Great Purge - Knowledge

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Stalin's paranoia and used terror to enhance their own position. Peter Whitewood examines the first purge, directed at the Army, and comes up with a third interpretation that Stalin and other top leaders believing that they were always surrounded by capitalist enemies, always worried about the vulnerability and loyalty of the Red Army. It was not a ploy—Stalin truly believed it. "Stalin attacked the Red Army because he seriously misperceived a serious security threat"; thus "Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign‐backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army." The purge hit deeply from June 1937 and November 1938, removing 35,000; many were executed. Experience in carrying out the purge facilitated purging other key elements in the wider Soviet polity. Historians often cite the disruption as factors in the Red Army's disastrous military performance during the German invasion.

4450: 3899: 3910: 4550: 4317: 1934:. The assassination, in December 1934, led to an investigation that revealed a network of party members supposedly working against Stalin, including several of Stalin's rivals. Many of those arrested after Kirov's murder, high-ranking party officials among them, also confessed plans to kill Stalin himself. The validity of these confessions is debated by historians, but there is consensus that Kirov's death was the flashpoint at which Stalin decided to take action and begin the purges. Some later historians came to believe that Stalin arranged the murder, or at least that there was sufficient evidence to reach such a conclusion. Kirov was a staunch Stalin loyalist, but Stalin may have viewed him as a potential rival because of his emerging popularity among the moderates. The 4482: 585: 4265:

sometimes gave instructions concerning certain individuals. In one instance, he told Yezhov "Isn't it time to squeeze this gentleman and force him to report on his dirty little business? Where is he: in a prison or a hotel?" In another, while reviewing one of Yezhov's lists, he added to M. I. Baranov's name, "beat, beat!" Stalin also signed 357 lists in 1937 and 1938 authorizing executions of some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot, this was 7.4% of those executed legally. While reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the

4210: 4364:, Serdyuk, Mironov, Rudenko, and Semichastny. The hard work resulted in two massive reports, which detailed the mechanism of falsification of the show-trials against Bukharin, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and many others. The commission based its findings in large part on eyewitness testimonies of former NKVD workers and victims of repressions, and on many documents. The commission recommended rehabilitating every accused with the exceptions of Radek and Yagoda, because Radek's materials required some further checking, and Yagoda was a criminal and one of the falsifiers of the trials (though most of the charges against him had to be dropped too, he was not a "spy", etc.). The commission stated: 4234: 1814: 4502: 6644:"Despite the fact that the combined firepower of the Red Army was greater than that of the Germans, the Purges had effectively crippled it by destroying the officer corps. This was the decisive element which persuaded Hitler to attack in 1941. At the Nuremberg trial, Marshal Keitel testified that many German generals had warned Hitler not to attack Russia, arguing that the Red Army was a formidable opponent. Rejecting these Hitler gave Keitel his main reason 'The first-class high-ranking officers were wiped out by Stalin in 1937, and the new generation cannot yet provide the brains they need.'" 4538: 4118: 1903: 2472:) and civilian Communist Party members. Seeking to fulfill the quotas, the police rounded up people in markets and train stations, with the purpose of arresting "social outcasts". Local units of the NKVD, in order to meet their "casework minimums" and force confessions out of arrestees worked long uninterrupted shifts during which they interrogated, tortured and beat the prisoners. In many cases those arrested were forced to sign blank pages which were later filled in with a fabricated confession by the interrogators. 4462: 3458:

red-blue-and-yellow bruises with the strap and the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas. I howled and wept from the pain. I incriminated myself in the hope that by telling them lies I could end the ordeal. When I lay down on the cot and fell asleep, after 18 hours of interrogation, in order to go back in an hour's time for more, I was woken up by my own groaning and because I was jerking about like a patient in the last stages of typhoid fever.

12848: 1461: 2210: 2761: 2749: 12860: 11673: 4597:"The present purge draws between Bolshevism and Stalinism not simply a bloody line but a whole river of blood. The annihilation of all the older generation of Bolsheviks, an important part of the middle generation which participated in the civil war, and that part of the youth that took up most seriously the Bolshevik traditions, shows not only a political but a thoroughly physical incompatibility between Bolshevism and Stalinism. How can this not be seen?". 1761: 3845: 4137:

confessions extracted by torture. Khrushchev later claimed in his memoirs that he had initiated the process, overcoming objections and protests from the rest of Party leadership, but the transcripts belie this, although they show differences of opinion regarding the contents. Starting from 1954, some of the convictions were overturned. Mikhail Tukhachevsky and other generals convicted in the Trial of Red Army Generals were declared innocent ("

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point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions." According to historian Corrina Kuhr, 700,000 people were executed during the Great Purge out of the 2.5 million who were arrested. Professor Nérard François-Xavier estimates the same number of people who were sentenced to death; however, he states that 1.3 million people were arrested.

3683: 2836: 2436: 1810:, as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin's and generally Soviet perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. Stalin began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical "fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies." 10214: 3112: 2661: 2312: 3100: 136: 2935:, 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union were liquidated during the Stalinist terror, and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than had died in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, the majority of whom were Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo from Stalin's administration. Many Jewish figures such as 36: 3500:. (Stalin received lessons twice a week from 1925 to 1928, but he found it difficult to master even some of the basic ideas. Stalin developed enduring hostility toward German idealistic philosophy, which he called "the aristocratic reaction to the French Revolution".) Sten eventually became a member of an underground opposition group, and this group later joined the 4287:

begun. Stalin may have failed to anticipate the catastrophic excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov. Stalin also objected to the large numbers of people that Yezhov was purging. For example, when Yezhov announced that 200,000 party members were expelled, Stalin interrupted him, said that they were "very many" and suggested instead to only expel 30,000 and 600 former

4170:, and 2,000 unofficially killed in non-article 58 shootings; whereas the total estimate of deaths brought about by Soviet repression during the Great Purge ranges from 950,000 to 1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention and those who died shortly after being released from the Gulag, as a result of their treatment therein. There were also 2236:, is the most famous of the Soviet show trials, because of persons involved and the scope of charges which tied together all loose threads from earlier trials. Meant to be the culmination of previous trials, it included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites", supposedly led by Nikolai Bukharin, the former chairman of the 1787:(USSR). Various established figures in Lenin's government attempted to succeed him. By 1928, Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, had triumphed over his opponents and gained control of the party. Initially, Stalin's leadership was widely accepted; his main political adversary, Trotsky, was forced into exile in 1929, and Stalin's doctrine of " 2521: 2544:. The women were sentenced to forced labour for 5 or 10 years. Their minor children were put in orphanages. All possessions were confiscated. Extended families were purposely left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well, affecting up to 200,000–250,000 people of Polish background depending on the size of their families. 1950:, participants in the repression as members of the Politburo, maintained this justification throughout the purge; they each signed many death lists. Stalin believed war was imminent, threatened both by an explicitly hostile Germany and an expansionist Japan. The Soviet press portrayed the country as threatened from within by fascist spies. 2194:

friends, and intellectual friendship is stronger than other friendships. I knew that Bukharin was in the same state of upheaval as myself. That is why I did not want to deliver him bound hand and foot to the People's Commissariat of Home Affairs. Just as in relation to our other cadres, I wanted Bukharin himself to lay down his arms.

2024: 2303:, the Bukharin trial marked their final break with communism, and even turned the first three into fervent anti-communists eventually. To them, Bukharin's confession symbolized the depredations of communism, which not only destroyed its sons but also conscripted them in self-destruction and individual abnegation. 4068:

also reported on the executions. He called them in 1941 "the great purges", and described how over four years they affected "the top fourth or fifth, to estimate it conservatively, of the Party itself, of the Army, Navy, and Air Force leaders and then of the new Bolshevik intelligentsia, the foremost

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Political prisoners already serving a sentence in the Gulag camps were also executed in large numbers. NKVD Order no. 00447 also targeted "the most vicious and stubborn anti-Soviet elements in camps", they were all "to be put into the first category"—that is, shot. NKVD Order no. 00447 decreed 10,000

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In early 1937, poet Pavel Nikolayevich Vasiliev is said to have defended Nikolai Bukharin as "a man of the highest nobility and the conscience of peasant Russia" at the time of his denunciation at the Pyatakov Trial (Second Moscow Trial) and damned other writers then signing the routine condemnations

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At first, it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most of those purged were merely

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The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. One observer noted that after disproving several charges against him, Bukharin "proceeded to demolish or rather showed he could very easily

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and Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured, but it is now known that his interrogators were given the order "beating permitted", and were under great pressure to extract confession out of the "star" defendant. Bukharin initially held out for three months, but threats to his

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In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and Stalin in particular, were the sole dispensers of ideology. This required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious "old guard" of revolutionaries. As the purges began, the government (through

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According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research pokes "rather large holes in the traditional story" weaved by Conquest and others. His findings, while not exonerating Stalin or the Soviet state, dispel the notion that the bloodletting was merely the result of Stalin attempting to

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should be abandoned, it failed to fully rehabilitate the victims of the three Moscow trials, although the final report does contain an admission that the accusations have not been proven during the trials and "evidence" had been produced by lies, blackmail, and "use of physical influence". Bukharin,

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to spy for France. In the final interrogation, he retracted his confession and wrote letters to the prosecutor's office stating that he had implicated innocent people, but to no avail. Babel was tried before an NKVD troika and convicted of simultaneously spying for the French, Austrians and Trotsky,

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and believe that representatives of these minorities were killed not because of their ethnicity, but because of their possible relations to countries hostile to the USSR and fear of disloyalty in the case of an invasion. Nevertheless, little proof exists to suggest that Russia's and Stalin's alleged

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By 1929, Stalin had defeated his political opponents and gained full control over the party. He organized a committee to begin the process of industrialization of the Soviet Union. Backlash against industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture escalated, which prompted Stalin to increase

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It is quite possible that Yezhov misled Stalin about the aspects of the purge process. Many people at the time, and also a few subsequent commentators, surmised that the Great Purge wasn't started by Stalin's initiative, so the idea got about that the process was entirely out of control once it had

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and Oleg V. Naumov, "popular estimates of executions in the great purges vary from 500,000 to 7 million." However, according to them, "the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims" and "the data available at this

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for three years, but this proved to be a temporary reprieve. In May 1938, he was arrested again for "counter-revolutionary activities". On 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps and died on 27 December 1938 at a transit camp near Vladivostok. Pasternak himself was

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After the interrogations the files were submitted to NKVD troikas, which pronounced the verdicts in the absence of the accused. During a half-day-long session a troika went through several hundred cases, delivering either a death sentence or a sentence to the Gulag labor camps. Death sentences were

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On 2 July 1937, in a top secret order to regional Party and NKVD chiefs Stalin instructed them to produce the estimated number of "kulaks" and "criminals" in their districts. These individuals were to be arrested and executed, or sent to the gulag camps. The party chiefs complied and produced these

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I feel guilty of one thing more: even after admitting my guilt and exposing the organisation, I stubbornly refused to give evidence about Bukharin. I knew that Bukharin's situation was just as hopeless as my own, because our guilt, if not juridically, then in essence, was the same. But we are close

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testified that there was a "third organization separate from the cadres which had passed through school," as well as "semi-Trotskyites, quarter-Trotskyites, one-eighth-Trotskyites, people who helped us, not knowing of the terrorist organization but sympathizing with us, people who from liberalism,

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The Great Purge has provoked numerous debates about its purpose, scale, and mechanisms. According to one interpretation, Stalin's regime had to maintain its citizens in a state of fear and uncertainty to stay in power (Brzezinski, 1958). Robert Conquest emphasized Stalin's paranoia, focused on the

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The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high command). The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly created, two people from the eight in

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However, a large number of people were arrested at random in sweeps, on the basis of denunciations or because they were related to, were friends with or knew people already arrested. Engineers, peasants, railwaymen, and other types of workers were arrested during the "Kulak Operation" based on the

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Between 1936 and 1938, three very large Moscow trials of former senior Communist Party leaders were held, in which they were accused of conspiring with fascist and capitalist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union and restore capitalism. These trials were

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elected Kirov to the central committee with only three votes against, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 votes against. After Kirov's assassination, the NKVD charged the ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder as well as a growing list of other offenses,

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Stalin committed a very grave crime against the Communist party, the socialist state, Soviet people and worldwide revolutionary movement...Together with Stalin, the responsibility for the abuse of law, mass unwarranted repressions and death of many thousands of wholly innocent people also lies on

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Stalin undoubtedly caused many innocent people to be executed, but it seems likely that he thought many of them guilty of crimes against the state and felt that the execution of others would act as a deterrent to the guilty. He signed the papers and insisted on documentation. Hitler, by contrast,

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Although the trials of former Soviet leaders were widely publicized, the hundreds of thousands of other arrests and executions were not. These became known in the West only as a few former gulag inmates reached the West with their stories. Not only did foreign correspondents from the West fail to

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made up the majority of victims, with 18,000 being killed in the terror. Other victims were nobility and political and academic figures, along with some ordinary workers and herders. Mass graves containing hundreds of executed Buddhist monks and civilians have been discovered as recently as 2003.

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minorities arrested during the Great Purge were executed while those sentenced during the Kulak Operation had only a 50% chance of being executed, (though this may have been due to the Gulag camp's lack of space in the late stages of the Purge rather than deliberate discrimination in sentencing).

