519:
1492:
1486:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1462:
1453:
1442:
1441:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1391:on May 22, 2011.
1378:
1369:
1368:
1361:
1348:
1347:
1340:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1295:. Archived from
1270:
1261:
1250:
1249:
1217:
1204:
1203:
1192:
1139:
1130:Bowline Schooner
1127:
1113:
1099:
1087:
1075:
979:bio-accumulation
860:
858:
857:
852:
850:
848:
840:
814:Nevada Test Site
709:
639:Plumbbob Rainier
632:Plumbbob Rainier
621:Plumbbob Rainier
512:
505:
501:
498:
492:
464:
463:
456:
423:Knowledge about
370:Nevada Test Site
286:
279:
272:
223:
117:Target selection
45:
31:
30:
25:Nevada Test Site
4028:
4027:
4023:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4018:
4017:
3998:
3997:
3996:
3991:
3956:
3954:
3937:
3901:
3868:
3853:
3810:
3800:
3795:
3785:
3748:
3653:
3598:
3591:
3590:
3575:
3519:
3450:
3425:
3403:
3375:
3357:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3335:
3301:
3292:
3274:
3239:
3230:
3144:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3117:
3031:Natural fission
2985:
2984:
2972:
2967:
2957:
2940:
2916:Nuclear weapons
2895:
2854:Low-level (LLW)
2832:
2764:
2716:
2615:
2578:
2525:
2478:
2399:
2331:
2254:
2192:
2187:
2156:
2127:Wayback Machine
2084:
2067:
2065:Further reading
2062:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2017:
2016:
2012:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1955:
1940:
1931:
1930:
1921:
1913:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1863:
1842:
1835:
1821:
1804:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1776:
1772:
1759:
1758:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1727:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1697:
1693:
1680:
1679:
1672:
1660:
1654:
1645:
1636:
1632:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1606:
1605:
1598:
1590:
1583:
1575:
1566:
1558:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1530:
1529:
1522:
1493:
1489:
1479:
1475:
1467:
1460:
1454:
1445:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1418:
1416:
1400:
1396:
1379:
1372:
1363:
1362:
1351:
1342:
1341:
1332:
1323:
1321:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1268:
1262:
1253:
1218:
1207:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1182:
1150:
1143:
1140:
1131:
1128:
1119:
1114:
1105:
1100:
1091:
1088:
1079:
1076:
1067:
1043:
1018:
934:Late-time seeps
877:pressure ridges
870:Whetstone Sulky
844:
839:
837:
834:
833:
828:(in kilotons),
664:
619:Dust raised by
513:
502:
496:
493:
478:
465:
461:
454:
352:
344:nuclear fallout
305:nuclear weapons
301:test detonation
290:
241:
221:
211:
180:
35:Nuclear weapons
17:
12:
11:
5:
4026:
4016:
4015:
4010:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3977:
3965:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3939:
3938:
3936:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3923:Muon-catalyzed
3920:
3915:
3909:
3907:
3903:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3872:
3863:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3852:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3820:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3760:
3758:
3754:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3663:
3661:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3614:Integral (IFR)
3611:
3605:
3599:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3542:
3540:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3515:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3478:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3460:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3429:
3427:
3423:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3380:
3378:
3373:
3365:
3358:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3290:
3284:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3244:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3184:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3149:
3147:
3142:
3134:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3088:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3033:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3001:
2995:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2978:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2959:
2958:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2931:Uranium mining
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2813:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2804:Minor actinide
2801:
2796:
2785:
2783:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2730:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2702:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2632:
2630:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2592:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2535:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2501:Autoradiograph
2497:
2495:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2341:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2245:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2223:Atomic nucleus
2220:
2215:
2210:
2204:
2202:
2194:
2193:
2186:
2185:
2178:
2171:
2163:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2090:
2083:
2082:External links
2080:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2046:
2043:on 2003-02-19.
2028:
2025:on 2004-06-10.
2010:
2007:on 2003-06-21.
1992:
1989:on 2008-05-09.
1974:
1967:
1938:
1919:
1898:
1889:
1840:
1833:
1802:
1770:
1767:on 2004-12-05.
1747:
1725:
1691:
1688:on 2006-09-25.
1670:
1643:
1630:
1613:
1596:
1593:on 2007-07-10.
1564:
1561:on 2007-07-10.
1537:
1520:
1506:and Operation
1487:
1473:
1470:on 2013-05-09.
1443:
1440:on 2002-04-21.
1425:
1413:10.2172/758922
1394:
1370:
1349:
1330:
1305:
1273:Health Physics
1251:
1205:
1202:on 2007-03-03.
