Nuclear proliferation

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another region, which then has to initiate its own nuclear weapons program to maintain its national security". Going back through history we can see how this has taken place. When the United States demonstrated that it had nuclear power capabilities after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Russians started to develop their program in preparation for the Cold War. With the Russian military buildup, France and the United Kingdom perceived this as a security threat and therefore they pursued nuclear weapons (Sagan, p. 71). Even though proliferation causes proliferation, this does not guarantee that other states will successfully develop nuclear weapons because the economic stability of a state plays an important role in whether the state will successfully be able to acquire nuclear weapons. The article written by Dong-Jong Joo and Erik Gartzke discusses how the economy of a country determines whether they will successfully acquire nuclear weapons.

2807:). The alleged reactor was not asserted to be operational and it was not asserted that nuclear material had been introduced into it. Syria said the site was a military site and was not involved in any nuclear activities. The IAEA requested Syria to provide further access to the site and any other locations where the debris and equipment from the building had been stored. Syria denounced what it called the Western "fabrication and forging of facts" in regards to the incident. IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei criticized the strikes and deplored that information regarding the matter had not been shared with his agency earlier. 549:(NPT) of 1968, which aims to ensure that civil stocks of uranium and plutonium, as well as facilities and technologies associated with these nuclear materials, are used only for peaceful purposes and do not contribute in any way to proliferation or nuclear weapons programs. It is often argued that the proliferation of nuclear weapons to many other states has been prevented by the extension of assurances and mutual defence treaties to these states by nuclear powers, but other factors, such as national prestige, or specific historical experiences, also play a part in hastening or stopping nuclear proliferation. 2021:(27 November 2002) reports that Western analysts had begun to question what North Korea received in payment for the missiles; many suspected it was the nuclear technology. The KRL was in charge of both the uranium program and also of the missile program with North Korea. It is therefore likely during this period that cooperation in nuclear technology between Pakistan and North Korea was initiated. Western intelligence agencies began to notice the exchange of personnel, technology and components between KRL and entities of the North Korean 2nd Economic Committee (responsible for weapons production). 2274:. In response, the UN Security Council passed a series of resolutions citing concerns about the program. Iran's representative to the UN argues sanctions compel Iran to abandon its rights under the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty to peaceful nuclear technology. Iran says its uranium enrichment program is exclusively for peaceful purposes and has enriched uranium to "less than 5 percent," consistent with fuel for a nuclear power plant and significantly below the purity of WEU (around 90%) typically used in a weapons program. The director general of the 1735: 1470: 1942:(IISS) confirmed that he had control over the import-export deals, and his acquisition activities were largely unsupervised by Pakistan governmental authorities. All of his activities went undetected for several years. He duly confessed to running the atomic proliferation ring from Pakistan to Iran and North Korea. He was immediately given presidential immunity. The exact nature of involvement at the governmental level is still unclear, but the manner in which the government acted cast doubt on the sincerity of Pakistan. 3202: 1437: 46: 4110: 2549:(ISIS) rang alarm bells about Myanmar attempting a nuclear project with North Korean help. If true, the full weight of international pressure will be brought against Myanmar, said officials familiar with developments. But equally, the information that has been peddled by the defectors is also "preliminary" and could be used by the west to turn the screws on Myanmar—on democracy and human rights issues—in the run-up to the elections in the country in 2010. During an 2969:, continue to argue along the lines of Gallois in a separate development. Specifically, these scholars advocate some forms of nuclear proliferation, arguing that it will decrease the likelihood of war, especially in troubled regions of the world. Aside from the majority opinion which opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter: those, like Mearsheimer, who favor selective proliferation, and those such as Waltz, who advocate a 1504:. Its civil nuclear strategy has been directed towards complete independence in the nuclear fuel cycle, necessary because of its outspoken rejection of the NPT. Due to economic and technological isolation of India after the nuclear tests in 1974, India has largely diverted focus on developing and perfecting the fast breeder technology by intensive materials and fuel cycle research at the dedicated center established for research into fast reactor technology, 1337: 4049: 4106: 2296: 815: 1640:, relations between the two nations were frozen until 1998. Since then a degree of high-level contact has been established and a few elementary confidence-building measures put in place. China still occupies some territory which it captured during the aforementioned war, claimed by India, and India still occupies some territory claimed by China. Its nuclear weapon and missile support for Pakistan is a major bone of contention. 2676:. On 18 December 2006, the six-party talks finally resumed. On 13 February 2007, the parties announced "Initial Actions" to implement the 2005 joint statement including shutdown and disablement of North Korean nuclear facilities in exchange for energy assistance. Reacting to UN sanctions imposed after missile tests in April 2009, North Korea withdrew from the six-party talks, restarted its nuclear facilities and conducted a 1030: 2905: 3188: 545:(IAEA) has promoted two, sometimes contradictory, missions: on the one hand, the Agency seeks to promote and spread internationally the use of civilian nuclear energy; on the other hand, it seeks to prevent, or at least detect, the diversion of civilian nuclear energy to nuclear weapons, nuclear explosive devices or purposes unknown. The IAEA now operates a safeguards system as specified under Article III of the 2891: 2501:(IAEA) in 1980. In March 2004, the IAEA Board of Governors welcomed Libya's decision to eliminate its formerly undeclared nuclear program, which it found had violated Libya's safeguards agreement, and approved Libya's Additional Protocol. The United States and the United Kingdom assisted Libya in removing equipment and material from its nuclear weapons program, with independent verification by the IAEA. 4045: 1886:(FDO), a subsidiary of the Dutch firm VMF-Stork based in Amsterdam. Later after joining, Urenco, he had access through photographs and documents to the technology. Against popular perception, the technology that Khan had brought from Urenco was based on first generation civil reactor technology, filled with many serious technical errors, though it was an authentic and vital link for the country's 928:

required from recipients. The Guidelines also recognised the need for physical protection measures in the transfer of sensitive facilities, technology and weapons-usable materials, and strengthened retransfer provisions. The group began with seven members—the United States, the former USSR, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Canada and Japan—but now includes 46 countries including all five

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convention. Should India and Pakistan join such a convention, they would have to agree to halt the production of fissile materials for weapons and to accept international verification on their relevant nuclear facilities (enrichment and reprocessing plants). It appears that India is now prepared to join negotiations regarding such a Cut-off Treaty, under the UN Conference on Disarmament.

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the hands of groups not affiliated with any governments. Such countries would not have the political will or ability to safeguard attempts at devices being transferred to a third party. Not being deterred by self-annihilation, terrorism groups could push forth their own nuclear agendas or be used as shadow fronts to carry out the attack plans by mentioned unstable governments.

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indicated that the reprocessing plant had been used more often than the DPRK had declared, which suggested that the DPRK could have weapons-grade plutonium which it had not declared to the IAEA. Information passed to the IAEA by a Member State (as required by the IAEA) supported that suggestion by indicating that the DPRK had two undeclared waste or other storage sites.

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Board concluded that the DPRK was in non-compliance with its safeguards obligations and reported the matter to the UN Security Council. In June 1993 the DPRK announced that it had "suspended" its withdrawal from the NPT, but subsequently claimed a "special status" with respect to its safeguards obligations. This was rejected by IAEA.

2037:, 22 November 2002) that U.S. intelligence had as early as 1999 picked up signs that North Korea was continuing to develop nuclear arms. Other reports also indicate that North Korea had been working covertly to develop an enrichment capability for nuclear weapons for at least five years and had used technology obtained from Pakistan ( 2195:, pursued a variety of initiatives to persuade India and Pakistan to abandon their nuclear weapons programs and to accept comprehensive international safeguards on all their nuclear activities. To this end, the Clinton administration proposed a conference of the five nuclear-weapon states, Japan, Germany, India and Pakistan. 2086:", in order to "green the Negev". The purpose of the Dimona plant is widely assumed to be the manufacturing of nuclear weapons, and the majority of defense experts have concluded that it does in fact do that. However, the Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny this publicly, a policy it refers to as "ambiguity". 3006:

conflagration and suspicion at some point in the future. He advocated arming both Germany and Ukraine with nuclear weaponry in order to achieve a balance of power between these states in the east and France/UK in the west and predicted that otherwise war would eventually break out on the European continent Russia did

1813:". Earlier efforts were directed towards mastering the plutonium technology from France, but that route was slowed when the plan failed after U.S. intervention to cancel the project. Contrary to popular perception, Pakistan did not forego the "plutonium" route and covertly continued its indigenous research under 1841:" unparalleled elsewhere. ... If the world's community failed to provide political insurance to Pakistan and other countries against the nuclear blackmail, these countries would be constraint to launch atomic bomb programs of their own! ... ssurances provided by the United Nations were not "Enough!"... 3102:

within the region. States in the region will seek to acquire nuclear weapons to balance or eliminate the security threat. Sagan describes this reaction in his article where he states, "Every time one state develops nuclear weapons to balance against its main rival, it also creates a nuclear threat to

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Another separate argument against Waltz's open proliferation and in favor of Mearsheimer's selective distribution is the possibility of nuclear terrorism. Some countries included in the aforementioned laissez-faire distribution could predispose the transfer of nuclear materials or a bomb falling into

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as the ultimate proof of MAD logic—the only occasion when enmity between two Great Powers did not result in military conflict. This was, he argues, because nuclear weapons promote caution in decision-makers. Neither Washington nor Moscow would risk a nuclear apocalypse to advance territorial or power

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same principles, a prototype of about 200 MWt (50 MWe), and a full-scale version of about 800 MWt (200 MWe). They made only slow progress; construction halted on both in 1994 and has not resumed. Both reactors have degraded considerably since that time and would take significant efforts to refurbish.

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cease-fire resolution showed the extent of Iraq's clandestine nuclear weapons program, it became clear that the IAEA would have to broaden the scope of its activities. Iraq was an NPT Party, and had thus agreed to place all its nuclear material under IAEA safeguards. But the inspections revealed that

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Not until the 1990 NPT Review Conference did some states raise the possibility of making more use of (for example) provisions for "special inspections" in existing NPT Safeguards Agreements. Special inspections can be undertaken at locations other than those where safeguards routinely apply, if there

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Up to the late 1980s it was generally assumed that any undeclared nuclear activities would have to be based on the diversion of nuclear material from safeguards. States acknowledged the possibility of nuclear activities entirely separate from those covered by safeguards, but it was assumed they would

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since 1954, India dropped its support in 1995 and in 1996 attempted to block the Treaty. Following the 1998 tests the question has been reopened and both Pakistan and India have indicated their intention to sign the CTBT. Indian ratification may be conditional upon the five weapons states agreeing to

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series of missiles to Pakistan. It is believed by experts that possibly with Chinese connivance and facilitation, the latter was forced to approach North Korea for missile transfers. Reports indicate that North Korea was willing to supply missile sub-systems including rocket motors, inertial guidance

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It perceives nuclear weapons as a cost-effective political counter to China's nuclear and conventional weaponry, and the effects of its nuclear weapons policy in provoking Pakistan is, by some accounts, considered incidental. India has had an unhappy relationship with China. After an uneasy ceasefire

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The greatest risk from nuclear weapons proliferation comes from countries that have not joined the NPT and which have significant unsafeguarded nuclear activities; India, Pakistan, and Israel fall within this category. While safeguards apply to some of their activities, others remain beyond scrutiny.