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A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for the first time, members of the ruling party were included on a massive scale as victims of the repression. In addition to ordinary citizens, prominent members of the Communist Party were also targets for the purges. The purge of the Party was

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So what was the motivation behind the Terror? The answers required a lot more digging, but it gradually became clearer that the violence of the late 1930s was driven by fear. Most Bolsheviks, Stalin among them, believed that the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1871 had failed because their leaders

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was flexibility: first, the numbers—the so-called limit—could be easily increased; second, it was left entirely to the NKVD officers whether a particular prisoner was to be shot or sent to the prison camps; third, the time-limits set for the completion of single operations were extended time and

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Two major lines of interpretation have emerged among historians. One argues that the purges reflected Stalin's ambitions, his paranoia, and his inner drive to increase his power and eliminate potential rivals. Revisionist historians explain the purges by theorizing that rival factions exploited

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to find work. At the height of the Terror, American immigrants besieged the US embassy, begging for passports so they could leave the Soviet Union. They were turned away by embassy officials, only to be arrested on the pavement outside by lurking NKVD agents. Many were subsequently shot dead at

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The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document

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states "theories about the elemental, spontaneous nature of the terror, about a loss of central control over the course of mass repression, and about the role of regional leaders in initiating the terror are simply not supported by the historical record". Besides signing Yezhov's lists, Stalin

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the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of

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Poles comprised 12.5% of those who were killed during the Great Terror, while comprising only 0.4% of the population. Overall, national minorities targeted in these campaigns composed 36% of the victims of the Great Purge, despite being only 1.6% of the Soviet Union's population. 74% of ethnic

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was the largest of this kind. The Polish operation claimed the largest number of the NKVD victims: 143,810 arrests and 111,091 executions according to records. Snyder estimates that at least eighty-five thousand of them were ethnic Poles. The remainder were 'suspected' of being Polish, without

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and others, the methods used to extract the confessions are known: such tortures as repeated beatings, simulated drownings, making prisoners stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and

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congress in February 1956 (which was made public a month later), Khrushchev referred to the purges as an "abuse of power" by Stalin which resulted in enormous harm to the country. In the same speech, he recognized that many of the victims were innocent and were convicted on the basis of false

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Concerning diaspora minorities, the vast majority of whom were Soviet citizens and whose ancestors had resided for decades and sometimes centuries in the Soviet Union and Russian Empire, "this designation absolutized their cross-border ethnicities as the only salient aspect of their identity,

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and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the "temporary" wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin's opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.

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The investigators began to use force on me, a sick 65-year-old man. I was made to lie face down and beaten on the soles of my feet and my spine with a rubber strap ... For the next few days, when those parts of my legs were covered with extensive internal hemorrhaging, they again beat the

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The victims were executed at night, either in prisons, in the cellars of NKVD headquarters, or in a secluded area, usually a forest. The NKVD officers shot prisoners in the head using pistols. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis. In Moscow, the use of

3443:, and supplied him with information about the situation in the USSR. There is no doubt that Gide used this information in his book attacking the USSR." Pilnyak was tried on 21 April 1938. In the proceeding that lasted 15 minutes, he was condemned to death and executed shortly afterward. 1738:, who headed the NKVD during the purge years. Scholars estimate the death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million. Despite the end of the Great Purge, the widespread surveillance and atmosphere of mistrust continued for decades. Similar purges took place 1723:, and Soviet citizens of Polish origin, who were subjected to forced deportation and extreme repression. Throughout the purge, the NKVD sought to strengthen control over civilians through fear, and frequently used imprisonment, torture, violent interrogation, and executions during its 4301:

posits that while the 'purposive deaths' caused by Hitler constitute 'murder', those caused under Stalin fall into the category of 'execution', although in terms of "causing death by criminal neglect and ruthlessness (...) Stalin probably exceeded Hitler". Wheatcroft elaborates:

2354:. His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what was in written confession and refuse to go any further. 2337:

young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with a double team of interrogators.

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The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and

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Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded, as a condition for "confessing", a direct guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families and followers would be spared. This offer was accepted, but when they were taken to the alleged Politburo meeting, only Stalin,

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Rykov, Zinoviev, and others were still seen as political opponents, and though the charges against them were obviously false, they could not have been rehabilitated because "for many years they headed the anti-Soviet struggle against the building of socialism in USSR".

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and many lower-level victims were also declared innocent in the 1950s. Nikolai Bukharin and others convicted in the Moscow Trials were not rehabilitated until as late as 1988. Leon Trotsky, considered a major player in the Russian Revolution and a major contributor to

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took the position that evidence of the camps should be ignored so the French proletariat would not be discouraged. A series of legal actions ensued at which definitive evidence was presented that established the validity of the former labor camp inmates' testimony.

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demolish the whole case." He continued by saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was based solely on confessions. He finished his last plea with the words:

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On the first day of trial, Krestinsky caused a sensation when he repudiated his written confession and pleaded not guilty to all the charges. However, he changed his plea the next day after "special measures", which dislocated his left shoulder among other things.

2704:(then equivalent to four-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-star generals), eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts), 50 of 57 army 2159:

That while confessions are necessarily entitled to the most serious consideration, the confessions themselves contain such inherent improbabilities as to convince the Commission that they do not represent the truth, irrespective of any means used to obtain

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Even previously sympathetic observers who had accepted the earlier trials found it more difficult to accept these new allegations as they became ever more absurd, and the purge expanded to include almost every living Old Bolshevik leader except Stalin and

1887:, as well as the majority of Lenin's Politburo, for disagreements in policy. The NKVD attacked the supporters, friends, and family of these "heretical" Marxists, whether they lived in Russia or not. The NKVD nearly annihilated Trotsky's family before 4072:

Evidence and the results of research began to appear after Stalin's death. This revealed the full enormity of the Purges. The first of these sources were the revelations of Nikita Khrushchev, which particularly affected the American editors of the

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wanted to be rid of the Jews and communists simply because they were Jews and communists. He was not concerned about making any pretence at legality. He was careful not to sign anything on this matter and was equally insistent on no documentation.

3486:, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus under Stalin and subsequently head of the NKVD, further pressured Iashvili with the alternatives of denouncing Tabidze or being arrested and tortured by the NKVD, Iashvili killed himself. 2163:

That Trotsky never instructed any of the accused or witnesses in the Moscow trials to enter into agreements with foreign powers against the Soviet Union that Trotsky never recommended, plotted, or attempted the restoration of capitalism in the

4549: 4449: 3482:, shot himself with a hunting gun in the building of the Writers' Union. He witnessed and was even forced to participate in public trials that ousted many of his associates from the Writers' Union, effectively condemning them to death. When 2432:

fact that they worked for or near important strategic sites and factories where work accidents had occurred due to "frantic rhythms and plans". During this period the NKVD reopened these cases and relabeled them as "sabotage" or "wrecking."

2428:, participants in peasant rebellions, members of the clergy, persons deprived of voting rights, former members of non-Bolshevik parties, ordinary criminals, like thieves, known to the police and various other "socially harmful elements". 2060:

that opposed Stalin, although its activities were exaggerated. Among other accusations, they were incriminated with the assassination of Kirov and plotting to kill Stalin. After confessing to the charges, all were sentenced to death and

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establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an exaggerated fear of counterrevolution:

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the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway. However the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.

1832:. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people. But from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution. 1962:. As the Russian Civil War drew to a close, this campaign was relaxed although the secret police did remain active. From 1924 to 1928, the mass repression – including incarceration in the Gulag system – dropped significantly. 10336: 4193:

were of individuals who had received this sentence. Despite this, the lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 "legal" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of

2076:, and were accused of plotting with Trotsky, who was said to be conspiring with Germany. Thirteen of the defendants were eventually executed by shooting and the rest received sentences in labor camps where they soon died. 2552:. The officials were mandated to arrest and execute a specific number of so-called "counter-revolutionaries", compiled by administration using various statistics but also telephone books with names sounding non-Russian. 1925:

By 1934, several of Stalin's rivals, such as Trotsky, began calling for Stalin's removal and attempted to break his control over the party. In this atmosphere of doubt and suspicion, the popular high-ranking official

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Moscow show trial of "Old Bolsheviks", and analyzed the carefully planned and systematic destruction of the Communist Party. Some others view the Great Purge as a crucial moment, or rather the culmination, of a vast

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broke out amid the purge. Sheng received assistance from the NKVD. Sheng and the Soviets alleged a massive Trotskyist conspiracy and a "Fascist Trotskyite plot" to destroy the Soviet Union. The Soviet Consul General

2126:. Although the hearings were obviously conducted with a view to proving Trotsky's innocence, they brought to light evidence which established that some of the specific charges made at the trials could not be true. 2122:, commonly known as the Dewey Commission, was set up in the United States by supporters of Trotsky, to establish the truth about the trials. The commission was headed by the noted American philosopher and educator 4348:. They were given the task to investigate the materials concerning Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and others. The commission worked in 1956–1957. While stating that the accusations against Tukhachevsky 3016:

While being the most visible part, the trials and executions of the former Bolshevik leaders were only a minor aspect of the purges. A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by

1746:. While the Soviet government desired to put Trotsky on trial during the purge, his exile prevented this. Trotsky survived the purge, though he would be assassinated in 1940 by the NKVD on the orders of Stalin. 3411:(Stalin jotted down in Bukharin's letter with feigned indignation: "Who gave them the right to arrest Mandelstam?"), Stalin instructed NKVD to "isolate but preserve" him, and Mandelstam was "merely" exiled to 2274:

The fact that Yagoda was one of the accused showed the speed at which the purges were consuming their own. It was now alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder

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In 2007, one such site, the Butovo firing range near Moscow, was turned into a shrine to the victims of Stalinism. Between August 1937 and October 1938, more than 20,000 people were shot and buried there.

2287:. No other crime of the Stalin years so captivated Western intellectuals as the trial and execution of Bukharin, who was a Marxist theorist of international standing. For some prominent communists such as 1957:

onward, Lenin had used repression against perceived and legitimate enemies of the Bolsheviks as a systematic method of instilling fear and facilitating control over the population in a campaign called the

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development research was judged un-Marxist, 27 astronomers disappeared between 1936 and 1938. The Meteorological Office was violently purged as early as 1933 for failing to predict weather harmful to the

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he monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may the great might of the U.S.S.R. become clear to all.

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highly publicized and extensively covered by the outside world, which was mesmerized by the spectacle of Lenin's closest associates confessing to most outrageous crimes and begging for death sentences:

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technicians, managers, supervisors, scientists". Knickerbocker also wrote about dekulakization: "It is a conservative estimate to say that some 5,000,000 ... died at once, or within a few years."

2618:

wrote "In Ukraine 1937 began in 1933", referring to the earlier Soviet political repressions in Ukraine. There was also deadly persecution of Ukrainian cultural elites, who are referred to as the

112: 3944: 3423:

was arrested in May 1939, and according to his confession paper (which contained a blood stain) he "confessed" to being a member of a Trotskyist organization and being recruited by French writer

2408:

The following categories appear to have been on index-cards, catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the NKVD and were systematically tracked down: "ex-kulaks" previously deported to "

3591:

was arrested in 1938, and accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists". He was executed on 4 October 1938. Another Esperanto writer

2450:, including active parishioners, was nearly annihilated: 85% of the 35,000 members of the clergy were arrested. Particularly vulnerable to repression were also the so-called "special settlers" ( 2457:

Common criminals such as thieves, "violators of the passport regime", etc. were also dealt with in a summary way. In Moscow, for example, nearly one third of the 20,765 persons executed on the

1970:. The kulaks responded by destroying crop yields and other acts of sabotage against the Soviet government. The food shortage led to a mass famine across the USSR and slowed the Five Year Plan. 3275:, was a Soviet economist, chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and Professor of the Agricultural Academy in Moscow but was eventually executed on fabricated charges in 1938. 3653:, an expert on East Asian languages, was arrested by the NKVD on the charge of being a "Japanese spy". On 27 November 1937 he was executed, along with his Japanese wife Isoko Mantani-Nevsky. 1851:

This opposition to current leadership may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The

4399:("openness and transparency") it became possible not only to speak about the Great Terror but to begin locating the killing grounds of 1937–1938 and identifying those who lay buried there. 1974:

accompanied by the purge of the whole society. Soviet historians organize the Great Purge into three corresponding trials. The following events are used for the demarcation of the period:

10229: – Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pp. 369–439, 767–79 4373:

Molotov stated "We would have been complete idiots if we had taken the reports at their face value. We were not idiots." and that "the cases were reviewed and some people were released"

2405:, former members of political parties other than the communist party, etc.). They were to be executed or sent to Gulag prison camps extrajudicially, under the decisions of NKVD troikas. 11128: 9101:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gabor T.; Zemskov, Viktor N. (October 1993). "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence".

2454:) who were under permanent police surveillance and constituted a huge pool of potential "enemies" to draw on. At least 100,000 of them were arrested in the course of the Great Terror. 4225:

saying "The report written by that commission member…says that 1,370,000 arrests were made in the 1930s. That's too many. I responded that the figures should be thoroughly reviewed".

2233: 2204: 2001: 11767: 2626:

sufficient proof of their disloyalty and sufficient justification for their arrest and execution" (Martin, 2001: 338). Some scholars have called the national operations of the NKVD

4032:, with respect to the trials of former leaders, some Western observers were unintentionally or intentionally ignorant of the fraudulent nature of the charges and evidence, notably 10615: 2048:

The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Kamenevite-Zinovievite-Leftist-Counter-Revolutionary Bloc," held in August 1936, at which the chief defendants were

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immediately enforceable. The executions were carried out at night, either in prisons or in secluded areas run by the NKVD and located as a rule on the outskirts of major cities.