1183:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1122:
1120:
1115:
1108:
1106:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1042:
1039:
1030:United Nations
1017:
1014:
995:gamma emitters
890:carbon dioxide
847:
843:
749:
748:
747:800–1100 m/kt
745:
741:
740:
737:
733:
732:
729:
725:
724:
721:
717:
716:
713:
663:
660:
630:Layout of the
592:mushroom cloud
515:
514:
475:of the subject
473:worldwide view
468:
466:
459:
453:
450:
445:United Kingdom
433:genetic damage
431:and long-term
403:atolls, and a
362:'fogged' films
351:
348:
292:
291:
289:
288:
281:
274:
266:
263:
262:
261:
260:
255:
250:
245:
235:
234:
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224:
215:
205:
204:
199:
194:
192:United Kingdom
189:
184:
169:
168:
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159:
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119:
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108:
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91:
90:
85:
80:
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70:
65:
60:
52:
51:
47:
46:
38:
37:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4025:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4003:
3988:
3987:
3978:
3976:
3975:
3966:
3964:
3963:
3952:
3951:
3948:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3904:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3881:
3880:electrostatic
3878:
3877:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3856:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3798:
3792:
3782:
3779:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3755:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3659:Generation IV
3656:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3609:Breeder (FBR)
3607:
3606:
3603:
3600:
3595:
3586:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3435:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3377:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3359:
3354:
3347:
3342:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3241:
3233:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3138:
3135:
3131:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3111:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2982:
2975:
2970:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2911:Nuclear power
2909:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2892:
2891:Transmutation
2889:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2688:high-altitude
2686:
2685:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2678:Proliferation
2676:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2564:Brachytherapy
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2360:Cross section
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2056:
2050:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1996:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1970:
1968:0-309-08506-3
1964:
1960:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1934:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1916:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1893:
1879:on 2008-10-30
1875:
1868:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1836:
1834:0-19-829120-5
1830:
1826:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1788:
1781:
1778:Miller, Pam.
1774:
1766:
1762:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1740:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1715:on 2006-06-25
1711:
1704:
1703:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1677:
1675:
1666:
1659:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1640:
1634:
1626:
1620:
1618:
1609:
1603:
1601:
1589:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1557:
1550:
1549:
1541:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1491:
1485:as the first.
1484:
1477:
1466:
1459:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1414:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1390:
1386:
1385:
1377:
1375:
1366:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1345:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1320:on 2016-08-01
1319:
1315:
1309:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1267:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1189:
1184:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1138:
1133:
1126:
1121:
1118:
1112:
1107:
1104:
1098:
1093:
1086:
1081:
1074:
1069:
1068:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
975:
973:
969:
965:
961:
956:
952:
951:core sampling
948:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
926:
921:
917:
910:
905:
901:
899:
895:
891:
886:
882:
878:
871:
866:
862:
845:
841:
831:
827:
824:of the yield
823:
819:
815:
811:
803:
798:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
746:
743:
742:
738:
735:
734:
730:
727:
726:
722:
719:
718:
714:
711:
710:
707:
702:
700:
696:
692:
687:
685:
681:
677:
668:
659:
657:
653:
652:
647:
643:
640:
633:
628:
622:
617:
613:
611:
607:
605:
599:
597:
593:
589:
585:
578:
574:
570:
567:
566:bunker-buster
563:
559:
558:
554:
546:
542:
538:
536:
532:
528:
524:
523:
511:
508:
500:
497:December 2010
490:
486:
482:
476:
474:
467:
458:
457:
449:
446:
442:
438:
437:United States
434:
430:
426:
421:
419:
414:
412:
411:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
389:Pacific Ocean
386:
385:
379:
377:
376:
371:
367:
363:
359:
358:
347:
345:
341:
337:
331:
329:
325:
321:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
287:
282:
280:
275:
273:
268:
267:
265:
264:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
240:
237:
236:
233:
230:
228:
225:
219:
216:
214:
210:
207:
206:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
182:United States
179:
177:
173:
172:
171:
170:
167:
164:
163:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
137:Proliferation
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
109:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
92:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
56:
55:
54:
53:
49:
48:
44:
40:
39:
36:
33:
32:
26:
21:
3984:
3972:
3953:
3933:Pyroelectric
3887:Laser-driven
3667:Sodium (SFR)
3594:fast-neutron
3433:
2979:
2869:Reprocessing
2750:WMD treaties
2692:
2569:Radiosurgery
2539:Fast-neutron
2511:Scintigraphy
2155:
2141:
2097:
2049:
2041:the original
2031:
2023:the original
2013:
2005:the original
1995:
1987:the original
1977:
1958:
1892:
1881:. Retrieved
1874:the original
1824:
1794:. Retrieved
1787:the original
1773:
1765:the original
1717:. Retrieved
1710:the original
1701:
1694:
1686:the original
1664:
1633:
1588:the original
1579:
1556:the original
1547:
1540:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1496:Jangle Uncle
1495:
1490:
1482:
1476:
1465:the original
1438:the original
1428:
1417:. Retrieved
1397:
1389:the original
1383:
1322:. Retrieved
1318:the original
1308:
1297:the original
1279:(1): 21–27.