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was "against 'nuclear apartheid,' which means some have the right to possess it, use the fuel, and then sell it to another country for 10 times its value. We're against that. We say clean energy is the right of all countries. But also it is the duty and the responsibility of all countries, including

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would not support Waltz's optimism in the majority of potential instances; however, he has argued for nuclear proliferation as policy in certain places, such as post–Cold War Europe. In two famous articles, Mearsheimer opined that Europe was bound to return to its pre–Cold War environment of regular

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prohibited research and development of nuclear weapons, pledging that research should be done only for the purpose of defense against nuclear attack. The option to continue development was abandoned in 1966, and Sweden subsequently signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968. The program was finally

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In 1991, South Africa acceded to the NPT, concluded a comprehensive safeguards agreement with the IAEA, and submitted a report on its nuclear material subject to safeguards. At the time, the state had a nuclear power programme producing nearly 10% of the country's electricity, whereas Iraq and North

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design. While this was a well-suited design to start a wholly indigenous nuclear reactor development, it also exhibited all the features of a small plutonium production reactor for weapons purposes. North Korea also made substantial progress in the construction of two larger reactors designed on the

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Baruch's plea for the destruction of nuclear weapons invoked basic moral and religious intuitions. In one part of his address to the UN, Baruch said, "Behind the black portent of the new atomic age lies a hope which, seized upon with faith, can work out our salvation. If we fail, then we have damned

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Todd Sechser and Matthew Fuhrmann find that nuclear weapons do not necessarily lead states to be more successful in coercive diplomacy. They argue that nuclear weapons are useful for defense, but are not effective offensive tools. As a consequence, they write that nuclear proliferation may "be less

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The IAEA's initial verification task was complicated by South Africa's announcement that between 1979 and 1989 it built and then dismantled a number of nuclear weapons. South Africa asked the IAEA to verify the conclusion of its weapons programme. In 1995 the IAEA declared that it was satisfied all

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in October 1994, the IAEA has been given additional responsibilities. The agreement requires a freeze on the operation and construction of the DPRK's plutonium production reactors and their related facilities, and the IAEA is responsible for monitoring the freeze until the facilities are eventually

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junta was secretly building a nuclear reactor and plutonium extraction facility with North Korea's help, with the aim of acquiring its first nuclear bomb in five years. According to the report, "The secret complex, much of it in caves tunnelled into a mountain at Naung Laing in northern Burma, runs

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Another, more recent approach, centers on 'capping' the production of fissile material for weapons purposes, which would hopefully be followed by 'roll back'. To this end, India and the United States jointly sponsored a UN General Assembly resolution in 1993 calling for negotiations for a 'cut-off'

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Instead, the 'Gandhi Plan', put forward in 1988, proposed the revision of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, which it regards as inherently discriminatory in favor of the nuclear-weapon States, and a timetable for complete nuclear weapons disarmament. It endorsed early proposals for a Comprehensive Test

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of the country. Its current nuclear policy is aimed to promote the socio-economic development of its people as a "foremost priority"; and to fulfill energy, economic, and industrial needs from nuclear sources. As of 2012, there were three operational mega-commercial nuclear power plants while three

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Its weapons material appears to come from a Canadian-designed 40 MW "research" reactor which started up in 1960, well before the NPT, and a 100 MW indigenous unit in operation since 1985. Both use local uranium, as India does not import any nuclear fuel. It is estimated that India may have built up

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The two under construction and two of the planned ones are 450 MWe versions of these 200 MWe domestic products. Construction has been seriously delayed by financial and technical problems. In 2001 a final agreement was signed with Russia for the country's first large nuclear power plant, comprising

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While traditional safeguards easily verified the correctness of formal declarations by suspect states, in the 1990s attention turned to what might not have been declared. While accepting safeguards at declared facilities, Iraq had set up elaborate equipment elsewhere in an attempt to enrich uranium

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Research into the development of nuclear weapons was initially undertaken during World War II by the United States (in cooperation with the United Kingdom and Canada), Germany, Japan, and the USSR. The United States was the first and is the only country to have used a nuclear weapon in war, when it

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weapons. States that lack such guarantees are more likely to feel their security threatened and so have greater incentives to bolster or assemble nuclear arsenals. As a result, it is then argued that bipolarity may prevent proliferation whereas multipolarity may actually influence proliferation.

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On 10 January 2005, North Korea declared that it was in the possession of nuclear weapons. On 19 September 2005, the fourth round of the Six-Party Talks ended with a joint statement in which North Korea agreed to end its nuclear programs and return to the NPT in exchange for diplomatic, energy and

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In February 1993 the IAEA called on the DPRK to allow special inspections of the two sites so that the initial stocks of nuclear material could be verified. The DPRK refused, and on 12 March announced its intention to withdraw from the NPT (three months' notice is required). In April 1993 the IAEA

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The IAEA was established on 29 July 1957 to help nations develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Allied to this role is the administration of safeguards arrangements to provide assurance to the international community that individual countries are honoring their commitments under the treaty.

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in 2006. One critique of the NPT is that the treaty is discriminatory in the sense that only those countries that tested nuclear weapons before 1968 are recognized as nuclear weapon states while all other states are treated as non-nuclear-weapon states who can only join the treaty if they forswear

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has also been discussed in the context of "nuclear apartheid". India has consistently attempted to pass measures that would call for full international disarmament, however, they have not succeeded due to protests from those states that already have nuclear weapons. In light of this, India viewed

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demonstrated a potential scenario in which Russian democratization and military downsizing at the end of the Cold War did not eliminate the danger of accidental nuclear war through command and control errors. After asking: might a future Russian ruler or renegade Russian general be tempted to use

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One of the first steps in applying NPT safeguards is for the IAEA to verify the initial stocks of uranium and plutonium to ensure that all the nuclear materials in the country have been declared for safeguards purposes. While undertaking this work in 1992, IAEA inspectors found discrepancies that

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that both the Russians and Burmese say will be put under international safeguards." In 2002, Myanmar had notified IAEA of its intention to pursue a civilian nuclear programme. Later, Russia announced that it would build a nuclear reactor in Myanmar. There have also been reports that two Pakistani

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not to attack the other's nuclear installations, and at the end of 1991 they provided one another with a list showing the location of all their nuclear plants, even though the respective lists were regarded as not being wholly accurate. Early in 1994 India proposed a bilateral agreement for a 'no

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India refused this and similar previous proposals, and countered with demands that other potential weapons states, such as Iran and North Korea, should be invited, and that regional limitations would only be acceptable if they were accepted equally by China. The United States would not accept the

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In 2004, the revelation of Khan's efforts led to the exposure of many defunct European consortiums which had defied export restrictions in the 1970s, and of many defunct Dutch companies that exported thousands of centrifuges to Pakistan as early as 1976. Many centrifuge components were apparently

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Venn diagram displaying the historical proliferation among declared (solid circles) and undeclared nuclear weapon states (dashed circles). Numbers in parentheses are the explosive nuclear tests conducted by a particular nation. The overlap between Russia and U.S. reflects the purchase by the U.S.

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race in the 1980s, including sophisticated technology and equipment capable of delivering nuclear weapons. In the 1990s the arms race quickened. In 1994 India reversed a four-year trend of reduced allocations for defence, and despite its much smaller economy, Pakistan was expected to push its own

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communicated its guidelines, essentially a set of export rules, to the IAEA in 1978. These were to ensure that transfers of nuclear material or equipment would not be diverted to unsafeguarded nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive activities, and formal government assurances to this effect were

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In their article, "The Correlates of Nuclear Proliferation," Sonali Singh and Christopher R. Way argue that states protected by a security guarantee from a great power, particularly if backed by the "nuclear umbrella" of extended deterrence, have less of an incentive to acquire their own nuclear

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Once the DPRK's non-compliance had been reported to the UN Security Council, the essential part of the IAEA's mission had been completed. Inspections in the DPRK continued, although inspectors were increasingly hampered in what they were permitted to do by the DPRK's claim of a "special status".

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Many UN and US agencies warn that building more nuclear reactors unavoidably increases nuclear proliferation risks. A fundamental goal for American and global security is to minimize the proliferation risks associated with the expansion of nuclear power. If this development is "poorly managed or

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was passed. Some have argued that coercive language was used in an attempt to persuade India to sign the treaty, which was pushed for heavily by neighboring China. India viewed the treaty as a means for countries that already had nuclear weapons, primarily the five nations of the United Nations

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who maintained that "since 1972, akistan had progressed significantly, and we have left that stage (developmental) far behind. Pakistan will not be made a "hostage" to India by signing the CTBT, before (India).!" In May 1998, within weeks of India's nuclear tests, Pakistan announced that it had

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The weakness of the NPT regime lay in the fact that no obvious diversion of material was involved. The uranium used as fuel probably came from indigenous sources, and the nuclear facilities were built by the countries themselves without being declared or placed under safeguards. Iraq, as an NPT

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as "likelihood that the government will be destabilized or overthrown by unconstitutional or violent means, including politically-motivated violence and terrorism"), high governmental effectiveness scores (a World Bank aggregate measure of "the quality of the civil service and the degree of its

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technology. Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear power program have a dual-use capability, in that several stages of the nuclear fuel cycle allow diversion of nuclear materials for nuclear weapons. When this happens a nuclear power program can become a route

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As for Waltz, the general opinion is that most states are not in a position to safely guard against nuclear use, that he underestimates the long-standing antipathy in many regions, and that weak states will be unable to prevent—or will actively provide for—the disastrous possibility of nuclear

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test, which it has consistently claimed was for peaceful purposes. Others saw it as a response to China's nuclear weapons capability. It was then universally perceived, notwithstanding official denials, to possess, or to be able to quickly assemble, nuclear weapons. In 1999 it deployed its own

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has agreed to implement its protocol provisionally. Among the leading countries that have not signed the Additional Protocol are Egypt, which says it will not sign until Israel accepts comprehensive IAEA safeguards, and Brazil, which opposes making the protocol a requirement for international

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In North Korea, the activities concerned took place before the conclusion of its NPT safeguards agreement. With North Korea, the promised provision of commercial power reactors appeared to resolve the situation for a time, but it later withdrew from the NPT and declared it had nuclear weapons.

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Ultimately, the DPRK was persuaded to stop what appeared to be its nuclear weapons programme in exchange, under the agreed framework, for about US$ 5 billion in energy-related assistance. This included two 1000 MWe light-water nuclear power reactors based on an advanced U.S. System-80 design.

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report on 18 October 2002 quoted U.S. intelligence officials having stated that Pakistan was a major supplier of critical equipment to North Korea. The report added that equipment such as gas centrifuges appeared to have been "part of a barter deal" in which North Korea supplied Pakistan with

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to North Korea. The visits are believed to be related to the subsequent acquisition technology to developed its Ghauri system by Pakistan. During the period 1992–1994, A.Q. Khan was reported to have visited North Korea thirteen times. The missile cooperation program with North Korea was under

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of 1996 (not entered into force as of June 2020) and to codify commitments made by the United States, the UK, France and Russia to cease production of weapons material, as well as putting a similar ban on China. This treaty will also put more pressure on Israel, India and Pakistan to agree to

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Notable non-signatories to the NPT are Israel, Pakistan, and India (the latter two have since tested nuclear weapons, while Israel is considered by most to be an unacknowledged nuclear weapons state). North Korea was once a signatory but withdrew in January 2003. The legality of North Korea's

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of 1946, proposed the verifiable dismantlement and destruction of the U.S. nuclear arsenal (which, at that time, was the only nuclear arsenal in the world) after all governments had cooperated successfully to accomplish two things: (1) the establishment of an "international atomic development

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have been "threshold" countries in terms of the international non-proliferation regime. They possess or are quickly capable of assembling one or more nuclear weapons. They have remained outside the 1970 NPT. They are thus largely excluded from trade in nuclear plants or materials, except for

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Parties to the NPT agree to accept technical safeguard measures applied by the IAEA. These require that operators of nuclear facilities maintain and declare detailed accounting records of all movements and transactions involving nuclear material. Over 550 facilities and several hundred other

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The IAEA regularly inspects civil nuclear facilities to verify the accuracy of documentation supplied to it. The agency checks inventories, and samples and analyzes materials. Safeguards are designed to deter a diversion of nuclear material by increasing the risk of early detection. They are

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Some claim that because Israel knew the schedule of the inspectors' visits, it was able to hide the alleged purpose of the site from the inspectors by installing temporary false walls and other devices before each inspection. The inspectors eventually informed the U.S. government that their

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to produce fissionable materials for their weapons; however, this is not accurate. Both Canada (by supplying the 40 MW research reactor) and the United States (by supplying 21 tons of heavy water) supplied India with the technology necessary to create a nuclear weapons program, dubbed CIRUS

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The public stance of India and Pakistan on non-proliferation differs markedly. Pakistan has initiated a series of regional security proposals. It has repeatedly proposed a nuclear-free zone in South Asia, and has proclaimed its willingness to engage in nuclear disarmament and to sign the

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Pakistanis are "security conscious" because of the 1971 trauma and the three wars with India. Pakistan's programme was peaceful but was "a deterrent to India" because New Delhi had detonated a nuclear device. Pakistan, thus, had to take every step to ensure its territorial integrity and

1524:). This self-sufficiency extends from uranium exploration and mining through fuel fabrication, heavy water production, reactor design and construction, to reprocessing and waste management. It is also developing technology to utilise its abundant resources of thorium as a nuclear fuel. 714:

All NPT non-weapons states must accept these full-scope safeguards. In the five weapons states plus the non-NPT states (India, Pakistan and Israel), facility-specific safeguards apply. IAEA inspectors regularly visit these facilities to verify completeness and accuracy of records.

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discovered the purpose of the Dimona plant in the early 1960s, it demanded that Israel agree to international inspections. Israel agreed, but on a condition that the U.S., rather than IAEA, inspectors were used, and that Israel would receive advanced notice of all inspections.

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But it is the growth and modernization of China's nuclear arsenal and its assistance with Pakistan's nuclear power programme and, reportedly, with missile technology, which exacerbate Indian concerns. In particular, as viewed by Indian strategists, Pakistan is aided by China's

1984:, which provided for IAEA safeguards being applied to its reactors and spent fuel rods. These spent fuel rods were sealed in canisters by the United States to prevent North Korea from extracting plutonium from them. North Korea had to therefore freeze its plutonium programme. 787:

Further evolution of safeguards is towards evaluation of each state, taking account of its particular situation and the kind of nuclear materials it has. This will involve greater judgement on the part of IAEA and the development of effective methodologies which reassure NPT

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to exercise political and military power. According to the documentary, the Soviets, Russians, and Americans came very close to global catastrophe. History and military experts agree that proliferation can be slowed, but never stopped (technology cannot be uninvented).