2479:

The "Kulak Operation" was the largest single campaign of repression in 1937–38, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed, more than half the total of known executions.

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reports that the purge was not intended to subdue the Soviet masses, many of whom helped enact the purge, but to deal with opposition to Stalin's rule among the Soviet elites.

4413:

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many more mass graves filled with executed victims of the terror were discovered and turned into memorial sites. Some, such as the

2634:

called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal". However, he does not consider the Great Purge entirely genocidal because it also targeted political opponents.

654: 9723: 5397: 12171: 12154: 10299: 2591:, ethnic Poles constituted the largest group of victims in the Great Terror, comprising less than 0.5% of the country's population but comprising 12.5% of those executed. 1591: 1178: 4629:, which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by 1871:

participated, and which later led to both of their deaths. Stalin enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending

12201: 10467: 10432: 10428: 1935: 4907: 3775:, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and proceeded to execute tens of thousands of people accused of having ties to "pro-Japanese spy rings". Buddhist 8970: 619: 3999:

When the relatives of those who had been executed in 1937–1938 inquired about their fate, they were told by NKVD that their arrested relatives had been sentenced to "

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communists that perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists that were handed over from Stalin to the Gestapo after the signing of the

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Purging the elites; adopting plans for the mass repressions against the "social base" of the potential aggressors, starting of purging the "elites" from opposition.

2555:

The Polish Operation of the NKVD served as a model for a series of similar NKVD secret decrees targeting a number of the Soviet Union's diaspora nationalities: the

2087:

It is now known that the confessions were given only after great psychological pressure and torture had been applied to the defendants. From the accounts of former

11229: 11187: 10630: 10366: 10305: 4677: 4130: 2655: 1658:. Soviet politicians who opposed or criticized Stalin were removed from office and imprisoned or executed by the NKVD. Eventually, the purges were expanded to the 551: 4707: 4636:

Valentin Berezhkov, who became Stalin's interpreter in 1941, suggests parallels in his memoir between Hitler's inner party purge and Stalin's mass repressions of

3294:, founder of the Computing Institute in 1919 and was noted for his specialism in applied celestial mechanics before the Second World War. He was executed in 1941. 1835:

The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by

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report on the purges, but in many Western nations (especially France), attempts were made to silence or discredit these witnesses; according to Robert Conquest,

4501: 12664: 12164: 11368: 2587:. Of the operations against national minorities, it was the largest one, second only to the "Kulak Operation" in terms of the number of victims. According to 11631: 3977:, were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public. 3878:

Mass repressions against "kulaks", "dangerous" ethnic minorities, family members of oppositionists, military officers, saboteurs in agriculture and industry.

2900:

argued that Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective countries. He referenced 600 active

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viewed the excessive violence characteristic of the mass purges as an ideological differentiation between Stalinism and Bolshevism. He summarised his view:

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in December 1935 to "receive terrorist instructions" from Trotsky. The Dewey Commission established that no such flight had taken place. Another defendant,

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hadn't adequately anticipated the ferocity of the counter-revolutionary reaction from the establishment. They were determined not to make the same mistake.

3580:

was arrested on a charge of his alleged participation in the "Japanese-SR Terrorist Subversive Espionage Organization". He was executed on 12 October 1937.

2997:

who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive. Four of the other five were executed; the fifth,

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police presence in rural areas. Soviet authorities increased repression against the kulaks (i.e., wealthy peasants that owned farmland) in a policy called

425: 2369:

and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the leading defendants were executed except Rakovsky and two others (who were killed in

1791:" became enshrined party policy. However, in the early 1930s, party officials began to lose faith in his leadership, largely due to the human cost of the 12149: 12101: 2606:

Timothy Snyder attributes 300,000 deaths during the Great Purge to "national terror" including ethnic minorities and Ukrainian "kulaks" who had survived

4537: 4324:

At least two Soviet commissions investigated the show-trials after Stalin's death. The first was headed by Molotov and included Voroshilov, Kaganovich,

11646: 11626: 11100: 3544:, was executed on 27 October 1937. He created a classification of Russian dialects that served as a base for modern scientific linguistic nomenclature. 3757:

executions for this contingent, but at least three times more were shot in the course of the secret mass operation, the majority in March–April 1938.

12919: 12398: 11636: 10720: 6610: 1755: 402: 387: 127: 4580:, much of the Great Purge was directed against the widespread banditry and criminal activity which was occurring in the Soviet Union at the time. 3467:

was arrested on 10 October 1937 on a charge of treason and was tortured in prison. In a bitter humor, he named only the 18th-century Georgian poet

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was arrested on 28 October 1937 for counter-revolutionary activities, spying and terrorism. One report alleged that "he held secret meetings with

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Official figures put the total number of documentable executions during the years 1937 and 1938 at 681,692, in addition to 116,000 deaths in the

4088: 893: 4891:

According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials

4058:. While "Communist Parties everywhere simply transmitted the Soviet line", some of the most critical reporting also came from the left, notably 2464:

To carry out the mass arrests, the 25,000 officers of the State Security personnel of NKVD were complemented with units of ordinary police, and

584: 2271:, said in his memoirs that Bukharin told him that he formed a secret bloc with Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to remove Stalin from leadership. 916: 9851: 3984:, arrested in April 1938 and shot (or died from torture) in February 1939 (his wife, G. A. Yegorova, was shot in August 1938); Army Commander 3980:

In some cases, high military command arrested under Yezhov were later executed under Beria. Some examples include Marshal of the Soviet Union

12096: 11709: 11621: 10685: 10546: 7184: 7157: 6355:

Dyck, Kirsten (2022). "Holodomor and Holocaust memory in competition and cooperation". In Cox, John M.; Khoury, Amal; Minslow, Sarah (eds.).

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campaign started at the beginning of the 1930s (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003; Werth, 2003). According to an October 1993 study published in

2637:

Some scholars, however, focus on the security dilemma in the border areas suggesting the need to secure the ethnic integrity of Soviet space

450: 445: 3884:

Stopping of mass operations, abolishing of many organs of extrajudicial executions, repressions against some organizers of mass repressions.

3281:, Soviet economist and ranked among the most influential contributors to the classical Marxist tradition. He is noted for his seminal work, 1662:

and military high command, which had a disastrous effect on the military. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society:

11762: 11111: 10391: 10387: 6381:"The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4702: 4182: 4000: 2141:, confessed to taking part in the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, at a time when he had already been in prison for a year. 544: 525: 440: 435: 430: 4003:" (десять лет без права переписки). When these ten-year periods elapsed in 1947–1948 but the arrested did not appear, the relatives asked 3005:

in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one (

12281: 12251: 10743: 10346: 6109:"The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n°00447 (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 5053: 4692: 1118: 954: 859: 715: 232: 202: 6879: 6798: 4410:

in the White Sea, and erected next to KGB headquarters in Moscow as a memorial to all "the victims of political repression" since 1917.

12538: 12498: 12408: 12219: 11735: 11169: 10993: 1105: 411: 7350: 6252:

Sundström, Olle; Kotljarchuk, Andrej (2017). "Introduction: the problem of ethnic and religious minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union".

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Anti-Soviet 'Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites' Heard before the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R., Verbatim Report

2156:

That the conduct of the Moscow Trials was such as to convince any unprejudiced person that no attempt was made to ascertain the truth.

1730:

In 1938, Stalin reversed his stance on the purges, criticized the NKVD for carrying out mass executions, and oversaw the execution of

12526: 12421: 12293: 12079: 10753: 10725: 7729: 1772: 1482: 702: 697: 472: 7431: 3898: 3496:, philosopher and deputy head of the Marx-Engels Institute, was Stalin's private tutor when Stalin was trying hard to study Hegel's 1992: 12974: 12431: 12348: 12241: 11398: 11055: 10695: 10361: 8713: 846: 482: 373: 7783: 6771: 5259: 12371: 12178: 12045: 10968: 10917: 10279: 4461: 4382: 3635:

executive producer for the Soviet film monopoly from 1930 to 1937, was executed as a "traitor" in 1938, following a purge of the

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lists within days, with figures which roughly corresponded to the individuals who were already under secret police surveillance.

816: 757: 537: 515: 7377: 2340:

Bukharin's confession in particular became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel

12984: 12914: 12069: 11914: 11146: 11013: 10972: 10625: 10551: 10462: 10356: 7995: 7702: 6931:"Kurapaty (1937–1941): NKVD Mass Killings in Soviet Belarus | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4682: 4571: 4406:

in Belarus were the site of a clash between demonstrators and the police. In 1990, a boulder stone was brought from the former

3909: 2622:. Statistics of Ukraine's Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicate that about 200,000 victims of the Great Purge were Ukrainians. 2409: 1302: 1297: 1024: 614: 7502: 7475: 6852: 6074: 4316: 3504:

which was led by Leon Trotsky. In 1937, Sten was seized on the direct order of Stalin, who declared him one of the chiefs of "

12556: 12057: 12023: 12011: 12006: 11897: 10178: 10141:—— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32." 10060: 10039: 10018: 9996: 9974: 9955: 9933: 9911: 9864: 9831: 9810: 9791: 9769: 9746: 9234: 9147: 8750: 8723: 8696: 8005: 7978: 7793: 7766: 7756: 7739: 7712: 7667: 7593: 7566: 7539: 7529: 7512: 7485: 7458: 7414: 7387: 7360: 7333: 7306: 7194: 7167: 7140: 7113: 6889: 6862: 6835: 6825: 6808: 6781: 6754: 6727: 6700: 6673: 6364: 5269: 5242: 4712: 1171: 926: 752: 12483: 8974: 8138: 7583: 7323: 6457: 6398:"The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study" 6155: 2731:

disagreed, arguing that the Red Army was less effective after its intellectual leadership had been eliminated in the purge.

1287: 12593: 12361: 10457: 10452: 10396: 9137: 7968: 7683: 6744: 6217: 5543: 5232: 4912: 3988:, arrested July 1938 and shot February 1939; Flagman Konstantin Dushenov, arrested May 1938 and shot February 1940; Komkor 3559: 1979: 1803: 1475: 728: 568: 342: 7249: 6176:О фашистско-повстанческой, шпионской, диверсионной, пораженческой и террористической деятельности польской разведки в СССР 3573:, considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century, was shot on 3 November 1937. 2148:. Its conclusions asserted the innocence of all those condemned in the Moscow Trials. In its summary, the commission wrote 12989: 12473: 12139: 12086: 12074: 11163: 10907: 10825: 10690: 10509: 9731:

Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s

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was arrested in 1939 and shot in February 1940 for "spying" for Japanese and British intelligence. His wife, the actress

3416:

nearly purged, but Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off the list, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller."

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began affecting civilian life. The purge reached its peak between September 1936 and August 1938 under the leadership of

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The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures known as the "anti-Soviet Trotskyite-centre" which included

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The Great Purge was denounced by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev following Stalin's death. In his secret speech to the

4004: 3339:, who oversaw Soviet construction projects and nationalization of the chemical industry. Bogdanov was executed in 1939. 3143: 2921: 1292: 1210: 1146: 692: 7448: 7103: 6488: 12904: 12899: 12894: 12773: 12724: 12657: 12468: 12196: 11798: 11702: 11348: 11079: 8740: 7684:"Yuri Gastev, Russian dissident and human rights activist; at 65 – The Boston Globe (Boston, MA) | HighBeam Research" 5885:

Not guilty : report of the Commission of Inquiry Into the Charges Made Against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

3766: 2879: 2817: 2442:, one of the remaining leaders of the White movement, was kidnapped by the NKVD in 1937 and executed 19 months later. 1739: 1126: 465: 72: 7130: 5166: 4948: 3931:

In the summer of 1938, Yezhov was relieved from his post as head of the NKVD and was eventually tried and executed.

2861: 12934: 12803: 12791: 12615: 12605: 12561: 12376: 12052: 12001: 11884: 11353: 10870: 10351: 8988: 8180: 7404: 6415: 4260:

Historians with archival access have confirmed that Stalin was intimately involved in the purge. Russian historian

1156: 460: 107: 10246: 9226:

At Stalin's side : his interpreter's memoirs from the October Revolution to the fall of the dictator's empire

7352:

An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations

5517: 5491: 3021:

demonstrate that there were limits for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.

2096:

charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.

12808: 12796: 12652: 12637: 12551: 12453: 12035: 11855: 11373: 10860: 10855: 10835: 10783: 10499: 9674:"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest" 8627: 8620: 7213:

Sharma, Hari Prasad; Sen, Subir K. (2006). "Shubnikov: A case of non-recognition in superconductivity research".

5696: 4209: 3704: 2545: 2505:

was carried out from 1937 through 1938 targeting specific nationalities within the Soviet Union, on the order of

1227: 794: 314:

Elimination of political opponents, consolidation of power, fear of counterrevolution, fear of party infiltration

9948:

Two Lectures: Stalin's Great Terror: Origins and Consequences – Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Marxism in the USSR

9224: 3396:

had futilely pleaded for his case prior to his eventual execution due to accusations of working as a German spy.

3242:

considered the "Soviet founding father of Soviet low-temperature physics" He was known for the discovery of the

3227:. He was removed from his formal positions in 1935 and perished in prison in 1943 following his conflicts with 2279:

by poison, partition the USSR and hand its territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, and other charges.