1276:
1272:
1232:(6): 46–50.
1229:
1225:
1200:the original
1117:Sedan Crater
1103:Storax Sedan
1048:
1044:
1023:
1019:
1003:
987:strontium-90
976:
966:, primarily
955:radionuclide
946:
941:
937:
933:
929:
923:
919:
915:
913:
908:
874:
869:
829:
825:
817:
806:
801:
790:
787:seismic wave
778:
775:cracked zone
774:
771:crushed zone
770:
766:
763:milliseconds
752:
739:80–120 m/kt
736:Cracked zone
728:Crushed zone
705:
694:
690:
688:
679:
673:
649:
648:
644:
638:
637:
631:
620:
610:roman candle
602:
600:
583:
581:
576:
555:
550:
544:
520:
518:
503:
494:
470:
441:Soviet Union
422:
415:
408:
387:test in the
382:
380:
373:
365:
355:
353:
332:
317:
296:
295:
243:South Africa
238:
222:(undeclared)
208:
174:
3844:Stellarator
3808:confinement
3702:Superphénix
3529:Molten-salt
3481:VHTR (HTGR)
3258:HW BLWR 250
3224:R4 Marviken
3153:Pressurized
3123:Heavy water
3107:many others
3036:Pressurized
2991:Light water
2693:underground
2651:Disarmament
2559:Tomotherapy
2554:Proton-beam
2418:Power plant
2380:Temperature
2213:Engineering
1010:aftershocks
1006:earthquakes
991:caesium-137
964:noble gases
885:water table
767:melt cavity
759:atmospheres
755:microsecond
731:30–40 m/kt
720:Melt cavity
232:North Korea
142:Disarmament
4002:Categories
3869:(acoustic)
3486:PBR (PBMR)
2874:Spent fuel
2864:Repository
2844:Fuel cycle
2811:Activation
2588:Processing
2455:Propulsion
2413:by country
2345:Activation
1883:2008-05-05
1796:2006-10-09
1719:2017-09-17
1419:2006-10-09
1324:2017-09-03
1090:Teapot Ess
1041:Monitoring
983:iodine-131
968:krypton-85
898:carbonates
802:Huron King
723:4–12 m/kt
584:Teapot Ess
577:Teapot Ess
443:, and the
350:Background
330:may form.
253:Kazakhstan
178:recognized
152:Opposition
50:Background
3839:Spheromak
3538:Fluorides
3202:IPHWR-700
3197:IPHWR-540
3192:IPHWR-220
2981:Moderator
2661:Explosion
2636:Arms race
2423:Economics
2375:Reflector
2370:Radiation
2365:Generator
2320:Plutonium
2273:Deuterium
2238:Radiation
2208:Chemistry
1516:Windstorm
1059:epicentre
999:plutonium
972:xenon-133
925:Baneberry
909:Baneberry
822:cube root
761:. Within
699:cube root
680:contained
485:talk page
320:vaporised
147:Terrorism
132:Espionage
127:Blackmail
122:Arms race
3974:Category
3928:Polywell
3859:Inertial
3816:Magnetic
3571:TMSR-LF1
3566:TMSR-500
3546:Fuji MSR
3506:THTR-300
3346:Graphite
3209:PHWR KWU
3175:ACR-1000
3103:IPWR-900
3086:ACPR1000
3081:HPR-1000
3071:CPR-1000
3046:APR-1400
2837:Disposal
2789:Actinide
2782:Products
2641:Delivery
2484:Medicine
2313:depleted
2308:enriched
2278:Helium-3
2243:ionizing
2123:Archived
1148:See also
960:nuclides
894:hydrogen
656:megatons
651:Cannikin
606:Pascal-A
604:Plumbbob
535:Amchitka
479:You may
405:Japanese
401:Rongelap
397:Rongerik
324:strained
248:Belarus
227:Pakistan
112:Arsenals