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Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Peter J. Frederick, Allen F. Davis, Allan M. Winkler, Charlene Mires, and Carla Gardina Pestana. The American People, Concise Edition Creating a Nation and a Society, Combined Volume (6th Edition). New York: Longman,

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over Pakistan in 1971. This large-scale but clandestine atomic bomb project was directed towards the indigenous development of reactor and military-grade plutonium. In 1974, when India surprised the world with the successful detonation of its own bomb, codename

1771:(MW) (roughly ≈3.6%) of electricity, and the country has projected production of 8800 MW by 2030. Infrastructure established by the IAEA and the U.S. in the 1950s–1960s was based on peaceful research and development and the economic prosperity of the country. 906:

IAEA safeguards can help ensure that uranium supplied as nuclear fuel and other nuclear supplies do not contribute to nuclear weapons proliferation. In fact, the worldwide application of those safeguards and the substantial world trade in uranium for nuclear

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is used to boost the efficiency of fissile materials in nuclear weapons. The United States resumed tritium production in 2003 for the first time in 15 years. This could indicate that there is a potential nuclear arms stockpile replacement since the isotope

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In January 2003 the DPRK withdrew from the NPT. In response, a series of discussions among the DPRK, the United States, and China, a series of six-party talks (the parties being the DPRK, the ROK, China, Japan, the United States and Russia) were held in

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two VVER-1000 reactors, under a Russian-financed US$ 3 billion contract. The first unit is due to be commissioned in 2007. A further two Russian units are under consideration for the site. Nuclear power supplied 3.1% of India's electricity in 2000.

943:. Its goal is to " provide competitive, commercially-based services as an alternative to a state’s development of costly, proliferation-sensitive facilities, and address other issues associated with the safe and secure management of used fuel and 534:. Other than the acquisition of these special materials, the scientific and technical means for weapons construction to develop rudimentary, but working, nuclear explosive devices are considered to be within the reach of industrialized nations. 497:

Efforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s, after four nations (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see

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The Additional Protocol, once it is widely in force, will provide credible assurance that there are no undeclared nuclear materials or activities in the states concerned. This will be a major step forward in preventing nuclear proliferation.

1976:, for use in nuclear weapons. The subsequent confrontation with IAEA on the issue of inspections and suspected violations, resulted in North Korea threatening to withdraw from the NPT in 1993. This eventually led to negotiations with the 2062:

is also thought to possess an arsenal of potentially up to several hundred nuclear warheads based on estimates of the amount of fissile material produced by Israel. This has never been openly confirmed or denied however, due to Israel's

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Traditional safeguards are arrangements to account for and control the use of nuclear materials. This verification is a key element in the international system which ensures that uranium in particular is used only for peaceful purposes.

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The country has at least three other research reactors including the tiny one which is exploring the use of thorium as a nuclear fuel, by breeding fissile U-233. In addition, an advanced heavy-water thorium cycle is under development.

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IAEA inspectors will have greater rights of access. This will include any suspect location, it can be at short notice (e.g., two hours), and the IAEA can deploy environmental sampling and remote monitoring techniques to detect illicit

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Material Accountancy – tracking all inward and outward transfers and the flow of materials in any nuclear facility. This includes sampling and analysis of nuclear material, on-site inspections, and review and verification of operating

2648:

While Iraq was defeated in a war, allowing the UN the opportunity to seek out and destroy its nuclear weapons programme as part of the cease-fire conditions, the DPRK was not defeated, nor was it vulnerable to other measures, such as

1406:, an acknowledged nuclear weapons state. Both countries are opposed to the NPT as it stands, and India has consistently attacked the Treaty since its inception in 1970 labeling it as a lopsided treaty in favor of the nuclear powers. 2868:, Taiwan agreed to dismantle its nuclear weapon program under U.S. pressure in September 1976. The nuclear reactor was shut down and the plutonium mostly returned to the U.S. However secret nuclear activities were exposed after the 1618:. These were unambiguously military, including one claimed to be of a sophisticated thermonuclear device, and their declared purpose was "to help in the design of nuclear weapons of different yields and different delivery systems". 494:(IAEA) in 1957. Under the "Atoms for Peace" program thousands of scientists from around the world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched home, where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country. 2127:, and sentenced him to eighteen years imprisonment. He was freed on 21 April 2004, but was severely limited by the Israeli government. He was arrested again on 11 November 2004, though formal charges were not immediately filed. 470:

every man to be the slave of Fear. Let us not deceive ourselves. We must elect World Peace or World Destruction.... We must answer the world's longing for peace and security." With this remark, Baruch helped launch the field of

3582:

Beatrice Heuser, 'Beliefs, Cultures, Proliferation and Use of Nuclear Weapons', in Eric Herring (ed.): Preventing the Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction Special Issue of Journal of Strategic Studies Vol. 23 No. 1 (March 2000),

525:

and specialized technologies necessary to build such devices because these are the most difficult and expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program. The main materials whose generation and distribution are controlled are highly

477:

Although the Baruch Plan enjoyed wide international support, it failed to emerge from the UNAEC because the Soviet Union planned to veto it in the Security Council. Still, it remained official American policy until 1953, when

3128:

ours, to set up frameworks to stop the proliferation of it." Hours after that interview, he spoke passionately in favor of Iran's right to develop nuclear technology, claiming the nation should have the same liberties.

2183:

India has taken the view that solutions to regional security issues should be found at the international rather than the regional level, since its chief concern is with China. It therefore rejects Pakistan's proposals.

1863:

redoubled its effort, this time equally focused on uranium and plutonium. Pakistan had established science directorates in almost all of her embassies in the important countries of the world, with theoretical physicist

761:

Innovations were of two kinds. Some could be implemented on the basis of IAEA's existing legal authority through safeguards agreements and inspections. Others required further legal authority to be conferred through an

2145:, while France was previously a leader in nuclear research "Israel and France were at a similar level of expertise after WWII, and Israeli scientists could make significant contributions to the French effort." In 1986 2721:(a test place for Soviet nuclear weapons) using an underground nuclear blast. The project was rejected by Canadian representatives, but one of the businessmen told Tretyakov that he keeps his own nuclear bomb at his 1938:, who happened to be no other than Abdul Qadeer Khan. Confessing his crimes a month later on national television, Khan bailed out the Government by taking full responsibility. Independent investigation conducted by 742:

party, was obliged to declare all facilities but did not do so. Nevertheless, the activities were detected and brought under control using international diplomacy. In Iraq, a military defeat assisted this process.

766:. This must be agreed by each non-weapons state with IAEA, as a supplement to any existing comprehensive safeguards agreement. Weapons states have agreed to accept the principles of the model additional protocol. 5887: 5621: 696:

locations are subject to regular inspection, and their records and the nuclear material being audited. Inspections by the IAEA are complemented by other measures such as surveillance cameras and instrumentation.

1933:

It was widely believed to have had direct involvement by the Government of Pakistan. This claim could not be verified due to the refusal of that Government to allow the IAEA to interview the alleged head of the

5918: 2456:

then ordered the IAEA to remove, destroy or render harmless Iraq's nuclear weapons capability. This was done by mid-1998, but Iraq then ceased all cooperation with the UN, so the IAEA withdrew from this work.

1894:

from shipping components to Pakistan, he describes his frustration with a supplier from Germany as: "That man from the German team was unethical. When he did not get the order from us, he wrote a letter to a

3074:

nuclear weapons to make foreign policy? The documentary writers revealed a greater danger of Russian security over its nuclear stocks, but especially the ultimate danger of human nature to want the ultimate

1417:. There is a persistent low-level bilateral military conflict due to the alleged backing of insurgency by Pakistan in India, and the infiltration of Pakistani state-backed militants into the Indian state of 686: 1009:

within their borders has continued. Iran claims it is for peaceful purposes but the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the United States claim the purpose is for nuclear weapon research and construction.

506:(ENDC) finished negotiations on the text of the NPT. In June 1968, the U.N. General Assembly endorsed the NPT with General Assembly Resolution 2373 (XXII), and in July 1968, the NPT opened for signature in 5348: 573:

efforts to contain risks are unsuccessful, the nuclear future will be dangerous". For nuclear power programs to be developed and managed safely and securely, it is important that countries have domestic “

2416:, and were building two full-scale facilities at Tarmiya and Ash Sharqat, north of Baghdad. However, when the war broke out, only a few separators had been installed at Tarmiya, and none at Ash Sharqat. 2219:

specific reductions in nuclear arsenals. The UN Conference on Disarmament has also called upon both countries "to accede without delay to the Non-Proliferation Treaty", presumably as non-weapons states.

5971: 3159:

nuclear weapons as a necessary right for all nations as long as certain states were still in possession of nuclear weapons. India stated that nuclear issues were directly related to national security.

2565:

which we take very seriously," Clinton said. However, in 2012, after contact with the American president, Barack Obama, the Burmese leader, Thein Sein, renounced military ties with DPRK (North Korea).

4906: 2093:

needed for the reactor to Israel in 1959 and 1960 in a secret deal. There were no "safeguards" required in this deal to prevent the use of heavy water for non-peaceful purposes. The British newspaper

3336: 2669:

economic assistance. However, by the end of 2005 the DPRK had halted all six-party talks because the United States froze certain DPRK international financial assets such as those in a bank in Macau.

4318: 3062:, which most states on the European continent wish to partake in to some degree or another, and which makes all states within or aspiring to be within the EU regard war between them as unthinkable. 1882: 939:

is an international project involving 25 partner countries, 28 observer and candidate partner countries, and the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Generation IV International Forum, and the

792:

As of 3 July 2015, 146 countries have signed the Additional Protocols and 126 have brought them into force. The IAEA is also applying the measures of the Additional Protocol in Taiwan. Under the

895:, address this by including fallback provisions, but many countries are outside the scope of these agreements. If a nuclear-capable country does leave the NPT, it is likely to be reported by the 5594: 2913:, according to some observers, may be seeking (or have already achieved) a breakout capability, with its stockpile of low-enriched uranium and its capability to enrich further to weapons-grade. 6434: 3376: 974:

In May 1995, NPT parties reaffirmed their commitment to a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty to prohibit the production of any further fissile material for weapons. This aims to complement the

6460: 5213:"SECURITY COUNCIL REAFFIRMS EARLIER RESOLUTIONS ON IRAN'S URANIUM ENRICHMENT, CALLS ON COUNTRY TO COMPLY WITH OBLIGATIONS 'FULLY AND WITHOUT DELAY' – Meetings Coverage and Press Releases" 3944: 502:

for more information). Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, after China detonated a nuclear weapon. In 1968, governments represented at the

3696: 4419: 5541:, Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement of the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Report by the Director General, International Atomic Energy Agency, 20 February 2004. 2485:. On 19 December 2003, Gaddafi announced that Libya would voluntarily eliminate all materials, equipment and programs that could lead to internationally proscribed weapons, including 710:

Containment and Surveillance – use of seals, automatic cameras and other instruments to detect unreported movement or tampering with nuclear materials, as well as spot checks on-site.

458:

authority," which would actually own and control all military-applicable nuclear materials and activities, and (2) the creation of a system of automatic sanctions, which not even the

2434: 2157:

nuclear research facility, this cooperation leading to a joint effort including sharing of knowledge between French and Israeli scientists especially those with knowledge from the

4075: 3231: 2755:

South Africa has signed the NPT, and now holds the distinction of being the only known state to have indigenously produced nuclear weapons, and then verifiably dismantled them.

322:. Proliferation has been opposed by many nations with and without nuclear weapons, as governments fear that more countries with nuclear weapons will increase the possibility of 1527:

India has 14 small nuclear power reactors in commercial operation, two larger ones under construction, and ten more planned. The 14 operating ones (2548 MWe total) comprise:

3326: 2876:, deputy director of INER, who defected to the U.S. in December 1987 and produced a cache of incriminating documents. This program was also halted under the U.S. pressure. 958:

is not classified as a "special nuclear material" but rather as a by-product. It is seen as an important litmus test on the seriousness of the United States' intention to

755: 5613: 3974: 3662: 2990:

goals, hence a peaceful stalemate ensued (Waltz and Sagan (2003), p. 24). Waltz believes there to be no reason why this effect would not occur in all circumstances.

2180:

Non-Proliferation Treaty if India would do so. It has endorsed a United States proposal for a regional five power conference to consider non-proliferation in South Asia.

1821:

and the country's political and military science circles sensed this test as final and dangerous anticipation to Pakistan's "moral and physical existence." With diplomat

1805:, it became "imperative for Pakistan" to pursue weapons research. According to a leading scientist in the program, it became clear that once India detonated their bomb, " 6352: 5949: 5345: 1583:. India, in violation of these agreements, used the Canadian-supplied reactor and American-supplied heavy water to produce plutonium for their first nuclear explosion, 2188:

Ban Treaty and for an international convention to ban the production of highly enriched uranium and plutonium for weapons purposes, known as the 'cut-off' convention.

5910: 2994:

harmful for international security than many believe" while cautioning that nuclear proliferation may still be harmful due to miscalculation, terrorism and sabotage.

2733:) replied: "Do not be so naive. With economic conditions the way they are in Russia today, anyone with enough money can buy a nuclear bomb. It's no big deal really". 6387: 6370: 4138: 4176: 2270:

Board of Governors voted in a rare non-consensus decision to find Iran in non-compliance with its NPT Safeguards Agreement and to report that non-compliance to the

4288: 3022:

There are numerous arguments presented against both selective and total proliferation, generally targeting the very neorealist assumptions (such as the primacy of

2621:. That plutonium, if the fuel was only irradiated to a very low burn-up, would have been in a form very suitable for weapons. Although all these facilities at the 3066:

terrorism. Waltz has dealt with all of these objections at some point in his work, though some scholars feel he has not adequately responded (e.g.: Betts, 2000).