12749: 12729: 12426: 12040: 11865: 11793: 11418: 11322: 10963: 10830: 10149: 8608: 8583: 7934: 7880: 6990: 6974: 6299: 5659: 4576: 4198:, Conquest claimed that he had been "correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million". 3772: 3712: 3588: 2846: 2799: 1807: 1715:. Many died at the penal labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure, and overwork. The NKVD targeted certain 1374: 1083: 1046: 477: 362: 352: 165: 6380: 4181:, a practice of falsification for lowering the execution numbers was disguising executions with the sentence " 3731:

Victims of the terror included American immigrants to the Soviet Union who had emigrated at the height of the

3001:, had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent 12944: 12939: 12929: 12820: 12647: 12511: 12463: 12224: 12018: 11892: 11875: 10943: 10840: 8462:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" 4924: 4626: 3650: 1931: 1442: 1412: 1407: 94: 17: 6119: 6108: 5285: 12964: 12959: 12924: 12416: 12091: 11986: 11787: 11695: 11598: 11363: 11025: 10875: 10788: 10514: 10504: 10477: 10218: 8169:

Allen S. Whiting and General Sheng Shicai. "Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot?" Michigan State University Press, 1958

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regarded the Moscow trials "as the prelude to the destruction of an entire generation of revolutionaries".

4233: 3981: 3621: 3537: 3385: 3243: 2948: 2936: 2795: 2716:

expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–1939 were allowed to return to service.

2513: 2401:

was issued, directed against "ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" (such as former officials of the

2092: 1716: 1427: 1277: 1093: 1088: 1068: 911: 906: 867: 821: 809: 784: 774: 743: 733: 420: 54: 3954:

Michael Parrish argues that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s.

1802:

From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the "social disorder" caused by the upheavals of

12969: 12697: 12679: 12445: 12303: 12264: 12231: 11921: 11909: 11825: 11727: 11045: 10700: 10472: 10447: 10423: 10331: 10272: 10129: 9423: 4687: 4440: 3948: 3836: 3347: 3045: 2958:, in which the NKVD oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements in the Spanish Republican forces including 2905: 2701: 2685: 2665: 2502: 2488: 1813: 1724: 1417: 1402: 1397: 1036: 1031: 972: 779: 576: 510: 46: 8944: 3951:

and suspended implementation of death sentences. The decree signaled the end of massive Soviet purges.

1696:

headed by Stalin. Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of various political crimes (espionage,

12692: 12669: 12642: 11658: 11388: 11378: 11343: 10880: 10536: 10251: 10238: 10069:

Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited."

8771: 8469: 7023: 3501: 2913: 2260: 2057: 1860: 1267: 1237: 6717: 5366:

Shearer, David. 2003. "Social Disorder, Mass Repression and the NKVD During the 1930s." pp. 85–117 in

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There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of Red Army commanders, including

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as "pornographic scrawls on the margins of Russian literature". He was promptly shot on 16 July 1937.

3082: 2925: 2917: 2901: 455: 12702: 6930: 6044:

Report by Viscount Chilston (British ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, No. 141, Moscow, 21 March 1938

12815: 11383: 11219: 11135: 11072: 10865: 10748: 10705: 10665: 9870: 8600: 7926: 7897: 7002: 2370: 1788: 1676:)—and professionals. As the scope of the purge widened, the omnipresent suspicion of saboteurs and 1643: 1056: 723: 8182:

Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

8052: 7809: 2951:, spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937. 12064: 11593: 11197: 11086: 10953: 10820: 9511: 9181: 9163: 8859: 8214: 7132:

Covariant Loop Quantum Gravity: An Elementary Introduction to Quantum Gravity and Spinfoam Theory

4455:"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988 4138: 4100: 3993: 3827:

were among the 435 alleged conspirators in the plot. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control.

3306: 2857: 2788: 2642: 2447: 2378: 2237: 1697: 1619: 1525: 1200: 877: 672: 9021: 8624: 7037: 5916: 5411: 4046:, who reported, "proof ... beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict of treason"; and 3454:, was murdered in her apartment. In a letter to Molotov dated 13 January 1940, Meyerhold wrote: 3328:. Gerasimovich was arrested along with 13 other astronomers and was personally executed in 1938. 1942:

Another justification for the purge was to remove any possible "fifth column" in case of a war.

12744: 12336: 12274: 11676: 11585: 10680: 10566: 10265: 9634: 8021: 4987:

James Harris, "Encircled by Enemies: Stalin's Perceptions of the Capitalist World, 1918–1941,"

4672: 3955: 3924:. He was posthumously removed from pictures, such as here where he stood next to Joseph Stalin. 3700: 3247: 2944: 2469: 2421: 10224: 8775: 8371: 6129: 5840: 1708:, conspiracies to prepare uprisings and coups). They were executed by shooting or sent to the 12863: 11835: 11572: 11117: 11106: 11040: 10620: 10341: 10077: 9578: 8575: 8535: 8081:

American Communists and Radicals Executed by Soviet Political Police and Buried at Sandarmokh

7477:

Automation and Autonomy: Labour, Capital and Machines in the Artificial Intelligence Industry

7018: 6555: 6160:["The Polish operation" NKVD 1937–1938] (in Russian). НИПЦ «Мемориал». Archived from 5261:

Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia

4801: 4760: 4298: 3960: 3519: 3351: 3178: 2347: 1872: 1705: 1677: 1073: 872: 10252:"Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38" 9729:

A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev.

4435:

In August 2021, a mass grave containing between 5,000 and 8,000 skeletons was discovered in

4185:" which almost always meant execution. All of the bodies identified from the mass graves at 4117: 3806:

province in China launched his own purge in 1937 to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. The

2185:

By the "third organization," he meant the last remaining former opposition group called the

12949: 12884: 12625: 12488: 12308: 12106: 11820: 11524: 11452: 11393: 11304: 11259: 10936: 10437: 10418: 9268: 7261: 7068: 7059:

Bronstein, Matvei (2011). "Republication of: Quantum theory of weak gravitational fields".

6949: 5439: 3970: 3958:(a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in 3661: 3636: 3220: 3070: 3033: 2669: 2619: 2541: 2398: 2080: 1880: 1792: 1765: 1689: 1364: 1220: 1078: 1051: 941: 936: 921: 789: 12712: 9419: 3992:, arrested August 1938 and shot March 1939. All the aforementioned have been posthumously 2267:

asserts that Bukharin was not involved. Differently from Broué, one of his former allies,

1743: 8: 12852: 12581: 12386: 12315: 12123: 11972: 11850: 11772: 11745: 11532: 11516: 11500: 11269: 11224: 11192: 10978: 10571: 10561: 10492: 10089: 9899: 6978: 4739: 4407: 4357: 4329: 4074: 4065: 3807: 3789: 3737: 3479: 3325: 3262: 3174: 3058: 2458: 1918: 1888: 1465: 1262: 1215: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1002: 841: 687: 641: 9673: 7265: 7072: 4934: 3428:

as well as "membership in a terrorist organization". On 27 January 1940, he was shot in

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Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38."

10106: 9704: 9650: 9118: 9060: 9006: 8911: 8486: 8219: 7638: 7230: 7084: 6438: 5767: 5371: 5354: 5349:

Hagenloh, Paul. 2000. "Socially Harmful Elements and the Great Terror." pp. 286–307 in

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about their fate again and this time were told that the arrested died in imprisonment.

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This article is about the 1936–1938 Soviet purge. For political purges in general, see

9885: 9192: 8121: 6520:

Cahiers du monde russe. Russie – Empire russe – Union soviétique et États indépendants

5325: 3044:, or their deputies) those arrested along national lines. A characteristic of all the 12827: 12767: 12546: 12332: 12028: 11830: 11815: 11757: 11603: 11234: 11035: 10958: 10675: 10519: 10442: 10413: 10174: 10081: 10056: 10050: 10035: 10014: 10006: 9992: 9984: 9970: 9951: 9929: 9907: 9860: 9827: 9806: 9787: 9765: 9742: 9708: 9696: 9658: 9639: 9620: 9601: 9582: 9547: 9515: 9492: 9470: 9451: 9429: 9405: 9384: 9378: 9363: 9230: 9143: 9029: 8919: 8811: 8781: 8746: 8719: 8692: 8668: 8604: 8579: 8539: 8461: 8428: 8377: 8186: 8001: 7974: 7930: 7876: 7789: 7762: 7735: 7708: 7663: 7630: 7589: 7562: 7535: 7508: 7481: 7454: 7410: 7383: 7356: 7329: 7302: 7277: 7222: 7190: 7163: 7136: 7109: 7088: 7006: 6986: 6970: 6953:

article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including:

6910: 6885: 6858: 6831: 6804: 6777: 6750: 6723: 6696: 6669: 6650: 6537: 6494: 6360: 6335: 6295: 6262: 5898: 5888: 5771: 5759: 5655: 5589: 5549: 5265: 5238: 5205: 5114: 5011: 4870: 4618: 4602: 4392: 4269: 3940: 3916: 3740:. In addition, 141 American Communists of Finnish origin were executed and buried at 3616: 3599: 3592: 3166: 3155: 3025: 3018: 2989:, or in Lenin's Soviet government, were executed. Out of six members of the original 2909: 2853: 2382: 2300: 2209: 2120:

Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

1844: 1628: 1437: 1369: 1349: 1314: 1309: 1205: 1041: 992: 967: 962: 931: 667: 505: 217: 10850: 6442: 6255:

Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research

5234:

Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat

4828: 4356:

The second commission largely worked from 1961 to 1963 and was headed by Shvernik ("

3866:

Reforming the security organizations, adopting official plans on purging the elites.

3533:

was arrested in 1933 for contradicting Soviet ideology. He was shot in October 1937.

3002: 2916:

became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the

1892: 11548: 11540: 11358: 11316: 11290: 11179: 11050: 11030: 11003: 10763: 10524: 10098: 9688: 9533: 9484: 9110: 8478: 8072: 7622: 7269: 7076: 6962: 6527: 6515: 6430: 6075:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5751: 5735: 5541: 5398:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5197: 5094: 4862: 4816: 4667: 4388: 4333: 4280: 4250: 4146: 4043: 4017: 3745: 3732: 3660:

was executed on 3 November 1937. He is considered to be one of the lead figures of

3643: 3628: 3541: 3509: 3381: 3266: 3198: 3041: 2978:, a left-wing academic and translator along with many members of the POUM faction. 2940: 2752: 2599: 2525: 2388: 2342: 2315: 2225: 2186: 2113: 2056:, two of the most prominent former party leaders, who had indeed been members of a 2049: 2037: 1947: 1906: 1896: 1868: 1856: 1840: 1567: 1516: 1282: 1252: 901: 887: 804: 609: 489: 295: 291: 9724:

Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag

8148: 8126:

Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe

5755: 5671: 4527:

A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of

3947:) and the subsequent order of the NKVD undersigned by Beria cancelled most of the 3424: 12739: 11952: 11904: 11810: 11492: 11284: 11202: 10998: 10927: 10758: 10603: 10593: 10382: 10247:

Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)

10082:"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45" 10029: 9821: 9779: 9561: 9543: 9399: 9360:

The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB

9087: 8805: 8686: 8631: 6954: 6329: 6161: 5583: 5005: 5001: 4610: 4584: 4214: 4178: 4025: 3932: 3823:, Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang and 3812: 3612:, seen as one of the founders of modern Yakut literature, died in prison in 1939. 3483: 3471:

as his accomplice in anti-Soviet activities. He was executed on 16 December 1937.

3464: 3408: 3400: 3393: 3298: 3208: 3202: 3128: 3092: 3010: 2681: 2673: 2549: 2333: 2296: 2284: 2169:

The commission concluded: "We therefore find the Moscow Trials to be frame-ups."

2138: 2130: 1985:

1937, introduction of NKVD troikas for implementation of "revolutionary justice."

1632: 1614: 1354: 1344: 1242: 882: 831: 279: 90: 10011:

Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine

9739:

Enemies within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939

9263: 8885: 8532:

The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939

8277: 7687: 6221: 5975:

De Lenine à Staline. Dix ans au service de l'Internationale communiste 1921–1931

5887:. 1859–1952. New York: Sam Sloan and Ishi Press International. pp. 154–55. 5201: 5080:"The Impact of the Great Purges on the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs" 5038: 4820: 4432:, an official but controversial recognition of the crimes of the Soviet regime. 2264: 12759: 12687: 11967: 11957: 11616: 11608: 11413: 11338: 11254: 11214: 10773: 10768: 10710: 9921: 7997:

Russian Academicians and the Revolution: Combining Professionalism and Politics

6994: 6359:. Routledge studies in modern history. London New York: Routledge. p. 31. 6325: 6281: 5585:

Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938

5139:

Goldman, W. (2005). "Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign".