83:Delivery
3986:Commons
3897:Z-pinch
3867:Bubble
3849:Tokamak
3712:FBR-600
3692:CFR-600
3687:BN-1200
3353:coolant
3280:Organic
3165:CANDU 9
3162:CANDU 6
3130:coolant
3091:ACP1000
3066:CAP1400
3004:Boiling
2969:Fission
2816:Fission
2760:Weapons
2700:Warfare
2683:Testing
2673:History
2666:effects
2621:Weapons
2531:Therapy
2506:RadBall
2493:Imaging
2385:Thermal
2350:Capture
2337:Neutron
2325:Thorium
2303:Uranium
2268:Tritium
2248:braking
2228:Fission
2218:Physics
2201:Science
1293:9199215
1234:Bibcode
1065:Gallery
920:venting
832:= 55 *
715:Radius
662:Effects
553:kiloton
393:megaton
366:Trinity
357:Trinity
299:is the
258:Ukraine
100:Workers
95:Effects
78:Testing
68:Warfare
63:History
3797:Fusion
3757:Others
3697:Phénix
3682:BN-800
3677:BN-600
3672:BN-350
3501:HTR-PM
3496:HTR-10
3476:UHTREX
3441:Magnox
3436:(UNGG)
3329:Lucens
3324:KS 150
3061:ATMEA1
3041:AP1000
3024:Kerena
2904:Debate
2656:Ethics
2646:Design
2629:Topics
2460:rocket
2438:Fusion
2433:Policy
2395:Fusion
2355:Poison
2233:Fusion
1965:
1831:
1512:Jangle
1508:Jangle
1504:Buster
1291:
881:faults
695:-burst
684:ejecta
634:tunnel
439:, the
239:Former
220:
218:Israel
209:Others
197:France
187:Russia
157:Winter
105:Ethics
73:Design
3918:Migma
3906:Other
3875:Fusor
3774:Piqua
3769:Arbus
3727:PRISM
3469:MHR-T
3464:GTMHR
3394:EGP-6
3389:AMB-X
3364:Water
3309:HWGCR
3248:HWLWR
3187:IPHWR
3158:CANDU
3019:ESBWR
2774:Waste
2738:Tests
2721:Lists
2705:Yield
2448:MMRTG
2405:Power
1877:(PDF)
1870:(PDF)
1790:(PDF)
1783:(PDF)
1742:(PDF)
1713:(PDF)
1706:(PDF)
1661:(PDF)
1639:yield
1591:(PDF)
1584:(PDF)
1559:(PDF)
1552:(PDF)
1483:Uncle
1468:(PDF)
1461:(PDF)
1300:(PDF)
1269:(PDF)
930:seeps
712:Name
693:, or
487:, or
384:Bravo
375:Simon
213:India
202:China
88:Yield
3734:Lead
3717:CEFR
3707:PFBR
3589:None
3399:RBMK
3384:AM-1
3314:EL-4
3288:WR-1
3270:AHWR
3214:MZFR
3182:CVTR
3171:AFCR
3098:VVER
3056:APWR
3051:APR+
3014:ABWR
2884:cask
2879:pool
2821:LLFP
2710:TNTe
2390:Fast
2260:Fuel
1963:ISBN
1829:ISBN
1289:PMID
989:and
970:and
892:and
399:and
3806:by
3722:PFR
3513:PMR
3491:AVR
3413:Gas
3351:by
3319:KKN
3253:ATR
3168:EC6
3128:by
3076:EPR
3009:BWR
1408:doi
1281:doi
1242:doi
985:,
303:of
176:NPT
4004::
3456:He
3422:CO
3298:CO
3219:R3
2095:,
1941:^
1922:^
1901:^
1843:^
1805:^
1750:^
1728:^
1673:^
1663:.
1646:^
1616:^
1599:^
1567:^
1523:^
1446:^
1373:^
1352:^
1333:^
1287:.
1277:73
1275:.
1271:.
1254:^
1240:.
1230:53
1228:.
1224:.
1208:^
1187:^
974:.
879:,
3596:)
3592:(
3424:2
3376:O
3374:2
3372:H
3300:2
3240:O
3238:2
3236:H
3145:O
3143:2
3141:D
2182:e
2175:t
2168:v
1971:.
1886:.
1837:.
1799:.
1722:.
1667:.
1422:.
1410::
1327:.
1283::
1248:.
1244::
1236::
846:3
842:y
830:r
826:y
818:r
510:)
504:(
499:)
495:(
477:.
285:e
278:t
271:v
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