2884:

For a state that does not possess nuclear weapons, the capability to produce one or more weapons quickly and with little warning is called a breakout capability.

1323: 2590:

During that period, it brought into operation a small gas-cooled, graphite-moderated, natural-uranium (metal) fuelled "Experimental Power Reactor" of about 25

1935: 936: 5975: 4902: 2242:

particles were found in environmental samples taken in Egypt. In 2008, the IAEA states Egypt's statements were consistent with its own findings. In May 2009,

2108:

inspections were useless due to Israeli restrictions on what areas of the facility they could inspect. In 1969, the United States terminated the inspections.

581:

These characteristics include low degrees of corruption (to avoid officials selling materials and technology for their own personal gain as occurred with the

3800: 1366: 3399: 2928:

There has been much debate in the academic study of international security as to the advisability of proliferation. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen.

784:

States must streamline administrative procedures so that IAEA inspectors get automatic visa renewal and can communicate more readily with IAEA headquarters.

390:

and, when India conducted a second series of nuclear tests in 1998, Pakistan followed with a series of tests of its own. In 2006, North Korea conducted its

4310: 4512: 4485: 2857:(IAEA) safeguards, but which Taiwan used for its nuclear weapon program. In 1972, US president ordered to remove the nuclear weapons from Taiwan by 1974. 1402:

and Pakistan each exploded several nuclear devices underground. This heightened concerns regarding an arms race between them, with Pakistan involving the

5001: 2206:

Bilateral confidence-building measures between India and Pakistan to reduce the prospects of confrontation have been limited. In 1990 each side ratified

699:

The inspections act as an alert system providing a warning of the possible diversion of nuclear material from peaceful activities. The system relies on;

2899:, with its civil nuclear infrastructure and experience, has a stockpile of separated plutonium that could be fabricated into weapons relatively quickly. 665:

complemented by controls on the export of sensitive technology from countries such as the UK and the United States through voluntary bodies such as the

3718: 3347: 1965: 605: 311: 178: 3058:

take this one step further, frequently arguing that the development of EU political institutions has led or will lead to the development of a nascent

883:

cycle facilities and research reactors under full safeguards and then subsequently opt out of the NPT. Bilateral agreements, such as insisted upon by

6431: 2717:

corporation in 1991. They came up with a project of destroying large quantities of chemical wastes collected from Western countries at the island of

1910:

made it clear that "if India conducts a nuclear test, Pakistan could be forced to "follow suit". In 1997, her statement was echoed by Prime Minister

614:, more commonly known as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT. These include the five Nuclear Weapons States (NWS) recognized by the NPT: the 5861: 3368: 3135:

and claims that any work done in regards to nuclear technology is related only to civilian uses, which is acceptable under the treaty. In 2005, the

2211:

first use' of nuclear weapons and an extension of the 'no attack' treaty to cover civilian and industrial targets as well as nuclear installations.

5701: 5552:"Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement of the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Resolution adopted by the Board on 10 March 2004" 5380: 5089: 5053: 3770: 2625:

were to be under safeguards, there was always the risk that at some stage, the DPRK would withdraw from the NPT and use the plutonium for weapons.

2546: 1659:

to discuss India's involvement with nuclear weapons. The two countries agreed that the United States would give nuclear power assistance to India.

758:

1997. The measures boosted the IAEA's ability to detect undeclared nuclear activities, including those with no connection to the civil fuel cycle.

6158: 5558: 5534: 5025: 4613: 6457: 3849: 2653:. It can scarcely afford to import anything, and sanctions on vital commodities, such as oil, would either be ineffective or risk provoking war. 250: 4696: 4559: 3936: 1409:

Relations between the two countries are tense and hostile, and the risks of nuclear conflict between them have long been considered quite high.

773:

The IAEA is to be given considerably more information on nuclear and nuclear-related activities, including R & D, production of uranium and

422:

and its military potential. None of these efforts were explicitly public, because the weapon developments themselves were kept secret until the

4968: 4707: 3867: 3692: 2816: 2696: 1267: 1068: 366:

in August 1945. After surrendering to end the war, Germany and Japan ceased to be involved in any nuclear weapon research. In August 1949, the

5729: 5712: 5481: 5264: 4427: 2423:, and had been able to acquire some components including some carbon-fibre rotors, which they were at an early stage of testing. In May 1998, 2266:

In 2003, the IAEA reported that Iran had been in breach of its obligations to comply with provisions of its safeguard agreement. In 2005, the

1565: 6237: 4609: 4207: 2842: 1939: 1272: 590:

independence from political pressures the quality of policy formulation and implementation"), and a strong degree of regulatory competence.

330:

targeting of civilians with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national sovereignty of

184: 4673: 2583:

The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) acceded to the NPT in 1985 as a condition for the supply of a nuclear power station by the

521:

Since the mid-1970s, the primary focus of non-proliferation efforts has been to maintain, and even increase, international control over the

353:. None of these four are a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003 and conducted its first 5410: 3521: 3490: 3069:

The Learning Channel documentary Doomsday: "On The Brink" illustrated 40 years of U.S. and Soviet nuclear weapons accidents. Even the 1995

2587:. However, it delayed concluding its NPT Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA, a process which should take only 18 months, until April 1992. 2255: 1973: 1319: 1227: 1222: 354: 245: 4637: 2541:

scientists, from the AQ Khan stable, had been dispatched to Myanmar where they had settled down, to help Myanmar's project. Recently, the

1576: 6646: 4745: 3256: 3115:

has been a frequent critic of the concept of "nuclear apartheid" as it has been put into practice by several countries, particularly the

2774: 2622: 2574: 1927: 1865: 1247: 1232: 1192: 1182: 1177: 234: 4876: 4345: 4083: 1277: 255: 4939: 2687:

with an estimated yield of 6 to 7 kilotonnes. The detonation registered a magnitude 4.9 disturbance in the area around the epicenter.

1987:

During this period, Pakistan-North Korea cooperation in missile technology transfer was being established. A high-level delegation of

6665: 3261: 3055: 2150: 1972:

agreement with the IAEA. However, it was believed that North Korea was diverting plutonium extracted from the fuel of its reactor at

1587:. The Indian government controversially justified this, however, by claiming that Smiling Buddha was a "peaceful nuclear explosion." 1359: 1092: 1087: 423: 363: 286: 5242: 5195: 5171: 5141: 5116: 1561:(Canada-India Reactor, United States). Canada sold India the reactor on the condition that the reactor and any by-products would be 6643:

or ISPNW, is a US-based non-proliferation movement advocating the full control of the world's nuclear arsenal by a restructured UN.

5642:

Pete Earley, "Comrade J: The Untold Secrets of Russia's Master Spy in America After the End of the Cold War", Penguin Books, 2007,

5459: 5212: 5032:, Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Report by the Director General, 10 November 2003. 4816: 3670: 3557: 3251: 3221: 3043: 2460:

The revelations from Iraq provided the impetus for a very far-reaching reconsideration of what safeguards are intended to achieve.

2238:

In 2004 and 2005, Egypt disclosed past undeclared nuclear activities and material to the IAEA. In 2007 and 2008, high-enriched and

1957: 1775: 1505: 1202: 1187: 1102: 638:

withdrawal is debatable but as of 9 October 2006, North Korea clearly possesses the capability to make a nuclear explosive device.

387: 337:

Four countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapon States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons:

229: 2452:

They were clearly in violation of their NPT and safeguards obligations, and the IAEA Board of Governors ruled to that effect. The

2401:

are separated because they describe arcs of different radii when they move through a magnetic field. This process was used in the

718:

The terms of the NPT cannot be enforced by the IAEA itself, nor can nations be forced to sign the treaty. In reality, as shown in

6182: 2942:, was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase international stability. 2710: 2510: 2119:

agents arrested him in Italy, drugged him and transported him to Israel. An Israeli court then tried him in secret on charges of

1614:

In 1995 the United States quietly intervened to head off a proposed nuclear test. However, in 1998 there were five more tests in

1262: 1207: 1172: 1127: 1082: 1077: 754:

In 1993 a program was initiated to strengthen and extend the classical safeguards system, and a model protocol was agreed by the

446: 6029: 5510: 5239:"Security Council Imposes Sanctions on Iran for failure to halt Uranium Enrichment, Unanimously adopting Resolution 1737 (2006)" 3491:"The Baruch Plan | Arms Control, Deterrence and Nuclear Proliferation | Historical Documents | atomicarchive.com" 2645:

dismantled. The DPRK remains uncooperative with the IAEA verification work and has yet to comply with its safeguards agreement.

5298: 3966: 2702: 2478: 2437:

officials. Iraqi officials said "the documents were authentic but that they had not agreed to work with A. Q. Khan, fearing an

2313: 2050: 1703: 1257: 1242: 1212: 1197: 1167: 1147: 1122: 1107: 1097: 836: 375: 371: 199: 189: 4791: 669:. The main concern of the IAEA is that uranium not be enriched beyond what is necessary for commercial civil plants, and that 6516: 6349: 6190: 6066: 5941: 5755: 5647: 5441: 4854: 4453: 4396: 4376: 4253: 3236: 3163: 2791: 2706: 2486: 1531:

two 150 MWe BWRs from the United States, which started up in 1969, now use locally enriched uranium and are under safeguards,

1252: 1162: 1157: 1132: 1117: 1112: 975: 503: 383: 379: 215: 204: 194: 6611: 6475: 5659:

Von Wielligh, N. & von Wielligh-Steyn, L. (2015). The Bomb – South Africa’s Nuclear Weapons Programme. Pretoria: Litera.

6630:

or IPPNW, is a US-based non-proliferation movement advocating amongst other things, a complete ban on all nuclear weaponry.

2946: 2838: 2834: 2557:

highlighted concerns of the North Korean link. "We know there are also growing concerns about military cooperation between

2490: 2382:

it had been pursuing an extensive clandestine uranium enrichment programme, as well as a nuclear weapons design programme.

2349: 2100: 1991:

visited North Korea in August–September 1992, reportedly to discuss the supply of missile technology to Pakistan. In 1993,

1825:

on his side, Prime Minister Bhutto launched a serious diplomatic offense and aggressively maintained at the session of the

1699:

many recent edits to this section are poorly worded and need checking for POV, accuracy and consistency with cited sources.

1352: 1340: 1142: 1137: 119: 6563:– A non-technical public policy and global security magazine that has reported on nuclear proliferation issues since 1945. 6384: 6367: 4146: 4025: 3890: 462:

could veto, and which would proportionately punish states attempting to acquire the capability to make nuclear weapons or

5134:"Security Council imposes sanctions on Iran for failure to halt uranium enrichment, unanimously adopting Resolution 1737" 4184: 3271: 2637:

However, some 8,000 corroding fuel rods associated with the experimental reactor have remained under close surveillance.

2532: 1759: 499: 307: 168: 6576:

or CND, is a UK-based non-proliferation movement based in the UK which advocates a complete ban on all nuclear weaponry.

6531: 6215: 4280: 730:

to weapons-grade. North Korea attempted to use research reactors (not commercial electricity-generating reactors) and a

6603: 6594: 5830: 3474: 3246: 3136: 2954: 2854: 2498: 2386: 2275: 2267: 2082:

assistance. The official reason given by the Israeli and French governments was to build a nuclear reactor to power a "

998: 896: 793: 647: 542: 491: 5800: 5114:

Security Council demands Iran suspend uranium enrichment by 31 August, or face possible economic, diplomatic sanctions

2777:. By the late 1950s, the work had reached the point where underground testing was feasible. However, at that time the 6498: 5794: 5677: 3744: 3321: 2742: 2335: 1877: 1721: 1216: 862: 402:

Early efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation involved intense government secrecy, the wartime acquisition of known

26: 4474:"Bhutto Warns India Against Testing Nuclear Device" Daily Telegraph (London), 6 January 1996, p. 12, by Ahmed Rashid 3054:

has made war in most of the European continent so disastrous economically so as to serve as an effective deterrent.

2115:, a former technician at the Dimona plant, revealed to the media some evidence of Israel's nuclear program. Israeli 844: 6582: 5320: 3132: 2985:(MAD) should work in all security environments, regardless of historical tensions or recent hostility. He sees the 2494: 2358:

Iraq had been making efforts to secure a nuclear potential since the 1960s. In the late 1970s a specialised plant,

2355:

be detected by national intelligence activities. There was no particular effort by IAEA to attempt to detect them.

2207: 2142: 2004: 1900: 1817:

and it succeeded with that route in the early 1980s. Reacting to India's first nuclear weapon test, Prime Minister

546: 3792: 2800:

bombed an officially unidentified site in Syria which it later asserted was a nuclear reactor under construction (

6694: 6207: 3430: 3241: 3144: 2769:

After World War II, Sweden considered building nuclear weapons to deter a Soviet invasion. From 1945 to 1972 the

2764: 2453: 2282:, said in 2009 he had not seen any evidence in IAEA official documents that Iran was developing nuclear weapons. 2271: 1951: 1930:

with the assistance of South Asian and German companies, and used a UAE-based computer company as a false front.

1826: 1152: 900: 658: 654: 487: 459: 6362:

Cimbala, Stephen J. "Nuclear proliferation in the twenty-first century: realism, rationality, or uncertainty?."