4637: 4429: 4341: 4337: 4325: 4261: 4254: 4151: 4033: 3974: 3921: 3609: 3551: 3530: 3515: 3475: 3429: 3404: 3343: 3336: 3313: 3228: 3224: 3054: 3037: 3006: 2631: 2607: 2588: 2506: 2439: 2417: 2402: 2366: 2253: 2221: 1967: 1776: 1735: 1731: 1681: 1663: 1655: 1647: 1583: 1334: 1272: 1014: 1007: 997: 631: 347: 275: 271: 10232: 10102: 9692: 9264:"Historian James Harris says Russian archives show we've misunderstood Stalin" 7626: 7080: 6692:

Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State

6089:

L'ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. Autopsie d'un meurtre de masse, 1937–1938

2764: 12909: 12878: 12620: 11508: 11468: 11264: 11157: 11152: 11008: 10931: 10897: 10660: 10655: 10541: 10288: 10243: 9943: 9761: 9537: 9443: 9033: 8923: 8801: 7634: 7281: 7226: 6541: 6070: 5902: 5763: 5393: 5209: 4874: 4766: 4614: 4345: 4242: 4202: 4047: 3989: 3848: 3657: 3451: 3436: 3407:

to his circle of friends in 1934. After intervention by Nikolai Bukharin and

3369: 3359: 3291: 3239: 2932: 2897: 2540:

The wives and children of those arrested and executed were dealt with by the

2377:, was sent to a labor camp, but she survived to see her husband posthumously 2292: 2288: 2217: 2069: 2014: 1914: 1852: 1720: 1651: 1594: 1432: 1359: 1339: 1247: 1019: 767: 682: 337: 263: 103: 8080: 6532: 3440: 2144:

The Dewey Commission later published its findings in a 422-page book titled

12503: 12324: 11718: 11564: 11460: 11279: 11020: 10805: 10715: 10576: 10199: 9881: 9700: 9529: 8076: 6645: 4590: 4492: 4443:. The graves are believed to date back to the late 1930s during the purge. 4142: 4110: 4079: 4060: 3799: 3793: 3708: 3523: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3205:

was arrested, accused of fictional "terroristic" activity and shot in 1938.

3139: 2998: 2724: 2241: 2029: 1927: 1910: 1864: 1836: 1817: 1784: 1780: 1606: 303: 157: 9467:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

8425:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

4866: 4708:

Orphans in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945

3478:, having earlier been forced to denounce several of his associates as the 12328: 12320: 11942: 11926: 11840: 11297: 11123: 8398: 7558:

Soviet Atomic Project, The: How The Soviet Union Obtained The Atomic Bomb

6291: 4630: 4292: 4122: 4051: 3555: 3547: 3420: 3355: 3278: 3104: 3074: 3029: 2975: 2943:

were arrested in 1937 by the NKVD and turned over to the German Gestapo.

2697: 2615: 2584: 2374: 2276: 2053: 2033: 1257: 1136: 987: 977: 636: 227: 10119:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

9291:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

8992: 7234: 6218:"Zapomniane ludobójstwo stalinowskie (The forgotten Stalinist genocide)" 5738:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

4882: 4850: 3945:

Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation

1884: 12356: 11274: 10922: 10608: 10487: 9122: 8597:

Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940

8490: 6286: 5553: 5368:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union,

5106: 4717: 4556: 4288: 3985: 3841:

The Great Purge of 1936–1938 can be roughly divided into four periods:

3824: 3741: 3602:

was arrested and executed for "subversive writing" on 24 November 1937.

3570: 3505: 3317: 3212: 2982: 2967: 2959: 2893: 2802: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2568: 2425: 2178: 2123: 2065: 1959: 1760: 1712: 1161: 836: 677: 604: 382: 283: 190: 11687: 10110: 9598:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union

9223:

Berezhkov, V. M. (Valentin Mikhaĭlovich); Mikheyev, Sergei M. (1994).

7642: 7610: 7273: 5936:

British Embassy Report: Viscount Chilston to Mr. Eden, 6 February 1937

5217: 5185: 3619:, responsible for creating the synopsis for Sergei Prokofiev's ballet 1988:

1937, passage of Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage."

1895:

was part of an assassination task force put together by Special Agent

1646:

and secret police of the USSR. Starting in 1936, the NKVD under chief

1642:(People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), which functioned as the 982: 12576: 12571: 12393: 12286: 12116: 11777: 10902: 10793: 10650: 10588: 10134:—— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938." 8907: 8638: 4908:"The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region" 4727: 4320:

Opening of monument to victims of political repressions, Moscow, 1990

3936: 3844: 3820: 3816: 3584: 3497: 3195: 3078: 2963: 2709: 2611: 2564: 2529: 2319: 1232: 738: 599: 357: 141: 9114: 8482: 8143: 7325:

Managing Technological Innovation: Competitive Advantage from Change

5672:"Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives" 5098: 4851:"Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges" 3123: 2864:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 2777: 2373:

in 1941). Despite the promise to spare his family, Bukharin's wife,

2216:

chiefs responsible for conducting mass repressions (left to right):

12566: 12111: 11845: 11805: 10845: 10556: 7585:

Hammer and Rifle: The Militarization of the Soviet Union, 1926–1933

6666:

Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years

6434: 6385:

nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html

4468: 4414: 4403: 4396: 4273: 4190: 3803: 3716: 3493: 3232: 3162: 2693: 2627: 2576: 2572: 2560: 2465: 1701: 1659: 1624: 1131: 826: 237: 222: 194: 161: 7785:

Ensnared between Hitler and Stalin: Refugee Scientists in the USSR

7611:"Alexei Gastev and the Soviet Controversy over Taylorism, 1918-24" 7433:

The Official Record of the United States Department of Agriculture

3646:

was convicted as a "Japanese spy" and executed on 2 February 1938.

3150: 3087: 2594: 1828:" in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the expression 12458: 11962: 10581: 10406: 10401: 10161: 9853:

Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review

8860:"Pictorial essay: Death trenches bear witness to Stalin's purges" 8022:"In memory of the scientist : Durnovo, Nikolai Nikolayevich" 7659:

The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927–1932

6113:

nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html

4622: 4528: 3693: 3668: 3563: 3182: 2435: 2413: 10257: 8971:"Jewish Cemeteries, Synagogues, and Mass Grave Sites in Ukraine" 7873:

A Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror

5715: 5472: 4613:, a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the 3771:

During the late 1930s, Stalin dispatched NKVD operatives to the

3682: 2723:

The purge had a significant effect on German decision making in

10213: 7409:. (Cottons Gardens, E2 8DN), Pluto Press Limited. p. 239. 5121: 4559:

burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia

4439:, Ukraine, during exploration works for a planned expansion of 4391:

and similar organisations across the Soviet Union at a time of

4266: 3605: 3468: 3302: 3216: 3135: 3111: 2728: 2660: 2641:

neighboring capitalistic enemy states. They stress the role of

2614:

famine that had been used to kill millions in the early 1930s.

2580: 2311: 198: 8829: 8827: 7450:

The Reception of David Ricardo in Continental Europe and Japan

6334:(4th revised ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 5917:"The Case of Leon Trotsky (Report of Dewey Commission – 1937)" 4543:

A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia

3935:

succeeded him as head. On 17 November 1938, a joint decree of

3231:. The controversy would also contribute to a wider decline in 2708:

commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army

1820:, in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union 254:

system (official figures) 700,000 to 1.2 million (estimated)

12381: 12259: 10800: 9926:

Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)

8351: 7105:

Advances in the Interplay Between Quantum and Gravity Physics

5986: 5984: 5607: 5605: 5440:"The "Bloc" of the Oppositions against Stalin (January 1980)" 4886: 4512: 4472: 4436: 4167: 3852: 3099: 2955: 2705: 2556: 2228:. All three were themselves eventually arrested and executed. 1825: 1709: 1671: 1667: 1602: 397: 251: 135: 86: 10300:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

9904:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

8460:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993).

8373:

Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind

7758:

Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences

6983:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

4172:

16,500 to 50,000 deaths in the deportation of Soviet Koreans

3376:

in 1934. He was also the sibling of prominent mathematician

2646:

prejudices played a central causal role in the Great Purge.

12493: 12269: 9056:"Critics Scoff as Kremlin Erects Monument to the Repressed" 8824: 8315: 8305: 8303: 8288: 8090: 6909:. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 364–72. 6140: 6138: 4418: 4276: 3855: 3776: 3170: 2971: 2213: 2205:

Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"

2134: 2088: 1639: 267: 10254:

by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999

9575:

The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s

9022:"Former Killing Ground Becomes Shrine to Stalin's Victims" 8739:

Dashpu̇rėv, Danzankhorloogiĭn; Soni, Sharad Kumar (1992).

8712:

Kotkin, Stephen; Elleman, Bruce Allen (12 February 2015).

8518:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8505:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8427:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 244–45. 6773:

On the Eve: The Jews of Europe Before the Second World War

6626: 6055:

Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet

6026: 5981: 5602: 2727:: many German generals opposed an invasion of Russia, but 181:(2 years, 3 months, 4 weeks and 1 day) 12478: 12298: 8642: 8246: 6935:

kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html

6881:

Russia's International Relations in the Twentieth Century

6719:

Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History

2520: 2424:), former tsarist civil servants, former officers of the 2152:

Independent of extrinsic evidence, the Commission finds:

10337:

Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War

10306:

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

9489:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

9315:

For a critique of Whitewood see Alexander Hill, review,

9204: 8441: 8339: 8327: 8300: 8032: 7939: 7704:

Comprehending the Complexity of Countries: The Way Ahead

6967:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

6135: 5652:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

5634: 5632: 5542:

People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. (1938).

5146: 4949:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Party Purge" 4678:

Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin

4428:

On 30 October 2017, President Vladimir Putin opened the

4156:

Rehabilitation: The Political Processes of the 1930s–50s

3858:(1937–1938), later himself arrested and executed in 1939 2688:. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov survived the Great Purge. 2656:

Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

9425:

The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression

9335: 9100: 8459: 7895: 7761:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 3460. 7447:

Faccarello, Gilbert; Izumo, Masashi (3 February 2014).

6585: 6573: 6014: 6002: 5939: 5820: 5808: 5796: 5370:

edited by B. McLaughlin and K. McDermott. Basingstoke:

3057:

to kill the victims during their transportation to the

2232:

The third and final trial, in March 1938, known as the

1939:

including treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage.

1783:

opened in the Communist Party, the ruling party in the

11369:

List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin

9243: 9182:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 9164:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 8258: 8234: 8102: 7862:

The Independent, "The History of Hell", 8 January 1995

7108:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 440. 7102:

Bergmann, Peter G.; Sabbata, V. de (6 December 2012).

5855: 4968: 4966: 4279:

in Mongolia to be liquidated but the political leader

3508:

idealists". On 19 June 1937, Sten was put to death in

3403:

was arrested for reciting his famous anti-Stalin poem

3223:

such as the law of homologous series in variation and

8212: 6153: 5999:

Bertram David Wolfe, "Breaking with communism", p. 10

5867: 5629: 5286:"Leon Trotsky – Exile and assassination | Britannica" 4221:

The Soviets themselves made their own estimates with

3711:, who both organized large-scale murderous purges in 2263:

led by Trotsky and with zinovievites really existed,

2182:

from a Fronde against the Party, gave us this help."

1551: 1530: 800:

Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina

10816:

Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

10052:

The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia

9229:. Secaucus, NJ : Carol Pub. Group. p. 10. 6251: 6228: 5617: 5054:"Rethinking Stalin's Purge of the Red Army, 1937–38" 4272:

got rid of? No one." Stalin had ordered for 100,000

2482: 2461:

were charged with a non-political criminal offence.

9617:

The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953

9595: 8369: 8178: 7186:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

7159:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

6053:Tucker, Robert. "Block of Rights and Trotskyites." 5721: 4983: 4981: 4963: 4311: 3189:Those who perished during the Great Purge include: 1650:began the removal of the central party leadership, 11101:Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia 9850:Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). 9849: 9641:The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: In Three Volumes 9638: 8912:"Wary of its past, Russia ignores mass grave site" 8658:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1999, p. 470 8363: 6947:This information was published first in 1990 in a 5548:. People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. 5400:. Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network. 5167:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge" 2966:factions. Notable cases involved the execution of 1688:. The campaigns were carried out according to the 973:50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests 10158:Rehabilitation: Political Trials of the 1930s–50s 10154:Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов 9222: 8625:Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited 8573:Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle. 7430:Agriculture, United States Department of (1925). 6513: 3265:and developed the business cycle theory known as 2908:. Rogovin also noted that sixteen members of the 2189:, led by Bukharin, whom he implicated by saying: 2019: 1756:Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1605:also sought to remove the remaining influence of 128:purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 12980:Persecution of intellectuals in the Soviet Union 12876: 12567:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences 9784:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 9358:Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000) . 6220:. Gliwicki klub Fondy. Czytelnia. Archived from 6103: 6101: 6099: 6097: 5582:Getty, John Arch; Getty, John Archibald (1987). 4978: 4154:, was never rehabilitated by the USSR. The book 4030:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 11209:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 9539:In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage 9448:The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia 9357: 9328:Roger R. Reese, "Stalin Attacks the Red Army." 7788:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 1–376. 7731:Groups and Analysis: The Legacy of Hermann Weyl 7446: 7379:Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography 7101: 6827:The End of the Spanish Civil War: Alicante 1939 6215: 5478: 5000: 4905: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4607:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 2381:a half-century later by the Soviet state under 2172: 1670:—especially those lending out money or wealth ( 89:. For the period of the French Revolution, see 49:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling 8738: 8215:"«Большой террор»: 1937–1938. Краткая хроника" 8085:In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage 8050: 7858: 7856: 7854: 7128: 6877: 6514:Kuromiya, Hiroaki; Pepłoński, Andrzej (2009). 6224:on 23 March 2012 – via Internet Archive. 5841:"The British Stalinists and the Moscow Trials" 5518:"Who Killed Kirov? 'The Crime of the Century'" 4042:, a Russian speaker; the American Ambassador, 3751: 3177:. He was accused of being a Japanese spy, and 11703: 10784:Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour 10686:Aggravation of class struggle under socialism 10547:Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance 10273: 9928:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 9655:Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 8711: 8185:. Cambridge: CUP Archive. pp. 151, 376. 7436:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 3. 7208: 7206: 6413: 6094: 5932: 5930: 5186:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4802:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4564: 4421:, are said to contain up to 200,000 corpses. 4387:In the late 1980s, with the formation of the 1561: 1545: 1483: 545: 250:681,692 executions and 116,000 deaths in the 144:searching through the exhumed victims of the 10234:Actual video footage from Third Moscow Trial 10196:Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror 10031:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 9633: 9596:McLoughlin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin (2002). 9508:The Great Fear: Stalin's Terror of the 1930s 9201:, p. 121 which cites his secret speech. 8945:"Stalin-era mass grave yields tons of bones" 8252: 8217:["Great Terror": Brief Chronology]. 8139:"RTÉ News: Mass grave uncovered in Mongolia" 7135:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–7. 6287:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 6200:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 4946: 4906:François-Xavier, Nérard (27 February 2009). 4784: 4703:Family members of traitors to the Motherland 4376: 4183:10 years without the right of correspondence 4161: 4001:10 years without the right of correspondence 2389:"Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" 10744:1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi 9528: 9464: 9428:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 9053: 8529: 8520:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. xvi 8507:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. 287 8422: 8396: 8376:. Reynal & Hitchcock. pp. 133–34. 8096: 7896:Tarkhan-Mouravi, George (19 January 1997). 7851: 7848:Robert C. Tucker, "Stalin in Power", p. 445 7802: 7754: 7734:. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. 7429: 7129:Rovelli, Carlo; Vidotto, Francesca (2015). 6878:Kocho-Williams, Alastair (4 January 2013). 6769: 6695:. Princeton University Press. p. 280. 6065: 6063: 4555:The monumental slab at the entrance to the 4113:on a 1963 postage stamp of the Soviet Union 3474:Tabidze's lifelong friend and fellow poet, 2765:Nikita Khrushchev speech during Great purge 1879:the NKVD) shot Bolshevik heroes, including 1654:, government officials, and regional party 1572: 11710: 11696: 11170:Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR 10280: 10266: 10076: 10048: 9983: 9758:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 9671: 9019: 8833: 8810:. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. 7662:. Princeton University Press. p. 47. 7588:. University Press of Kansas. p. 72. 7247: 7203: 6999:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 6482: 6480: 6478: 6261:. Södertörn Academic Studies. p. 16. 5927: 5581: 4640:, military commanders and intellectuals. 4402:In 1988, for instance, the mass graves at 4121:Monument to victims of the repressions in 3362:, emigre and eventual political dissident. 3287:. Rubin was arrested and executed in 1937. 3028:and in camera by extrajudicial organs—the 3009:) committed suicide, and two (Molotov and 2985:who had played prominent roles during the 2753:Soviet woman speech during the Great purge 1597:'s campaign to consolidate power over the 1490: 1476: 552: 538: 134: 10754:National delimitation in the Soviet Union 10726:Backwardness brings on beatings by others 9898: 9483: 9469:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 9135: 8906: 8886:"Mass grave found at Ukrainian monastery" 8780:. Harvard University Press. p. 369. 7966: 7957:Roy Medvedev, "Let history judge", p. 438 7781: 7473: 7212: 7058: 6857:. Harvard University Press. p. 212. 6823: 6742: 6531: 6211: 6209: 6193: 6191: 6189: 6187: 6185: 5638: 5051: 4141:") in 1957. The former Politburo members 3726: 3131:'s photo, taken at the time of his arrest 2880:Learn how and when to remove this message 2818:Learn how and when to remove this message 1855:seemed to vindicate Stalin's suspicions. 1638:The purges were largely conducted by the 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 12920:Political repression in the Soviet Union 10696:Great Construction Projects of Communism 10173:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 10168: 10148: 10013:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9778: 9741:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9657:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9649: 9572: 9560: 9418: 9397: 9376: 9341: 9210: 9198: 9088:"Stalin-era mass grave found in Ukraine" 8849:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, pp. 276, 294 8595:Marc Jansen, Nikita Vasilʹevich Petrov. 8530:Getty, J. Arch; Naumov, Oleg V. (2010). 8447: 8357: 8345: 8333: 8321: 8309: 8294: 8108: 8038: 7945: 7891: 7889: 7810:"Biography of Osip Emilevich Mandelstam" 7782:Zimmerman, David K. (21 December 2022). 7500: 7250:"On seven decades of antiferromagnetism" 6632: 6616: 6591: 6579: 6458:"The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact" 6416:"The origins of Soviet ethnic cleansing" 6324: 6234: 6147: 6060: 6032: 6020: 6008: 5972: 5945: 5861: 5826: 5814: 5802: 5611: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5309: 5127: 5077: 4994: 4930: 4901: 4899: 4315: 4232: 4208: 4116: 4104: 3843: 3760: 3354:of labour in the Soviet Union. His son, 3161: 3149: 3134: 3122: 3110: 3098: 3086: 2659: 2593: 2519: 2434: 2412:" in inhospitable parts of the country ( 2310: 2306: 2208: 2023: 1901: 1859:was working with the even larger secret 1812: 1759: 11717: 11112:Alleged 19 August 1939 speech 9964: 9942: 9920: 9819: 9786:(Revised ed.). London: Macmillan. 9614: 8770: 8264: 8240: 7700: 7554: 7527: 7294: 6854:Comrades!: A History of World Communism 6850: 6715: 6663: 6486: 6475: 5733: 5264:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. 5231:Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023). 5230: 5007:Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion 4693:History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) 4383:Mass graves from Soviet mass executions 3783: 3333:Supreme Council of the National Economy 3250:. He also one of the first to discover 3225:centres of origins of cultivated plants 3146:politician, later arrested and executed 3036:and the two-man dvoiki (NKVD Commissar 2954:External purges were also conducted in 2548:were conducted on a quota system using 2256:, recently disgraced head of the NKVD. 1899:, under the personal orders of Stalin. 14: 12877: 11736:Index of Soviet Union–related articles 11147:Dialectical and Historical Materialism 10171:A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia 10027: 10005: 9755: 9505: 9261: 9249: 8766: 8764: 8762: 8745:. South Asian Publishers. p. 44. 8742:Reign of Terror in Mongolia, 1920-1990 8684: 8641:. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693. 8026:National academy of Science of Belarus 7655: 7608: 7402: 7375: 7182: 7155: 6904: 6455: 6400:by Karol Karski, Case Western Reserve 6206: 6197: 6182: 6157:"Польская операция" НКВД 1937–1938 гг. 5838: 5832: 5744:The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 5566: 5496:The National WWII Museum | New Orleans 5257: 5183: 5164: 4972: 4844: 4842: 4799: 4683:Index of Soviet Union-related articles 4237:A list from the Great Purge signed by 3518:, Soviet historian and founder of the 2712:, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars. 1025:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 615:Russian Social Democratic Labour Party 27:1936–1938 campaign in the Soviet Union 11691: 10261: 9880: 9803:The Red Army and the Second World War 9736: 9442: 9383:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9139:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 9054:MacFarquhar, Neil (30 October 2017). 8800: 7970:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 7886: 7581: 7504:History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia 7328:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. 6830:. Pen and Sword History. p. 81. 6796: 6746:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 6688: 6247: 6245: 6243: 6125: 5960:Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution 5882: 5697:"The First Five Year Plan, 1928–1932" 5623: 5433: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5425: 5392: 5377: 5237:. Taylor & Francis. p. vii. 5152: 4896: 4713:Mass killings under communist regimes 3569:Ukrainian theater and movie director 3301:who among the key founders of Soviet 3032:sentenced indigenous "enemies" under 2198: 1566: 927:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 11230:22nd Congress of the Communist Party 11188:20th Congress of the Communist Party 10631:19th Congress of the Communist Party 10468:18th Congress of the Communist Party 10433:17th Congress of the Communist Party 9840: 9800: 9047: 8989:"Bykivnia between Hitler and Stalin" 7993: 7727: 7656:Graham, Loren R. (8 December 2015). 7322:Betz, Frederick (22 February 2011). 7321: 6824:Whitehead, Jonathan (4 April 2024). 6354: 5466:Stalin: Paradoxes of Power 1878–1928 4913:Paris Institute of Political Studies 4848: 4056:Soviet Communism: A New Civilization 4010: 3973:of 1928–1933's collectivization and 3949:NKVD orders of systematic repression 3526:. Arrested and put to death in 1938. 3331:Soviet engineer and chairman of the 2829: 2800:adding citations to reliable sources 2771: 2649: 29: 11164:Marxism and Problems of Linguistics 10388:Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928) 10126:Slavonic & East European Review 9600:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9404:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9136:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 8759: 8589: 8206: 8053:"Nightmare in the workers paradise" 7967:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 7686:. 18 September 2017. Archived from 7348: 7248:Kharchenko, N. F. (1 August 2005). 7040:(in Finnish). Parliament of Finland 6797:Sakwa, Richard (12 November 2012). 6776:. Simon and Schuster. p. 395. 