3498: 1433:

expenditures yet higher. Both have lost their patrons: India, the former USSR, and Pakistan, the United States.

306:, fissionable material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations not recognized as " 6684: 6491: 5403:"Documents Indicate A.Q. Khan Offered Nuclear Weapon Designs to Iraq in 1990: Did He Approach Other Countries?" 4520: 4489: 3827: 3038:

to state strategy) its proponents tend to make. With respect to Mearsheimer's specific example of Europe, many

2684: 2677: 2673: 2449:

and A. Q. Khan strongly denied this allegation whilst the government declared the evidence to be "fraudulent".

2317: 2064: 1795: 1646: 1521: 840: 415: 391: 4993: 4936:"International Atomic Energy Agency: Safeguards Statement for 2008 and Background to the Safeguards Statement" 3266: 3226: 2215: 2131: 2075: 1403: 1293: 615: 454: 279: 97: 20: 6486:

Rezaei, Farhad. "The American response to Pakistani and Iranian nuclear proliferation: a study in paradox."

3722: 3592:"Proliferation and/or Alliance? The Federal Republic of Germany", in Leopoldo Nuti and Cyril Buffet (eds.): 6298:

Singh, Sonali; Way, Christopher R. (2004). "The Correlates of Nuclear Proliferation: A Quantitative Test".

6180:

Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments

3216: 2982: 2469: 1668: 1541: 6556: 6379:

Cohen, Michael D., and Aaron Rapport. "Strategic surprise, nuclear proliferation and US foreign policy."

5853: 5370: 2845:

since 1967. Taiwan was able to acquire nuclear technology from abroad (including a research reactor from

2442: 1447: 1303: 260: 6536: 5698: 5078: 5042: 3762: 2138:, who questioned Vanunu over several days, estimated Israel had enough plutonium for about 150 weapons. 418:

thought to be used for a German nuclear program. These efforts began immediately after the discovery of

6154: 5551: 5022: 4598: 3331: 3075: 2146: 2054: 1992: 1822: 1021: 407: 220: 65: 4767: 4392: 6344:

Bas, Muhammet A., and Andrew J. Coe. "A dynamic theory of nuclear proliferation and preventive war."

4711: 4567: 3658: 3193: 3094:

in his article, "Why Do States Build Nuclear Weapons?". This concept can be described as a strategic

3070: 3027: 2864:, Taiwan ratified the NPT in 1970. After the IAEA found evidences of Taiwan's efforts to produce the 2803: 2517: 1783: 1694: 1459: 1418: 6123: 4961: 3863: 6689: 6623: 6569: 6194: 5733: 5531: 5478: 5272: 3291: 3007: 2640:

Following bilateral negotiations between the United States and the DPRK, and the conclusion of the

2233: 2017: 1562: 825: 272: 85: 6663:

Disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation - Stockholm International Peace Research Institute

6653: 6544: 4215: 2420: 903:, just as if it were in breach of its safeguards agreement. Trade sanctions would then be likely. 5488:, Chronology of Key Events, (December 2003 – September 2008), International Atomic Energy Agency. 4669: 3167:

Security Council, to keep their weapons while ensuring that no other nations could develop them.

2865: 2412:

The Iraqis did the basic research work at their nuclear research establishment at Tuwaitha, near

2306: 2261: 1653: 924: 829: 797: 735: 666: 566: 114: 80: 6636: 5402: 3525: 6118: 4644: 2446: 2192: 1919:, five on 28 May and one on 30 May. Seismic events consistent with these claims were recorded. 1573: 1501: 929: 6442:. (Cornell University Press, 2018); case studies of West Germany, Japan, and South Korea. 6241: 4737: 4238: 2773:

ran a clandestine nuclear weapons program under the guise of civilian defense research at the

4880: 2966: 2826: 1806: 1628:

its increasing concern with China's expanding nuclear weapons and missile delivery programmes

1574:"only... in connection with research into and the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes" 154: 75: 4341: 3906: 6272: 5432:

Fitzpatrick, Mark (2007). "Dr. A. Q. Khan and the rise and fall of proliferation network".

4935: 4366: 3902: 3047: 3031: 2929: 2770: 2752:

materials were accounted for and the weapons programme had been terminated and dismantled.

2385:

The main thrust of Iraq's uranium enrichment program was the development of technology for

2239: 2033: 1891: 1059: 963: 731: 479: 102: 90: 6662: 5357:

The most difficult step in building a nuclear weapon is the production of fissile material

8: 6398: 5238: 5192: 5163: 5133: 5113: 3996: 3276: 3112: 2958: 1860: 1818: 1810: 1774:

Although the civil-sector nuclear power was established in the 1950s, the country has an

1763: 1436: 959: 940: 557: 144: 6276: 5972:"'Breakout time': Report details how Iran could achieve undetectable nuclear capability" 5456: 5294: 4824: 3891:"Does the U.S. science-based stockpile stewardship program pose a proliferation threat?" 3561: 1483:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

6418:

Lanoszka, Alexander. "Nuclear proliferation and nonproliferation among soviet allies."

6323: 6315: 6136: 6021: 5999:"Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer (Part I)" 5599: 3640: 3422: 3140: 2610: 2083: 2026: 2008: 1006: 623: 565:

leading to the atomic bomb or a public annex to a secret bomb program. The crisis over

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National Counterproliferation Center – Office of the Director of National Intelligence

6179: 6109:

Jo, Dong-Joon; Gartzke, Erik (2007). "Determinants of Nuclear Weapons Proliferation".

4109:. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Directorate-General for Nuclear Power Generation. 2609:

In addition, it completed and commissioned a reprocessing plant that makes the Magnox

6512: 6413: 6327: 6062: 6025: 5998: 5790: 5643: 5502: 5437: 4372: 4249: 3918: 3843: 3470: 3311: 3088: 3059: 3023: 2861: 2837:. Nonetheless, Taiwan began its own nuclear weapon program under the auspices of the 2730: 2497:(NPT) in 1968 and ratified it in 1975, and concluded a safeguards agreement with the 2430: 2402: 2390: 2363: 2158: 1988: 1896: 1890:

project. After the British Government stopped the British subsidiary of the American

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Signing Away the Bomb: The Surprising Success of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime

6140: 5911:"The Realist Prism: Iran Nuclear Standoff Obscures Broader Proliferation Challenges" 5425: 5216: 3644: 3426: 1556:

It is widely believed that the nuclear programs of India and Pakistan used Canadian

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Though established under its own international treaty, the IAEA reports to both the

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smuggling network in Pakistan), high degrees of political stability (defined by the

429:

Earnest international efforts to promote nuclear non-proliferation began soon after

6307: 6284: 6280: 6128: 6013: 5346:

American Institute of Physics: The gas centrifuge and nuclear weapons proliferation

4903:"Mohammed Omer Wins Norwegian PEN Prize – Telling the truth for more than 30 years" 4039: 4037: 3910: 3630: 3414: 3139:

found that Iran violated its safeguards obligations under the treaty by performing

3002: 2962: 2641: 2112: 1981: 1814: 1615: 1422: 1044: 527: 522: 507: 463: 6452:

Narang, Vipin. "Strategies of nuclear proliferation: How states pursue the bomb."

5759: 4846: 4449: 2965:, R. Wendell Harrison Distinguished Service Professor of Political Science at the 1734: 6669: 6657: 6640: 6627: 6615: 6598: 6586: 6573: 6560: 6548: 6479: 6472: 6464: 6438: 6391: 6374: 6356: 6186: 6056: 5716: 5705: 5538: 5485: 5463: 5199: 5120: 5029: 4606:

Nuclear Black Markets: Pakistan, A.Q. Khan and the Rise of Proliferation Networks

4029: 3967:"Indian government takes steps to get nuclear back on track - World Nuclear News" 3296: 3286: 2938: 2650: 2578: 2554: 2482: 2367: 1969: 1834: 1637: 1631:

its concern with Pakistan's capability to deliver nuclear weapons deep into India

1595: 1580: 1569: 1517: 1414: 1049: 674: 574: 483: 434: 419: 323: 303: 70: 5886:. Nonproliferation for Global Security Foundation. December 2008. Archived from 5436:. London, United Kingdom: International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS). 5193:

SECURITY COUNCIL TIGHTENS RESTRICTIONS ON IRAN’S PROLIFERATION-SENSITIVE NUCLEAR

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An Israeli nuclear installation is located about ten kilometers to the south of

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larger ones were under construction. The nuclear power plants supplied 787

577:” characteristics that will encourage proper nuclear operations and management: 5137: 4022: 3937:"A fast reactor at any cost: The perverse pursuit of breeder reactors in India" 3369:"Strong sign of North Korean nuclear test as regime calls 6 May party congress" 3316: 3306: 3301: 3095: 3051: 2873: 2869: 2542: 2438: 1995: 1907: 1887: 1801: 1656: 1649: 1599: 1584: 1237: 1054: 994: 952:

Tritium on Ice: The Dangerous New Alliance of Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Power

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Nawaz Sharif acknowledged his country's nuclear capability on 7 September 1997

3914: 3635: 3618: 3418: 2672:

On 9 October 2006, North Korea announced that it has performed its first-ever

2665:; the first beginning in April 2004 concerning North Korea's weapons program. 777:(regardless of whether it is traded), and nuclear-related imports and exports. 726:, safeguards can be backed up by diplomatic, political and economic measures. 6678: 6311: 6211: 6132: 6017: 5352: 4697:"Study on a Possible Israeli Strike on Iran's Nuclear Development Facilities" 4367:

Armstrong, David; Joseph John Trento, National Security News Service (2007).

3922: 3281: 3116: 3099: 3035: 2970: 2950: 2936:(1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal, what the French called the 2923: 2718: 2713:, he had a meeting with two Russian businessmen representing a state-created 2170: 2153:

from 1951 to 1970 stated that in 1949 Israeli scientists were invited to the

2135: 2095: 1977: 1779: 1643: 1572:. Similarly, the United States sold India heavy water for use in the reactor 1557: 631: 561: 6591: 6509:

Nuclear Deviance: Stigma Politics and the Rules of the Nonproliferation Game

5884:"Has Iran Achieved a Nuclear Weapons Breakout Capability? Not Yet, But Soon" 5822: 4021:

U.S. Department of State Archive – U.S. – India: Civil Nuclear Cooperation,

3087:'Proliferation begets proliferation' is a concept described by professor of 5783: 4785:"Expert opinion of Frank Charles Barnaby in the matter of Mordechai Vanunu" 4670:"Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance | Arms Control Association" 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3207: 2584: 2433:

had sent Iraq centrifuge designs, which were apparently confiscated by the

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cooperation on enrichment and reprocessing, but has not ruled out signing.

430: 331: 327: 3337:

Tehran International Conference on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation, 2010

2134:

have been made by prominent scientists. British nuclear weapons scientist

2015:

It is not clear what North Korea got in return. Joseph S. Bermudez Jr. in

687:

Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials

3341: 3091: 2558: 2398: 2394: 2199:

participation of Iran and North Korea and these initiatives have lapsed.

2174: 2090: 1999: 1961: 1513: 908: 723: 450: 438: 346: 6579: 5756:"IAEA slams U.S. for withholding data on alleged Syrian nuclear reactor" 5324: 3540: 1537:

ten local PHWRs based on Canadian designs, two of 150 and eight 200 MWe.

707:

Physical Security – restricting access to nuclear materials at the site.

6319: 5669: 2406: 2320: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1787: 1743: 1399: 677:

not be refined into a form that would be suitable for bomb production.

586: 5457:

Chronology of Libya's Disarmament and Relations with the United States

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The Law of Arms Control and the International Non-Proliferation Regime

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reported that the IAEA was conducting further investigation in Egypt.

1534:

two small Canadian PHWRs (1972 & 1980), also under safeguards, and

6580:

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Nonproliferation Website

5164:"SECURITY COUNCIL TOUGHENS SANCTIONS AGAINST IRAN, ADDS ARMS EMBARGO" 4962:"International Atomic Energy Agency: Safeguards Annual Report (2008)" 4544:

Craig S. Smith, "Roots of Pakistan Atomic Scandal Traced to Europe",

4248:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 119–120. 3616: 3039: 2850: 2618: 2523: 2374:

is reason to believe there may be undeclared material or activities.

2124: 1778:

which was started in the 1970s. The bomb program has its roots after

1768: 1509: 983: 884: 670: 599: 582: 531: 6155:"CNN.com - Iranian president: No 'nuclear apartheid' - Sep 17, 2005" 3823: 3555: 2477:

possesses ballistic missiles and previously pursued nuclear weapons

2295: 1903:." By 1978, his efforts paid off and made him into a national hero. 1625:

its determination to be recognized as a dominant power in the region

814: 5730:"Syria rejects U.S. allegations on existence of nuclear activities" 2986: 2822: 2425: 2378: 1924: 1916: 1755: 1742:

admitted that the nuclear weapons-related material including these

1608: 1388: 411: 342: 4076:"Civil nuclear technology: Pakistan wants end to 'discrimination'" 2362:, was constructed near Baghdad. The plant was attacked during the 2141:

According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D. Farr in a report to the

1540:

two new 540 MWe and two 700 MWe plants at Tarapur (known as TAPP:

879:

A further concern is that countries may develop various sensitive

6542:

Official website of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

5375: 3444:– via Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs. 3162:

Years before India's first underground nuclear test in 1998, the

2778: 2662: 2614: 2528: 2413: 2389:(EMIS) of indigenous uranium. This uses the same principles as a 2120: 1762:

has been well established. It is dedicated to the industrial and

1604: 1410: 955: 892: 774: 403: 6432:

Atomic Assurance: The Alliance Politics of Nuclear Proliferation

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ordered Iran to suspend all uranium-enrichment until July 2015.

2932:

of France, an adviser to Charles DeGaulle, argued in books like

2729:. Tretyakov thought that man was insane, but the "businessmen" ( 1809:" came into "operation", from then on it was a classic case of " 1029: 6206: 4420:"Lankan Muslims in Dubai supplied N-materials to Pak: A Q Khan" 3232:

Commission on the Prevention of WMD proliferation and terrorism

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remains a matter of concern. According to high-ranking Russian

2602: 2537: 2359: 2154: 2116: 2079: 2071: 2059: 2007:. At this time China was under U.S. pressure not to supply the 1873: 1553:

enough weapons-grade plutonium for a hundred nuclear warheads.

1392: 997:. Khamenei's official statement was made at the meeting of the 888: 619: 515: 511: 350: 4477: 2536:

parallel to a civilian reactor being built at another site by

490:. Eisenhower's proposal led eventually to the creation of the 474:, to which many policy experts and scholars have contributed. 370:, becoming the second country to detonate a nuclear bomb. The 6553: 6519: 6081:

Mearsheimer (1990), pp. 5–56 and (1993), pp. 50–66.

3400:"Justice and Fairness in the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime" 3327:

Renovation of the nuclear weapon arsenal of the United States

3155: 3098:. If one state produces a nuclear weapon it creates almost a 2896: 2817:

Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction § Nuclear weapons

2722: 2562: 2550: 2474: 1791: 1739: 1611:

capable of reaching targets in China's industrial heartland.

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make the proliferation of nuclear weapons much less likely.

5823:"National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 20" 4145:. Pakistans. Dawn Media Group. pp. 3–6. Archived from 3124: 2910: 2256:

Iran and weapons of mass destruction § Nuclear weapons

2012:

systems, control and testing equipment for US$ 50 million.

1002: 719: 6621:

International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War

2917: 5585:, "Reasons for digging tunnels in Burma", 11 August 2009. 4230: 3657: 3120: 2595: 2591: 1396:

safety-related devices for a few safeguarded facilities.

1013: 6620: 6566: 6532:

Ploughshares Fund Video: A World Without Nuclear Weapons

5692: 5202:. Department of Public Information, UN Security Council. 4132: 4130: 4128: 2553:

meeting in Thailand in July 2009, US secretary of state

6634:

International Society for the Prevention of Nuclear War

6633: 6541: 4170: 4168: 4139:"N-deterrent vital to security, says PM Benazir Bhutto" 3824:"Iran issues anti-nuke fatwa | World War 4 Report" 3793:"International Fuel Services and Commercial Engagement" 2599: 2191:

The United States for some years, especially under the

1413:

is a prime cause of bilateral tension, its sovereignty

6650: 6401:. "The next phase in nuclear proliferation research." 2099:

accused Israel of working on a bomb in 1960. When the

937:

International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation

560:

refers to the possibility of military use of civilian

6473:

Seeking the Bomb: Strategies of Nuclear Proliferation

5557:. International Atomic Energy Agency. 10 March 2004. 5269::Six powers to meet soon over Iran's nuclear program" 4557: 4311:"Mush helped proliferate N-technology : AQ Khan" 4125: 3082: 2164: 641: 380:

People's Republic of China detonated a nuclear weapon

4593: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4274: 4272: 4177:"India, Pakistan can build hydrogen bomb: Scientist" 4165: 4048:. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission report to IAEA. 3183: 1872:

then established a network through Dubai to smuggle

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At present, 189 countries are States Parties to the

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America and the Islamic Bomb: The Deadly Compromise

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The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age