6743:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 6716:Sheehan, Helena (23 January 2018). 6664:Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021). 6357:Denial: the final stage of genocide 6216:Michał Jasiński (27 October 2010). 5839:Redman, Joseph (March–April 1958). 5492:"Trotsky's Struggle against Stalin" 5258:Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019). 4839: 4723:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 4698:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 4295:which "would be a bigger victory". 3625:, was executed on 21 November 1937. 3219:that made several contributions to 3142:; (1885–1937) Finnish educator and 3091:1938 NKVD arrest photo of the poet 2497:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 2493:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 2107: 1804:forced collectivization of peasants 1599:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 24: 11311:Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism 11130:The History of the Communist Party 10949:Soviet offensive plans controversy 10914:Ideological repression in science 10458:1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang 10071:Journal of Soviet Military Studies 9845:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9717: 9020:Kishkovsky, Sophia (8 June 2007). 8807:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives 8562:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, p. 285 7561:(109 ed.). World Scientific. 7376:Krausz, Tamás (27 February 2015). 7061:General Relativity and Gravitation 6619:, pp. 198–89 (a Soviet book, 6456:Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). 6240: 5787: 5701:Special Collections & Archives 5463: 5422: 5303: 4627:Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code 4625:, and on loose interpretations of 3522:. He had been an old associate of 3380:who made various contributions to 3309:. Kleymyonov was executed in 1938. 3269:. Kondratiev was executed in 1938. 1147:Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan 693:Treaty on the Creation of the USSR 25: 13001: 11349:Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 11080:Marxism and the National Question 10287: 10206: 9823:Stalinism: The Essential Readings 8715:Mongolia in the Twentieth Century 7923:The Making of the Georgian Nation 7755:Ben-Menahem, Ari (6 March 2009). 7701:Kuijper, Hans (18 January 2022). 7528:Chertok, Boris Evseevich (2005). 7474:Steinhoff, James (21 June 2021). 7349:Guo, Rongxing (6 February 2017). 7295:Shifman, Misha (28 August 2015). 7189:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 7162:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 6770:Wasserstein, Bernard (May 2012). 6722:. Verso Books. pp. 416–417. 6623:by Nikulin, pp. 189–94 is cited). 6605:European Dictatorships 1918–1945, 6069: 5957: 5437: 5052:Whitewood, Peter (13 June 2016). 4733: 4511:victims of Stalinist repression, 4369:Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov.... 4094: 3767:Stalinist repressions in Mongolia 3748:were also shot and buried there. 3254:. Shubnikov was executed in 1937. 3064: 2483:Campaigns targeting nationalities 1613:was popularized by the historian 12859: 12858: 12846: 11672: 11671: 10989:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina 10453:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 10212: 9826:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 9401:The Great Terror: A Reassessment 9322: 9309: 9296: 9283: 9255: 9216: 9174: 9156: 9129: 9094: 9080: 9013: 8999: 8981: 8963: 8937: 8900: 8878: 8852: 8839: 8794: 8732: 8705: 8678: 8661: 8648: 8614: 8565: 8552: 8523: 8510: 8497: 8453: 8416: 8399:"On Leaving the Communist Party" 8397:Howard Fast (16 November 1957). 8390: 8270: 8172: 8163: 8131: 8114: 8066: 8051:Tim Tzouliadis (2 August 2008). 8044: 8014: 7987: 7960: 7951: 7915: 7865: 7842: 7827: 7775: 7748: 7728:Tent, Katrin (16 October 2008). 7721: 7707:. Springer Nature. p. 164. 7694: 7676: 7649: 7602: 7575: 7555:Pondrom, Lee G. (25 July 2018). 7548: 7521: 7494: 7467: 7440: 7423: 7396: 7369: 7342: 7315: 7301:. World Scientific. p. 19. 7288: 7241: 7183:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7176: 7156:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7149: 7122: 7095: 7052: 7030: 6941: 6923: 6689:Weitz, Eric D. (13 April 2021). 6315:, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 411–12 4919:translated in Werth, 2006: 143). 4548: 4536: 4520: 4500: 4480: 4460: 4448: 4312:Soviet investigation commissions 4228: 3908: 3897: 3692: 3681: 3598:Playwright and avant-garde poet 3284:Essays on Marx's Theory of Value 2974:and former government minister, 2834: 2776: 2759: 2747: 2008: 1692:, often by direct orders of the 1459: 1211:End of communist rule in Hungary 1157:Estonian Sovereignty Declaration 583: 34: 12975:Persecution by the Soviet Union 11374:Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin 10510:Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact 10500:Occupation of the Baltic states 9820:Hoffman, David L., ed. (2003). 9619:. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. 7501:Lankford, John (7 March 2013). 7480:. Springer Nature. p. 55. 7453:. Routledge. pp. 203–204. 6898: 6871: 6844: 6817: 6800:Soviet Politics: In Perspective 6790: 6763: 6736: 6709: 6682: 6657: 6638: 6597: 6548: 6507: 6449: 6407: 6391: 6373: 6348: 6318: 6305: 6275: 6081: 6047: 6038: 5993: 5966: 5951: 5909: 5876: 5778: 5727: 5722:McLoughlin & McDermott 2002 5689: 5664: 5644: 5575: 5560: 5535: 5510: 5484: 5457: 5404: 5360: 5343: 5318: 5278: 5251: 5224: 5177: 5158: 5133: 5071: 5058:University Press of Kansas Blog 5045: 4174:which correspond to the purge. 3705:National University of Mongolia 3595:was executed on 3 October 1938. 2787:needs additional citations for 2546:National operations of the NKVD 2440:Yevgeny-Ludvig Karlovich Miller 2133:testified that he had flown to 1797:collectivization of agriculture 1228:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 795:Occupation of the Baltic states 203:religious activists and leaders 179:19 July 1936 – 17 November 1938 9805:, Cambridge University Press, 9262:Harris, James (26 July 2016). 9103:The American Historical Review 8147:. 14 June 2003. Archived from 7994:Tolz, Vera (13 October 1997). 6668:. Mehring Books. p. 380. 5734:Harward, Grant (2 July 2016). 5588:. Cambridge University Press. 5141:The American Historical Review 5031: 4940: 4577:The American Historical Review 2734: 2524:Polish-born Soviet politician 2020:First and second Moscow trials 1891:him in Mexico; the NKVD agent 1843:, respectively. Following the 1047:Mozambican War of Independence 744:Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933 526:Ukrainian language suppression 13: 1: 12985:Massacres in the Soviet Union 12915:Political and cultural purges 12399:Political abuse of psychiatry 12191:Congress of People's Deputies 11215:Gomulka thaw (Polish October) 11026:1946–1947 Soviet famine 10599:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 9967:1937: Stalin's Year of Terror 9142:. Verso Books. p. 1370. 8691:. Monsudar Pub. p. 322. 8685:Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn (1999). 8538:. pp. xiv, 243, 590–91. 8213:N.G. Okhotin; A.B. Roginsky. 7973:. Verso Books. p. 1206. 6959:KGB: The State Within a State 6749:. Verso Books. p. 1443. 6423:The Journal of Modern History 6144:Snyder 2010, pp. 103–04. 5756:10.1080/13518046.2016.1200397 5041:– via Internet Archive. 4773: 4083:, who, following the lead of 3297:Soviet engineer and inventor 3235:research in the Soviet Union. 3154:Paleontologist and geologist 2981:Eventually almost all of the 1749: 1106:Death and funeral of Brezhnev 388:Purges of the Communist Party 95:Great Terror (disambiguation) 11364:1956 Georgian demonstrations 10143:Journal of Strategic Studies 9859:. Forum for Living History. 9465:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 9302:Ronald Grigor Suny, review, 8423:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 8370:Knickerbocker, H.R. (1941). 8179:Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). 7921:Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), 7898:"70 years of Soviet Georgia" 6402:Journal of International Law 4989:Journal of Strategic Studies 4778: 4109:Posthumously rehabilitated, 3964:his view of the timeline of 3863:October 1936 – February 1937 3576:Russian writer and explorer 3384:. He had contributed to the 3173:in the USSR and co-invented 2949:Communist Party of Palestine 2937:Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski 2666:Marshals of the Soviet Union 2514:Polish Operation of the NKVD 2173:Implication of the Rightists 912:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 907:1956 Georgian demonstrations 868:East German uprising of 1953 810:Soviet invasion of Manchuria 7: 12562:Academy of Medical Sciences 11379:Stalin Monument in Budapest 11046:Night of the Murdered Poets 10964:Allegations of antisemitism 10701:Engineers of the human soul 10448:Soviet invasion of Xinjiang 10424:Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) 9841:Ilic, Melanie, ed. (2006). 9756:Colton, Timothy J. (1998). 9645:. New York: Harper and Row. 9380:Stalin and the Kirov Murder 9293:(2015) Quoting pp. 12, 276. 8673:Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy 7609:Bailes, Kendall E. (1977). 6493:. Oxford University Press. 6487:Naimark, Norman M. (2016). 6202:. Basic Books. p. 104. 6154:Н.В.Петров, А.Б.Рогинский. 5479:Andrew & Mitrokhin 2000 5202:10.1080/0966813022000017177 5078:Uldricks, Teddy J. (1977). 4821:10.1080/0966813022000017177 4688:Timeline of the Great Purge 4661: 4441:Odesa International Airport 3837:Timeline of the Great Purge 3830: 3773:Mongolian People's Republic 3752:Executions of Gulag inmates 3350:and pioneering theorist of 3348:Central Institute of Labour 3046:mass operations of the NKVD 3024:The victims were convicted 2860:the claims made and adding 2503:mass operations of the NKVD 2489:Mass operations of the NKVD 2346:and philosophical essay by 1552: 1531: 1037:Angolan War of Independence 894:"On the Cult of Personality 847:Death and funeral of Stalin 577:History of the Soviet Union 166:Mongolian People's Republic 10: 13006: 12990:Ethnic cleansing in Europe 11419:Stalin Bloc – For the USSR 11389:Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori 10537:Soviet atomic bomb project 9892:Harcourt Brace and Company 9737:Chase, William J. (2001). 9721: 9635:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. 9573:Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007). 9350: 9330:Military History Quarterly 9317:American Historical Review 8718:. Routledge. p. 112. 8516:Robert Conquest, Preface, 8470:American Historical Review 8128:, London, 2002, pp. 155–68 7902:rolfgross.dreamhosters.com 7534:. NASA. pp. 164–165. 7507:. Routledge. p. 365. 7382:. NYU Press. p. 417. 7024:Two Hundred Years Together 5990:Corey Robin, "Fear", p. 96 4565:Historical interpretations 4380: 4098: 4064:. The American journalist 3834: 3787: 3764: 3502:Bloc of Soviet Oppositions 3372:had fled persecution from 3358:became a prominent Soviet 3095:, who died in a labor camp 3068: 3040:and Main State Prosecutor 2914:Communist Party of Germany 2653: 2486: 2202: 2111: 2028:Bolshevik revolutionaries 2012: 1753: 1238:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 822:Soviet famine of 1946–1947 734:Soviet famine of 1932–1933 703:Death and funeral of Lenin 353:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 84: 12890:1930s in the Soviet Union 12840: 12784: 12758: 12678: 12601: 12592: 12537: 12444: 12407: 12347: 12250: 12212: 12132: 11994: 11985: 11935: 11883: 11874: 11726: 11667: 11584: 11445: 11427: 11399:Places named after Stalin 11384:Stalin Monument in Prague 11331: 11243: 11178: 11064: 10908:Repressions in Azerbaijan 10734: 10643: 10626:1950 legislative election 10552:1946 legislative election 10463:1937 legislative election 10375: 10324: 10315: 10295: 10194:Pultz, David, dir. 1997. 10103:10.1080/09668139608412415 10044:– via Google Books. 10034:. New York: Basic Books. 9843:Stalin's Terror Revisited 9693:10.1080/09668130050143860 9615:Parrish, Michael (1996). 9362:. New York: Basic Books. 9319:(2017) 122#5 pp. 1713–14. 8916:Christian Science Monitor 8675:(New York, 1991), p. 210. 7627:10.1080/09668137708411134 7355:. Springer. p. 164. 7081:10.1007/s10714-011-1285-4 6884:. Routledge. p. 60. 6803:. Routledge. p. 43. 6490:Genocide: A World History 5873:Snyder 2010, p. 137. 5793:Rogovin (1998), pp. 36–38 5784:Rogovin (1998), pp. 17–18 5351:Stalinism: New Directions 5010:. ABC-CLIO. p. 110. 4621:, often obtained through 4377:Mass graves and memorials 4162:Number of people executed 3558:on 11 November 1937. The 3248:type-II superconductivity 3119:at the time of his arrest 3103:The NKVD photo of writer 2758: 2746: 2741: 2668:in November 1935. (l–r): 2530:1932–33 famine in Ukraine 1997:1937, the military purge. 1690:general line of the party 1562: 1546: 1520: 310: 259: 246: 208: 185: 171: 153: 133: 125: 120: 12905:1938 in the Soviet Union 12900:1937 in the Soviet Union 12895:1936 in the Soviet Union 11220:Soviet Nonconformist Art 11136:1936 Soviet Constitution 10789:Soviet famine of 1932–33 10749:1907 Tiflis bank robbery 10721:Transformation of nature 10706:1936 Soviet Constitution 10666:Socialism in One Country 10505:German–Soviet Axis talks 10169:—— (2004) . 10049:Tzouliadis, Tim (2008). 9801:Hill, Alexander (2017), 9398:—— (2008) . 8601:Hoover Institution Press 8120:Christopher Kaplonski, " 8000:. Springer. p. 48. 7927:Indiana University Press 7582:Stone, David R. (2000). 7003:Harvard University Press 6905:Freeze, Gregory (2009). 6851:Service, Robert (2007). 6198:Snyder, Timothy (2010). 6156: 5312:Behind the Moscow Trials 5184:Ellman, Michael (2002). 4800:Ellman, Michael (2002). 