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Khan and Onward Proliferation From Pakistan" 4281:"AQ Khan network was 'imports-exports enterprise'" 4278: 4107:"Current Picture of Electrical Energy in Pakistan" 3821: 3685: 3663:"Cheaper, safer alternatives than nuclear fission" 3348:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 1906:In early 1996 the next Prime Minister of Pakistan 993:forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of 606:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 600:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 312:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 6608: 4877:"Israel's Nuclear Weapon Capability: An Overview" 4768:ISRAEL : Vanunu's Treason Appeal Is Rejected 4582: 4269: 2953:, Emeritus Professor of Political Science at the 612:Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons 6676: 6447:Nuclear Weapons Proliferation in the next decade 5496: 5494: 5474: 5472: 5371:"No sign Iran seeks nuclear arms: new IAEA head" 4488:. NTI; Pakistan Television (PTV). Archived from 4064: 2825:, the United States deployed nuclear weapons at 2547:Institute for Science and International Security 2405:to make the highly enriched uranium used in the 386:in 1974, which prompted Pakistan to develop its 6054: 4776: 2853:from the United States), which were subject to 769:Key elements of the model Additional Protocol: 5126: 4708:Center for Strategic and International Studies 4246:Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb 4205: 3619:"Nuclear power without nuclear proliferation?" 3123:'s Christiane Amanpour, Ahmadinejad said that 2683:On 12 February 2013, North Korea conducted an 6592:Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation 5491: 5469: 4782: 4610:International Institute for Strategic Studies 3888: 3556:Catherine Collins and Douglas Frantz (2007). 2843:Chungshan Institute of Science and Technology 1940:International Institute for Strategic Studies 1360: 280: 6499:The Causes of Nuclear Weapons Proliferation. 6055:Sechser, Todd S.; Fuhrmann, Matthew (2017). 5123:(UN News Centre Press Release, 31 July 2006) 5035: 4558:Bill Powell; Tim McGirk (14 February 2005). 4023:https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/sca/c17361.htm 3612: 3610: 3608: 3606: 804: 594: 518:. The NPT entered into force in March 1970. 397: 372:United Kingdom first tested a nuclear weapon 6647:Monterey Institute of International Studies 6381:European Journal of International Relations 5996: 5748: 5676:. Federation of American Scientists. 2000. 5431: 4104: 3848:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3257:International Science and Technology Center 2775:Swedish National Defence Research Institute 2623:Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center 2575:North Korea and weapons of mass destruction 2377:After inspections in Iraq following the UN 2078:. Its construction commenced in 1958, with 1998:repeatedly traveled to China, and the paid 843:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 416:bombing of a heavy-water facility in Norway 6061:. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. 5614:"Goodbye clenched fist, hello sweaty palm" 3989: 3397: 2997: 2981:In embryo, Waltz argues that the logic of 2151:French high-commissioner for atomic energy 1367: 1353: 1028: 287: 273: 44: 6122: 6108: 5662: 5636: 4930: 4928: 4926: 4924: 3634: 3603: 3262:Institute of Nuclear Materials Management 2973:attitude to programs like North Korea's. 2393:(albeit on a much larger scale). Ions of 2336:Learn how and when to remove this message 1722:Learn how and when to remove this message 863:Learn how and when to remove this message 6297: 4738:"How Britain helped Israel get the bomb" 4450:"On the trail of the black market bombs" 4417: 3252:Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 3222:Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues 2527:, a Japanese newspaper, report that two 2419:The Iraqis were also very interested in 1733: 1621:Indian security policies are driven by: 1516:. 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Separate reports indicate ( 1958:Democratic People's Republic of Korea 976:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 918: 504:Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee 5909:Gvosdev, Nikolas (27 January 2012). 5864:from the original on 2 February 2020 5833:from the original on 7 February 2021 5500: 5095:from the original on 4 December 2019 4748:from the original on 8 November 2017 4456:from the original on 9 November 2011 4360: 4291:from the original on 3 November 2013 4236: 4043: 3773:from the original on 24 October 2020 3469:. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff. p. 4. 2839:Institute of Nuclear Energy Research 2835:United States Taiwan Defense Command 2350:Iraq and weapons of mass destruction 2318:adding citations to reliable sources 2289: 2101:United States intelligence community 2005:Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories 1794:'s successful intervention led to a 1782:gained its independence through the 1672: 1463: 841:adding citations to reliable sources 808: 376:France first tested a nuclear weapon 6651:Center for Nonproliferation Studies 6503:Annual Review of Political Science. 6412:(Cambridge University Press, 2022) 5851: 5780: 5680:from the original on 7 October 2006 5674:WMD Around the World – South Africa 5513:from the original on 6 October 2013 5503:"Libya: Nuclear Programme Overview" 5295:"Iran wants new nuclear fuel talks" 4974:from the original on 16 August 2009 4619:from the original on 21 August 2017 4052:from the original on 8 October 2013 3693:"Status of the Additional Protocol" 3576: 3560:. Asia Times Online. Archived from 3272:List of states with nuclear weapons 3030:, and the long-run unimportance of 2533:State Peace and Development Council 1899:member and questions were asked in 1833:Pakistan was exposed to a kind of " 1520:and is planning a much larger one ( 950:According to Kenneth D. Bergeron's 500:List of states with nuclear weapons 326:(up to and including the so-called 13: 6338: 6300:The Journal of Conflict Resolution 5854:"How the US stopped Taiwan's bomb" 5245:from the original on 17 April 2024 5144:from the original on 17 April 2024 4942:from the original on 10 March 2012 4909:from the original on 27 April 2014 4695:Toukan, Abdullah (14 March 2009). 4676:from the original on 10 March 2013 4348:from the original on 22 April 2009 4113:from the original on 30 March 2020 4105:Syed Yousaf, Raza (31 July 2012). 3977:from the original on 27 March 2019 3947:from the original on 4 August 2019 3870:from the original on 22 April 2009 3830:from the original on 14 March 2013 3519: 3247:International Atomic Energy Agency 3137:International Atomic Energy Agency 3083:Proliferation begets proliferation 3026:in state agendas, the weakness of 2955:University of California, Berkeley 2855:International Atomic Energy Agency 2748:Korea only had research reactors. 2499:International Atomic Energy Agency 2387:electromagnetic isotope separation 2276:International Atomic Energy Agency 2222: 2165:Nuclear arms control in South Asia 999:International Atomic Energy Agency 794:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action 648:International Atomic Energy Agency 642:International Atomic Energy Agency 543:International Atomic Energy Agency 492:International Atomic Energy Agency 14: 6706: 6609:Federation of American Scientists 6554:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 6525: 6265:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 6161:from the original on 29 June 2011 5939: 5803:from the original on 3 April 2018 5564:from the original on 29 July 2013 5383:from the original on 10 July 2009 5301:from the original on 6 March 2016 5170:. United Nations. 24 March 2007. 3941:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3667:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3322:Prevention of nuclear catastrophe 2743:Nuclear programme of South Africa 1878:Engineering Research Laboratories 962:. This radioactive, super-heavy, 27:Nuclear Proliferation (card game) 6567:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 6405:(Routledge, 2019) pp. 1–33. 6291: 6256: 6230: 6200: 6173: 6147: 5852:Ide, William (14 October 1999). 5829:. 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BBC News. 12 February 2004. 4206:George Russell (3 June 1985). 4003:. Nuclear Weapon Archive. 2001 3586: 3513: 3483: 3458: 3448: 3391: 3361: 3048:economic integration of Europe 2065:policy of deliberate ambiguity 1945: 1880:. Earlier, he worked with the 1776:active nuclear weapons program 1522:Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor 453:, which drew heavily from the 410:), and at times even outright 1: 6483:. Princeton University Press. 6238:"Sorry for the inconvenience" 5758:. Haaretz.com. Archived from 4418:Agencies (9 September 2009). 4393:"Eye To Eye: An Islamic Bomb" 3895:Science & Global Security 3354: 3267:List of nuclear weapons tests 3227:Chemical weapon proliferation 2685:underground nuclear explosion 2491:long-range ballistic missiles 2216:Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty 2132:Negev Nuclear Research Center 2076:Negev Nuclear Research Center 1750:, were acquired from Pakistan 382:in 1964. India conducted its 21:Chemical weapon proliferation 6422:Studies 3.2 (2018): 217-233 5789:. Cornell University Press. 5719:. Retrieved 24 October 2007. 4548:, 19 February 2004, page A3. 3217:2010 Nuclear Security Summit 2983:mutually assured destruction 2470:Libya and nuclear technology 2368:destroyed by Israeli bombers 1760:nuclear power infrastructure 1669:Pakistan and nuclear weapons 1542:Tarapur Atomic Power Station 1514:southern part of the country 979:international verification. 368:USSR tested a nuclear weapon 7: 6604:Council for a Livable World 6364:Strategic Studies Quarterly 5785:Taiwan: A Political History 5699:6 September 2007 Air strike 5466:, Arms Control Association. 4560:"The Man Who Sold the Bomb" 3179: 3143:in secret, after which the 3131:Iran is a signatory of the 2487:weapons of mass destruction 2445:between two countries. The 1928:Scomi Precision Engineering 1697:. The specific problem is: 1662: 1415:being in dispute since 1948 1022:Weapons of mass destruction 10: 6711: 6420:Journal of Global Security 6346:International Organization 5997:Mearsheimer, John (2006). 5917:. Worlds Politics Review. 4847:"Israel's Nuclear Weapons" 4817:"Israel's Nuclear Weapons" 3997:"The Beginning: 1944–1960" 3332:Seabed Arms Control Treaty 3150: 3076:weapon of mass destruction 3028:international institutions 2921: 2814: 2789: 2762: 2740: 2697:Russia and nuclear weapons 2694: 2572: 2531:defectors saying that the 2508: 2504: 2467: 2347: 2259: 2253: 2231: 2168: 2055:Nuclear weapons and Israel 2048: 1949: 1915:conducted six underground 1666: 1609:intermediate-range missile 1457: 1423:disputed status of Kashmir 1404:People's Republic of China 684: 645: 616:People's Republic of China 603: 537:Since its founding by the 408:Combined Development Trust 24: 18: 6668:15 September 2019 at the 5670:"Nuclear Weapons Program" 5507:Nuclear Threat Initiative 3915:10.1080/08929889808426453 3659:Kristin Shrader-Frechette 3636:10.1162/daed.2009.138.4.7 3419:10.1017/S0892679413000221 3398:Tannenwald, Nina (2013). 3194:Nuclear technology portal 3111:Former Iranian President 3106: 3071:Norwegian rocket incident 2810: 2804:Operation Outside the Box 2758: 2703:nuclear weapons in Russia 2690: 2089:Norway sold 20 tonnes of 2044: 1917:tests in the Chagai Hills 1784:Bangladesh Liberation War 1596:exploded a nuclear device 1579:27 September 2007 at the 1568:27 September 2007 at the 1502:well established in India 1477:This section needs to be 1460:India and nuclear weapons 805:Limitations of safeguards 595:International Cooperation 567:Iran's nuclear activities 455:Acheson–Lilienthal Report 398:Non-proliferation Efforts 16:Spread of nuclear weapons 6656:16 November 2011 at the 6572:11 December 2010 at the 6312:10.1177/0022002704269655 6195:U.S. Department of State 6133:10.1177/0022002706296158 6018:10.1177/0047117806060939 5537:7 September 2017 at the 5321:"Iran's Nuclear Program" 4511:NTI, Shahid Ahmed Khan. 3763:"Technical Difficulties" 3292:Nuclear-weapon-free zone 2785: 2463: 2441:sting operation, due to 2234:Nuclear program of Egypt 2227: 1982:Agreed Framework of 1994 1453: 1448:People's Liberation Army 1005:formally announced that 316:Non-Proliferation Treaty 314:, commonly known as the 6639:22 January 2021 at the 6614:28 October 2006 at the 6547:1 February 2010 at the 6463:7 December 2020 at the 6403:Asia's Nuclear Future/h 6390:6 December 2020 at the 6373:6 December 2020 at the 6006:International Relations 5704:25 October 2007 at the 5028:25 October 2007 at the 4074:Staff (27 March 2012). 4028:2 February 2017 at the 3907:1998S&GS....7..151P 3119:. In an interview with 2998:Selective proliferation 2866:weapons-grade plutonium 2860:Then recognized as the 2285: 2262:Nuclear program of Iran 2249: 1786:, as the new nation of 1598:in 1974, the so-called 925:Nuclear Suppliers Group 756:IAEA Board of Governors 736:weapons-grade plutonium 667:Nuclear Suppliers Group 364:two bombs against Japan 25:For the card game, see 6695:Nuclear weapons policy 6454:International Security 6366:11.1 (2017): 129–146. 5359: 5198:16 August 2014 at the 5119:16 August 2014 at the 4710:(CSIS). Archived from 4344:. Globalsecurity.org. 4044:Siddiqui, Saeed Alam. 3971:world-nuclear-news.org 2447:Government of Pakistan 2193:Clinton administration 1857: 1848:statement written in " 1751: 1442: 930:nuclear weapons states 734:plant to produce some 592: 486:" proposal before the 6685:Nuclear proliferation 6559:5 August 2009 at the 6520:online H-DIPLO review 6497:Sagan, Scott. 2011. " 6470:Narang, Vipin. 2022. 6456:41.3 (2017): 110-150 6437:15 April 2021 at the 6429:Lanoszka, Alexander. 6383:26.2 (2020): 344-371 6348:70.4 (2016): 655-685 5484:28 March 2012 at the 5434:Nuclear black markets 5355: 3866:. CNN. 6 March 2006. 2967:University of Chicago 2827:Tainan Air Force Base 2796:On 6 September 2007, 2518:Sydney Morning Herald 2421:centrifuge enrichment 2018:Jane's Defence Weekly 1846:Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, 1831: 1737: 1607:and has developed an 1439: 673:which is produced by 579: 488:U.N. General Assembly 460:U.N. Security Council 441:of 1946, named after 435:Truman Administration 308:Nuclear Weapon States 300:Nuclear proliferation 6626:14 June 2019 at the 6478:29 July 2023 at the 6397:Dunn, Lewis A., and 6355:5 March 2021 at the 6210:(27 December 2006). 6185:5 April 2023 at the 5715:22 July 2017 at the 5620:. 17 November 2012. 5241:. 23 December 2006. 5140:. 23 December 2006. 4827:on 14 September 2000 4513:"Nuclear Chronology" 4181:Dawn News Interviews 3465:Coppen, Tom (2017). 3032:economic integration 2945:Some very prominent 2930:Pierre Marie Gallois 2731:Vladimir K. Dmitriev 2479:under the leadership 2314:improve this article 2240:low-enriched uranium 2214:Having promoted the 2041:, 18 October 2002). 2039:The Washington Times 2034:The Washington Times 1960:(or better known as 1936:nuclear black market 1923:manufactured by the 1892:Emerson Electric Co. 1868:being the director. 1764:economic development 1704:improve this section 1693:to meet Knowledge's 1605:medium-range missile 837:improve this section 732:nuclear reprocessing 569:is a case in point. 480:President Eisenhower 424:bombing of Hiroshima 169:Nuclear-armed states 6597:9 June 2007 at the 6585:19 May 2005 at the 6490:48.1 (2017): 27-50 6399:William H. Overholt 6277:1996BuAtS..52f...2M 6244:on 12 December 2008 5978:on 30 December 2013 5781:Roy, Denny (2003). 5462:13 May 2013 at the 5297:. 2 November 2009. 5275:on 18 December 2011 4672:. Armscontrol.org. 4086:on 23 November 2012 3943:. 3 November 2016. 3767:2001-2009.state.gov 3719:"NTI Egypt Profile" 3596:, special issue of 3528:on 13 February 2020 3501:on 13 February 2020 3277:Nuclear disarmament 3171:Security guarantees 3113:Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 2977:Total proliferation 2959:Columbia University 2880:Breakout capability 2782:concluded in 1972. 2678:second nuclear test 2674:nuclear weapon test 2493:. Libya signed the 2454:UN Security Council 2272:UN Security Council 1861:Bhutto's government 1819:Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 1811:action and reaction 1380:NPT Non Signatories 941:European Commission 764:Additional Protocol 750:Additional Protocol 681:Scope of safeguards 558:Dual-use technology 553:Dual-Use Technology 388:own nuclear program 6507:Smetana, Michal. 6449:(Routledge, 2020). 6445:Lavoy, Peter, ed. 6414:online book review 5827:nsarchive2.gwu.edu 5736:on 10 January 2009 5710:globalsecurity.org 5600:The Times of India 4638:"The Khan Network" 4570:on 11 January 2008 4546:The New York Times 4523:on 8 November 2010 4492:on 8 November 2010 4430:on 13 January 2012 4315:The Times of India 4208:"Who Has the Bomb" 4187:on 15 October 2009 3751:. 30 October 2008. 3725:on 12 October 2008 3673:on 21 January 2012 3661:(19 August 2011). 3141:uranium-enrichment 2949:scholars, such as 2771:Swedish government 2611:spent nuclear fuel 2443:strained relations 2084:desalination plant 1876:technology to the 1807:Newton's Third Law 1754:Over the years in 1752: 1443: 1428:Both engaged in a 1007:uranium enrichment 982:On 9 August 2005, 919:Other developments 624:Russian Federation 392:first nuclear test 384:first nuclear test 6517:978-3-030-24224-4 6408:Kaplow, Jeffery. 6212:"Resolution 1737" 6068:978-1-107-10694-9 5648:978-0-399-15439-3 5443:978-0-86079-201-7 4771:Los Angeles Times 4378:978-1-58642-137-3 4285:Daily Times, 2007 4255:978-0-8047-7601-1 3826:. Ww4report.com. 3594:Dividing the Atom 3522:"The Baruch Plan" 3520:Baruch, Bernard. 3495:atomicarchive.com 3375:. 27 April 2016. 3312:Nuclear terrorism 3089:political science 3060:European identity 3024:military security 2862:Republic of China 2613:safe, recovering 2431:Abdul Qadeer Khan 2403:Manhattan Project 2391:mass spectrometer 2346: 2345: 2338: 2159:Manhattan Project 1989:Pakistan military 1980:resulting in the 1870:Abdul Qadeer Khan 1853: 1732: 1731: 1724: 1695:quality standards 1686:This section may 1498: 1497: 1430:conventional arms 1421:, along with the 1419:Jammu and Kashmir 1400:In May 1998 India 1377: 1376: 945:radioactive waste 873: 872: 865: 374:in October 1952. 358:nuclear weapons. 302:is the spread of 297: 296: 61:Nuclear explosion 6702: 6332: 6331: 6295: 6289: 6288: 6260: 6254: 6253: 6251: 6249: 6240:. Archived from 6234: 6228: 6227: 6225: 6223: 6204: 6198: 6197:, 30 August 2005 6177: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6166: 6151: 6145: 6144: 6126: 6106: 6100: 6097: 6091: 6088: 6082: 6079: 6073: 6072: 6052: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6040: 6034: 6003: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5983: 5968: 5962: 5961: 5959: 5957: 5940:Waltz, Kenneth. 5937: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5906: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5895: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5871: 5869: 5849: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5838: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5808: 5788: 5778: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5762:on 26 April 2008 5752: 5746: 5745: 5743: 5741: 5726: 5720: 5696: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5666: 5660: 5657: 5651: 5650:, pages 114–121. 5640: 5634: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5610: 5604: 5603:, 2 August 2009. 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5573: 5571: 5569: 5563: 5556: 5548: 5542: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5501:Rohlfing, Joan. 5498: 5489: 5476: 5467: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5399: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5366: 5360: 5351:15 July 2012 at 5343: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5323:. 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Archived from 4555: 4549: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4530: 4528: 4519:. Archived from 4517:NTI publications 4508: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4486:"6 January 1996" 4481: 4475: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4426:. Archived from 4415: 4409: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4337: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4296: 4276: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4262: 4243: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4214:. Archived from 4203: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4183:. Archived from 4172: 4163: 4162: 4156: 4154: 4134: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4102: 4096: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4082:. Archived from 4080:Pakistan Tribune 4071: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4041: 4032: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4008: 3993: 3987: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3860: 3854: 3853: 3847: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3759: 3753: 3752: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3732: 3730: 3721:. 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Archived from 3404: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3365: 3210: 3205: 3204: 3196: 3191: 3190: 3189: 3003:John Mearsheimer 2963:John Mearsheimer 2909: 2907: 2906: 2895: 2893: 2892: 2680:on 25 May 2009. 2642:Agreed Framework 2598:), based on the 2515:A report in the 2341: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2321: 2298: 2290: 2113:Mordechai Vanunu 1855: 1847: 1815:Munir Ahmad Khan 1796:decisive victory 1727: 1720: 1716: 1713: 1707: 1681: 1680: 1673: 1616:Operation Shakti 1493: 1490: 1484: 1472: 1471: 1464: 1369: 1362: 1355: 1339: 1338: 1320:List of treaties 1032: 1018: 1017: 969:naturally decays 964:hydrogen isotope 868: 861: 857: 854: 848: 817: 809: 675:nuclear reactors 659:Security Council 528:enriched uranium 523:fissile material 508:Washington, D.C. 464:fissile material 289: 282: 275: 226: 120:Target selection 48: 34: 33: 6710: 6709: 6705: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6700: 6699: 6690:Nuclear weapons 6675: 6674: 6670:Wayback Machine 6658:Wayback Machine 6641:Wayback Machine 6628:Wayback Machine 6616:Wayback Machine 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July 2009 4714: 4699: 4693: 4689: 4679: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4653: 4651: 4650:on 5 March 2016 4647: 4640: 4636: 4635: 4631: 4622: 4620: 4616: 4601: 4597: 4596: 4583: 4573: 4571: 4556: 4552: 4543: 4539: 4526: 4524: 4509: 4505: 4495: 4493: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4457: 4448: 4447: 4443: 4433: 4431: 4416: 4412: 4402: 4400: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4379: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4349: 4338: 4334: 4324: 4322: 4317:. 6 July 2008. 4309: 4308: 4304: 4294: 4292: 4277: 4270: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4241: 4235: 4231: 4221: 4219: 4218:on 8 April 2008 4204: 4200: 4190: 4188: 4173: 4166: 4152: 4150: 4135: 4126: 4116: 4114: 4103: 4099: 4089: 4087: 4072: 4065: 4055: 4053: 4042: 4035: 4030:Wayback Machine 4020: 4016: 4006: 4004: 3995: 3994: 3990: 3980: 3978: 3965: 3964: 3960: 3950: 3948: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3887: 3883: 3873: 3871: 3862: 3861: 3857: 3841: 3840: 3833: 3831: 3820: 3816: 3806: 3804: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3776: 3774: 3761: 3760: 3756: 3743: 3742: 3738: 3728: 3726: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3702: 3700: 3691: 3690: 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5155: 5138:United Nations 5125: 5106: 5070: 5034: 5015: 5000:. 6 May 2017. 4985: 4953: 4920: 4894: 4868: 4838: 4808: 4775: 4759: 4728: 4687: 4661: 4629: 4581: 4550: 4537: 4503: 4476: 4467: 4441: 4410: 4384: 4377: 4359: 4332: 4302: 4268: 4254: 4229: 4198: 4164: 4149:on 9 June 2012 4124: 4097: 4063: 4033: 4014: 3988: 3958: 3928: 3901:(2): 151–193. 3881: 3855: 3814: 3784: 3754: 3736: 3710: 3684: 3650: 3602: 3600:(Autumn 1998). 3585: 3575: 3564:on 13 May 2008 3539: 3512: 3482: 3476:978-9004333161 3475: 3457: 3447: 3413:(3): 299–315. 3390: 3359: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3350: 3345: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3317:Nuclear ethics 3314: 3309: 3307:Nuclear winter 3304: 3302:Nuclear weapon 3299: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3229: 3224: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3211: 3197: 3181: 3178: 3172: 3169: 3152: 3149: 3108: 3105: 3096:chain reaction 3084: 3081: 3052:European Union 3019: 3016: 3008:invade Ukraine 2999: 2996: 2978: 2975: 2922:Main article: 2919: 2916: 2915: 2914: 2900: 2881: 2878: 2874:Chang Hsien-yi 2870:Lieyu massacre 2849:and low-grade 2841:(INER) at the 2815:Main article: 2812: 2809: 2790:Main article: 2787: 2784: 2763:Main article: 2760: 2757: 2741:Main article: 2738: 2735: 2695:Main article: 2692: 2689: 2570: 2567: 2543:David Albright 2509:Main article: 2506: 2503: 2468:Main article: 2465: 2462: 2429:reported that 2407:Hiroshima bomb 2370:in June 1981. 2344: 2343: 2302: 2300: 2293: 2287: 2284: 2254:Main article: 2251: 2248: 2232:Main article: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2166: 2163: 2147:Francis Perrin 2046: 2043: 2027:New York Times 1996:Benazir Bhutto 1964:), joined the 1950:Main article: 1947: 1944: 1908:Benazir Bhutto 1888:gas centrifuge 1843: 1835:nuclear threat 1802:Smiling Buddha 1730: 1729: 1685: 1683: 1676: 1667:Main article: 1664: 1661: 1657:Manmohan Singh 1654:Prime Minister 1650:George W. Bush 1633: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1600:Smiling Buddha 1585:Smiling Buddha 1558:CANDU reactors 1546: 1545: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1496: 1495: 1476: 1474: 1467: 1458:Main article: 1455: 1452: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1372: 1371: 1364: 1357: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1330: 1329: 1328: 1327: 1324:treaty parties 1314: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1288: 1287: 1283: 1282: 1281: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1268:United Kingdom 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1072: 1071: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1039: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1025: 1024: 1015: 1012: 960:nuclear disarm 920: 917: 871: 870: 821: 819: 812: 806: 803: 790: 789: 785: 782: 778: 751: 748: 712: 711: 708: 705: 682: 679: 646:Main article: 643: 640: 604:Main article: 601: 598: 596: 593: 554: 551: 539:United Nations 472:nuclear ethics 443:Bernard Baruch 399: 396: 295: 294: 292: 291: 284: 277: 269: 266: 265: 264: 263: 258: 253: 248: 238: 237: 232: 227: 218: 208: 207: 202: 197: 195:United Kingdom 192: 187: 172: 171: 165: 164: 163: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 111: 110: 105: 100: 94: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 55: 54: 50: 49: 41: 40: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6707: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6671: 6667: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6655: 6652: 6648: 6645: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6632: 6629: 6625: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6613: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6584: 6581: 6578: 6575: 6571: 6568: 6565: 6562: 6558: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6546: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6521: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6493: 6489: 6488:Asian Affairs 6485: 6482: 6481: 6477: 6474: 6469: 6466: 6462: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6448: 6444: 6441: 6440: 6436: 6433: 6428: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6393: 6389: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6376: 6372: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6358: 6354: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6342: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6294: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6259: 6243: 6239: 6233: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6203: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6181: 6176: 6160: 6156: 6150: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6105: 6099:Sagan, p. 70. 6096: 6087: 6078: 6070: 6064: 6060: 6059: 6051: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6000: 5993: 5977: 5973: 5967: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5936: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5905: 5889: 5885: 5879: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5848: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5818: 5802: 5798: 5796:0-8014-8805-2 5792: 5787: 5786: 5777: 5761: 5757: 5751: 5735: 5731: 5725: 5718: 5714: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5700: 5695: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5665: 5656: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5623: 5619: 5618:The Economist 5615: 5609: 5602: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5584: 5579: 5560: 5553: 5547: 5540: 5536: 5533: 5528: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5497: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5480: 5475: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5458: 5453: 5445: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5398: 5382: 5378: 5377: 5372: 5365: 5358: 5354: 5353:archive.today 5350: 5347: 5342: 5326: 5322: 5316: 5300: 5296: 5290: 5274: 5270: 5268: 5260: 5244: 5240: 5234: 5218: 5214: 5208: 5201: 5197: 5194: 5189: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5159: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5129: 5122: 5118: 5115: 5110: 5091: 5087: 5080: 5079:"| IAEA" 5074: 5055: 5051: 5044: 5043:"| IAEA" 5038: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5019: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4989: 4970: 4963: 4957: 4941: 4937: 4931: 4929: 4927: 4925: 4908: 4904: 4898: 4882: 4878: 4872: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4842: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4812: 4793: 4786: 4779: 4773:, 28 May 1990 4772: 4769: 4763: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4698: 4691: 4675: 4671: 4665: 4646: 4639: 4633: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4554: 4547: 4541: 4534: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4507: 4491: 4487: 4480: 4471: 4455: 4451: 4445: 4429: 4425: 4424:Express India 4421: 4414: 4398: 4394: 4388: 4380: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4347: 4343: 4336: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4273: 4257: 4251: 4247: 4242:(google book) 4240: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4171: 4169: 4161: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4112: 4108: 4101: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4068: 4051: 4047: 4040: 4038: 4031: 4027: 4024: 4018: 4002: 3998: 3992: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3885: 3869: 3865: 3859: 3851: 3845: 3829: 3825: 3818: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3750: 3749:The Economist 3746: 3740: 3724: 3720: 3714: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3589: 3579: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3527: 3523: 3516: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3486: 3478: 3472: 3468: 3461: 3451: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3401: 3394: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3364: 3360: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3282:Nuclear power 3280: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3270: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3233: 3230: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3218: 3215: 3214: 3209: 3203: 3198: 3195: 3184: 3177: 3168: 3165: 3160: 3157: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3129: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3117:United States 3114: 3104: 3101: 3100:domino effect 3097: 3093: 3090: 3080: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3036:globalization 3033: 3029: 3025: 3015: 3011: 3009: 3004: 2995: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2974: 2972: 2971:laissez-faire 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2951:Kenneth Waltz 2948: 2943: 2941: 2940: 2935: 2931: 2925: 2924:Nuclear peace 2912: 2901: 2898: 2887: 2886: 2885: 2877: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2808: 2806: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2783: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2766: 2756: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2719:Novaya Zemlya 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2698: 2688: 2686: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2670: 2666: 2664: 2658: 2654: 2652: 2646: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2586: 2580: 2576: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2525: 2520: 2519: 2512: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2471: 2461: 2458: 2455: 2450: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2369: 2365: 2364:Iran–Iraq War 2361: 2356: 2351: 2340: 2337: 2329: 2319: 2315: 2309: 2308: 2303:This section 2301: 2297: 2292: 2291: 2283: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2263: 2257: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2235: 2220: 2217: 2212: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2172: 2171:Lahore Summit 2162: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2136:Frank Barnaby 2133: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2097: 2096:Daily Express 2092: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2035: 2029: 2028: 2022: 2020: 2019: 2013: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1978:United States 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1953: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1920: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1884: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1851: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1803: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1780:East Pakistan 1777: 1772: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1726: 1723: 1715: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1691: 1684: 1675: 1674: 1670: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1612: 1610: 1606: 1601: 1597: 1592: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1550: 1543: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1492: 1480: 1475: 1466: 1465: 1461: 1451: 1449: 1438: 1434: 1431: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1370: 1365: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1351: 1350: 1348: 1347: 1342: 1334: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1325: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1311: 1310: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1289: 1286:Proliferation 1285: 1284: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1273:United States 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1073: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1011: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 985: 980: 977: 972: 970: 965: 961: 957: 953: 948: 946: 942: 938: 933: 931: 926: 916: 912: 910: 904: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 877: 867: 864: 856: 846: 842: 838: 832: 831: 827: 822:This section 820: 816: 811: 810: 802: 799: 795: 786: 783: 779: 776: 772: 771: 770: 767: 765: 759: 757: 747: 743: 739: 737: 733: 727: 725: 721: 716: 709: 706: 702: 701: 700: 697: 693: 688: 678: 676: 672: 668: 662: 660: 656: 649: 639: 635: 633: 632:United States 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 607: 591: 588: 584: 578: 576: 570: 568: 563: 562:nuclear power 559: 550: 548: 544: 541:in 1957, the 540: 535: 533: 529: 524: 519: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 495: 493: 489: 485: 481: 475: 473: 467: 465: 461: 456: 452: 449:(UNAEC). The 448: 444: 440: 437:proposed the 436: 432: 427: 425: 421: 417: 414:—such as the 413: 409: 405: 395: 393: 389: 385: 381: 378:in 1960. The 377: 373: 369: 365: 359: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 335: 333: 332:nation states 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 290: 285: 283: 278: 276: 271: 270: 268: 267: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 243: 240: 239: 236: 233: 231: 228: 222: 219: 217: 213: 210: 209: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 185:United States 182: 180: 176: 175: 174: 173: 170: 167: 166: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 140:Proliferation 138: 136: 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 112: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 95: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 67: 64: 62: 59: 58: 57: 56: 52: 51: 47: 43: 42: 39: 36: 35: 32: 28: 22: 6508: 6502: 6487: 6471: 6453: 6446: 6430: 6419: 6409: 6402: 6380: 6363: 6345: 6303: 6299: 6293: 6268: 6264: 6258: 6246:. Retrieved 6242:the original 6232: 6220:. Retrieved 6202: 6175: 6163:. 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Retrieved 3373:The Guardian 3372: 3363: 3208:World portal 3174: 3161: 3154: 3130: 3110: 3086: 3068: 3064: 3021: 3012: 3001: 2992: 2980: 2944: 2937: 2933: 2927: 2883: 2859: 2820: 2801: 2795: 2768: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2737:South Africa 2714: 2701:Security of 2700: 2682: 2671: 2667: 2659: 2655: 2647: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2608: 2589: 2582: 2522: 2516: 2514: 2473: 2459: 2451: 2424: 2418: 2411: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2357: 2353: 2332: 2326:January 2013 2323: 2312:Please help 2307:verification 2304: 2280:Yukiya Amano 2265: 2243: 2237: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2140: 2129: 2110: 2106: 2094: 2088: 2069: 2058: 2038: 2032: 2025: 2023: 2016: 2014: 1986: 1955: 1932: 1921: 1912:Nawaz Sharif 1905: 1897:Labour Party 1881: 1859:After 1974, 1858: 1850:Eating Grass 1849: 1832: 1800: 1773: 1753: 1747: 1718: 1712:January 2013 1709: 1702:Please help 1698: 1687: 1642: 1634: 1620: 1613: 1593: 1589: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1526: 1499: 1486: 1478: 1444: 1427: 1408: 1398: 1383: 1298: 1228:South Africa 1223:Saudi Arabia 1217:Soviet Union 1060:Radiological 987:Ali Khamenei 981: 973: 951: 949: 934: 922: 913: 905: 891:for sale of 881:nuclear fuel 878: 874: 859: 853:January 2015 850: 835:Please help 823: 791: 768: 763: 760: 753: 744: 740: 728: 717: 713: 698: 694: 690: 663: 651: 636: 611: 609: 580: 571: 556: 536: 520: 496: 476: 468: 431:World War II 428: 406:stores (the 401: 360: 355:nuclear test 336: 328:countervalue 319: 315: 299: 298: 246:South Africa 241: 225:(undeclared) 211: 177: 139: 31: 5982:27 December 5956:27 December 5925:27 December 5807:18 November 5684:10 November 5628:25 November 5532:GOV/2004/12 5148:23 December 5023:GOV/2003/75 4946:29 February 4801:16 December 4752:20 February 4721:7 September 4680:20 February 4496:18 November 4460:23 December 4434:20 February 4403:23 December 4352:20 February 4342:"A.Q. 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