3875:July 1937 – October 1938 3386:Herglotz–Noether theorem 3324:who was director of the 3261:was a proponent for the 3244:Shubnikov–de Haas effect 3211:was a prominent Russian 3179:extrajudicially executed 1830:purge of the Party ranks 1789:socialism in one country 1592:Soviet General Secretary 1298:independence declaration 1069:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 1057:South African Border War 724:Socialism in one country 12935:Massacres in Uzbekistan 12853:Soviet Union portal 11344:Iosif Stalin locomotive 11087:Foundations of Leninism 11073:Anarchism or Socialism? 10954:Hitler Youth Conspiracy 10821:NKVD prisoner massacres 10473:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 10362:Death and state funeral 10188: 10028:—— (2010). 9965:—— (1998). 9672:—— (2000). 9512:Oxford University Press 9377:—— (1987). 8630:14 October 2007 at the 8278:"Московский мартиролог" 8122:Thirty thousand bullets 8097:Haynes & Klehr 2003 7403:Rosmer, Alfred (1971). 7254:Low Temperature Physics 6533:10.4000/monderusse.9736 5654:, 2007, Knopf, 720 pp. 5171:McNair Scholars Journal 5130:, pp. 250, 257–58. 5039:"Tokaev Comrade X 1956" 4953:McNair Scholars Journal 4491:memorial cemetery near 4101:Rehabilitation (Soviet) 4061:The Manchester Guardian 3851:; (1896–1939) chief of 3656:Ukrainian drama writer 3566:is named after Chavain. 3307:Gas Dynamics Laboratory 3238:Experimental physicist 2931:According to historian 2698:Military Maritime Fleet 2643:international relations 2528:, a contributor to the 2371:NKVD prisoner massacres 2238:Communist International 2234:Trial of the Twenty-One 1678:counter-revolutionaries 1568:[(j)ɪˈʐofɕːɪnə] 1466:Soviet Union portal 1201:Fall of the Berlin Wall 1167:Lithuanian independence 878:1954 transfer of Crimea 780:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 673:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 108:Infobox civilian attack 101: 12745:Stalinist architecture 12499:Science and technology 12409:Ideological repression 12337:Soviet Airborne Forces 12275:Destruction battalions 11552:(second father-in-law) 10806:Murder of Sergey Kirov 10681:Stalinist architecture 10567:Turkish Straits crisis 10150:Yakovlev, Alexander N. 10128:93.2 (2015): 286–314. 9506:Harris, James (2017). 9450:. London: Allen Lane. 9090:. BBC. 26 August 2021. 7875:. Enigma Books, 2003. 7298:Physics In A Mad World 6414:Martin, Terry (1998). 6087:Werth, Nicolas. 2009. 5310:Schatman, Max (1938). 5165:Homkes, Brett (2004). 4855:Cahiers du Monde russe 4849:Kuhr, Corinna (1998). 4673:Anti-Rightist Campaign 4651: 4599: 4371: 4321: 4309: 4257: 4218: 4126: 4114: 3956:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 3888: 3859: 3798:The pro-Soviet leader 3727:Western émigré victims 3701:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 3587:writer and translator 3460: 3186: 3159: 3147: 3132: 3120: 3108: 3096: 3061:has been documented. 2945:Joseph Berger-Barzilai 2700:removed three of five 2689: 2603: 2533: 2470:Young Communist League 2443: 2420:, Kazakhstan, and the 2364: 2326: 2229: 2196: 2167: 2040: 1922: 1821: 1768: 1601:and Soviet state. The 1121:: Decline and collapse 412:Ideological repression 113:considered for merging 93:. For other uses, see 12527:List of metro systems 12080:Collective leadership 11573:William Wesley Peters 11118:Falsifiers of History 11041:Rootless cosmopolitan 10347:Rule as Soviet leader 9991:. London: Routledge. 9579:Yale University Press 8995:on 23 September 2020. 8977:on 23 September 2020. 8802:Getty, John Archibald 8576:Yale University Press 8536:Yale University Press 7836:Collecting Mandelstam 7690:on 18 September 2017. 7019:Alexandr Solzhenitsyn 6621:Marshal Tukhachevskiy 5973:Humbert-Droz, Jules. 4947:Brett Homkes (2004). 4867:10.3406/cmr.1998.2520 4761:30 September killings 4646: 4595: 4471:mass grave site near 4366: 4319: 4304: 4299:Stephen G. Wheatcroft 4236: 4212: 4120: 4108: 3961:The Gulag Archipelago 3847: 3761:Mongolian Great Purge 3520:Marx-Engels Institute 3480:enemies of the people 3455: 3352:scientific management 3165: 3153: 3138: 3126: 3114: 3107:made after his arrest 3102: 3090: 3083:Korets–Landau leaflet 2663: 2654:Further information: 2597: 2523: 2438: 2397:On 30 July 1937, the 2360: 2348:Maurice Merleau-Ponty 2314: 2307:Bukharin's confession 2212: 2191: 2177:In the second trial, 2150: 2027: 1905: 1873:democratic centralism 1816: 1763: 1706:anti-Soviet agitation 1623:, whose title was an 1553:Tridtsat' sed'moy god 1535:), also known as the 873:Virgin Lands campaign 698:National delimitation 189:Political opponents, 12945:Massacres in Armenia 12940:Massacres in Belarus 12930:Massacres in Ukraine 12489:Net material product 12432:Censorship of images 12349:Political repression 12309:Soviet Border Troops 12242:First Deputy Premier 11826:1965 economic reform 11821:Soviet space program 11594:Stalin's house, Gori 11525:Yevgeny Dzhugashvili 11453:Besarion Jughashvili 11394:Batumi Stalin Museum 11305:Nineteen Eighty-Four 11056:Censorship of images 10735:Crimes, repressions, 10438:1931 Menshevik Trial 10419:First five-year plan 10226:The Case of Bukharin 10221:at Wikimedia Commons 10138:67.1 (2015): 102–22. 9900:Merridale, Catherine 9887:Assignment in Utopia 9306:(2018) 80#1: 177–79. 9269:History News Network 9007:"War Stats Redirect" 8654:Getty & Naumov, 8360:, pp. 465, 467. 6979:Merridale, Catherine 6950:Komsomolskaya Pravda 6091:. Paris: Tallandier. 5883:Dewey, John (2008). 5567:Knight, Amy (1999). 5522:www.wilsoncenter.org 5357:. London: Routledge. 4755:Khmer Rouge genocide 4750:Hungarian Revolution 4609:", and to historian 4417:killing fields near 4283:resisted the order. 3971:first five-year plan 3969:purges, such as the 3881:November 1938 – 1939 3784:Xinjiang Great Purge 3662:Executed Renaissance 3637:Soviet film industry 3550:poet and playwright 3542:Durnovo noble family 3221:agricultural science 3071:Executed Renaissance 3034:NKVD Order No. 00447 2947:, co-founder of the 2796:improve this article 2670:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 2620:Executed Renaissance 2542:NKVD Order No. 00486 2399:NKVD Order No. 00447 2081:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1881:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1793:first five-year plan 1766:NKVD Order No. 00447 1293:Ukrainian revolution 1221:German reunification 1179:Latvian independence 1094:1984 Olympic boycott 1089:1980 Olympic boycott 1079:1980 Summer Olympics 1052:Mozambican Civil War 942:Cuban Missile Crisis 922:Peaceful coexistence 790:Operation Barbarossa 521:Repressions of Poles 516:Population transfers 374:Political repression 12965:Mass murder in 1938 12960:Mass murder in 1937 12925:Massacres in Russia 12557:Academy of Sciences 12372:Population transfer 12316:Soviet Armed Forces 12179:Congress of Soviets 12160:Presidium/Politburo 12124:Soviet anti-Zionism 11973:West Siberian Plain 11851:Revolutions of 1989 11788:Great Patriotic War 11773:New Economic Policy 11586:Stalin's residences 11533:Galina Dzhugashvili 11517:Svetlana Alliluyeva 11501:Nadezhda Alliluyeva 11428:Cultural depictions 11270:Anti-Stalinist left 11225:Shvernik Commission 11193:Pospelov Commission 10969:Population transfer 10944:1941 Red Army purge 10918:Suppressed research 10572:First Indochina War 10515:Great Patriotic War 10493:Moscow Peace Treaty 10357:Cult of personality 10136:Europe-Asia Studies 10090:Europe-Asia Studies 10078:Wheatcroft, Stephen 10055:. London: Penguin. 9906:. London: Penguin. 9681:Europe-Asia Studies 9332:27.1 (2014): 38–45. 8910:(10 October 2002). 8777:Stalin: A Biography 8688:History of Mongolia 8635:Europe–Asia Studies 8571:Oleg V. Khlevniuk. 7925:(2nd ed.), p. 272. 7266:2005LTP....31..633K 7073:2012GReGr..44..267B 6164:on 15 February 2017 5736:"Whitewood, Peter, 5498:. 12 September 2018 5190:Europe-Asia Studies 5155:, pp. 227–315. 4809:Europe-Asia Studies 4740:Cultural Revolution 4408:Solovki prison camp 4358:Shvernik Commission 4213:Memorial events in 4075:Communist Party USA 4066:H. R. Knickerbocker 3808:Xinjiang War (1937) 3790:Xinjiang War (1937) 3738:Butovo firing range 3615:Russian dramaturge 3326:Pulkovo Observatory 3263:New Economic Policy 3158:, executed in 1938. 3059:Butovo firing range 2459:Butovo firing range 2410:special settlements 2352:Humanism and Terror 2058:Conspiratorial Bloc 1993:second Moscow trial 1936:1934 Party Congress 1808:famine of 1932–1933 1216:Romanian Revolution 1196:Peaceful Revolution 1191:Pan-European Picnic 1186:Revolutions of 1989 1127:Invasion of Grenada 1003:Cambodian Civil War 957:: Era of Stagnation 842:First Indochina War 817:Soviet deportations 785:Great Patriotic War 758:Cultural Revolution 688:New Economic Policy 642:February Revolution 511:National operations 403:Punitive psychiatry 330:Economic repression 325:in the Soviet Union 12970:Soviet phraseology 12202:Military Collegium 12070:Capital punishment 11948:Caucasus Mountains 11861:Post-Soviet states 11741:Russian Revolution 11557:Alexander Svanidze 11485:Konstantin Kuzakov 11477:Yakov Dzhugashvili 11436:Apocalypse: Stalin 11409:Stalin Peace Prize 11404:State Stalin Prize 11107:"Ten Blows" speech 11094:Dizzy with Success 11004:Operation "Priboi" 10984:Operation "Lentil" 10937:1937 Soviet Census 10616:Sino-Soviet Treaty 10530:Potsdam Conference 10483:Invasion of Poland 10117:Whitewood, Peter. 10073:3.1 (1990): 46–65. 9985:Rosefielde, Steven 9922:Naimark, Norman M. 9876:on 24 August 2010. 9420:Courtois, Stéphane 9068:on 3 February 2024 9061:The New York Times 9026:The New York Times 8656:The Road to Terror 8324:, pp. 472–74. 8297:, pp. 472–73. 7531:Rockets and People 6995:Colton, Timothy J. 6526:(50/2–3): 647–70. 6516:"The Great Terror" 6331:Ukraine: A History 6115:. 19 January 2016. 6035:, pp. 364–35. 5650:Robert Gellately, 5614:, pp. 122–38. 5571:. Hill & Wang. 5372:Palgrave MacMillan 5290:www.britannica.com 4744:Great Leap Forward 4656:Robert W. Thurston 4619:forced confessions 4615:Moscow show trials 4572:social engineering 4322: 4258: 4223:Vyacheslav Molotov 4219: 4127: 4115: 4085:The New York Times 4039:The New York Times 3860: 3707:, and portrait of 3578:Maximilian Kravkov 3448:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3390:special relativity 3322:Boris Gerasimovich 3273:Valerian Obolensky 3259:Nikolai Kondratiev 3252:antiferromagnetism 3187: 3169:, who popularized 3160: 3148: 3133: 3121: 3117:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3109: 3097: 2995:October Revolution 2987:Russian Revolution 2906:German-Soviet Pact 2845:possibly contains 2690: 2678:Kliment Voroshilov 2604: 2602:, executed in 1938 2534: 2532:, executed in 1939 2444: 2327: 2269:Jules Humbert-Droz 2261:an Opposition Bloc 2250:Nikolai Krestinsky 2246:Christian Rakovsky 2230: 2199:Third Moscow trial 2102:Kliment Voroshilov 2074:Grigory Sokolnikov 2041: 2002:third Moscow trial 1980:first Moscow trial 1955:October Revolution 1944:Vyacheslav Molotov 1923: 1917:(and his daughter 1822: 1806:and the resulting 1769: 1448:Post-Soviet states 1152:Singing Revolution 1142:Chernobyl disaster 1062:Rhodesian Bush War 663:October Revolution 300:Kliment Voroshilov 288:Vyacheslav Molotov 218:Summary executions 146:Vinnytsia massacre 53:You can assist by 12872: 12871: 12836: 12835: 12828:Hammer and sickle 12770:and their groups 12768:Soviet dissidents 12547:Communist Academy 12464:Economic planning 12440: 12439: 12333:Soviet Air Forces 12252:Security services 12172:General Secretary 12155:Central Committee 12097:Political parties 12029:Brezhnev Doctrine 12024:Foreign relations 11981: 11980: 11922:Autonomous okrugs 11836:Soviet–Afghan War 11816:Sino-Soviet split 11758:Russian Civil War 11685: 11684: 11642:Kholodnaya Rechka 11339:Iosif Stalin tank 11260:Lenin's Testament 11235:Era of Stagnation 11036:Mingrelian Affair 11014:Forced settlement 10999:Operation "North" 10959:Soviet war crimes 10737:and controversies 10676:Socialist realism 10639: 10638: 10621:Tito–Stalin split 10520:Tehran Conference 10443:Spanish Civil War 10414:Chinese Civil War 10217:Media related to 10180:978-0-300-10322-9 10062:978-1-59420-168-4 10041:978-0-465-00239-9 10020:978-0-300-10670-1 9998:978-0-415-77757-5 9976:978-0-929087-77-1 9969:. Mehring Books. 9957:978-0-929087-83-2 9950:. Mehring books. 9935:978-0-691-14784-0 9913:978-0-14-200063-2 9866:978-91-977487-2-8 9833:978-0-631-22890-5 9812:978-1-1070-2079-5 9793:978-0-02-527560-7 9771:978-0-674-58749-6 9748:978-0-300-08242-5 9577:. New Haven, CT: 9530:Haynes, John Earl 9485:Gellately, Robert 9289:Peter Whitewood, 9236:978-1-55972-212-4 9149:978-1-78168-721-5 8847:Molotov Remembers 8752:978-1-881318-15-6 8725:978-1-317-46010-7 8698:978-99929-0-038-3 8669:Dmitri Volkogonov 8560:Molotov Remembers 8503:Robert Conquest, 8253:Solzhenitsyn 1973 8007:978-1-349-25840-6 7980:978-1-78168-721-5 7795:978-1-4875-4366-2 7768:978-3-540-68831-0 7741:978-0-521-71788-5 7714:978-981-16-4709-3 7669:978-1-4008-7551-1 7595:978-0-7006-1037-2 7568:978-981-323-557-1 7541:978-0-16-073239-3 7514:978-1-136-50834-9 7487:978-3-030-71689-9 7460:978-1-317-81995-0 7416:978-0-902818-11-8 7389:978-1-58367-449-9 7362:978-3-319-48772-4 7335:978-0-470-54782-3 7308:978-981-4619-31-8 7274:10.1063/1.2008126 7221:(11): 1576–1578. 7196:978-1-136-59369-7 7169:978-1-136-59369-7 7142:978-1-107-06962-6 7115:978-94-010-0347-6 6985:. Penguin Books. 6963:Gellately, Robert 6907:Russia: A History 6891:978-1-136-15747-9 6864:978-0-674-02530-1 6837:978-1-3990-6395-1 6810:978-1-134-90996-4 6783:978-1-4165-9427-7 6756:978-1-78168-721-5 6729:978-1-78663-426-9 6702:978-0-691-22812-9 6675:978-1-893638-97-6 6651:Let History Judge 6635:, p. 200–02. 6366:978-1-003-01070-8 5481:, pp. 86–87. 5464:Kotkin, Stephen, 5396:(15 April 2019). 5271:978-1-4985-9153-9 5244:978-1-000-95544-6 5143:, 110(5), 1427–53 4605:'s 1956 speech, " 4603:Nikita Khrushchev 4270:Ivan the Terrible 4262:Oleg V. Khlevniuk 4028:in his 1968 book 4011:Western reactions 3982:Alexander Yegorov 3941:Central Committee 3917:Damnatio memoriae 3869:March – June 1937 3746:Finnish Canadians 3649:Russian linguist 3617:Adrian Piotrovsky 3600:Nikolay Oleynikov 3593:Vladimir Varankin 3536:Russian linguist 3446:Theatre director 3257:Soviet economist 3167:Vasili Oshchepkov 3156:Dmitrii Mushketov 3144:Social Democratic 3115:Theatre director 3019:Vladimir Bukovsky 2910:Central committee 2890: 2889: 2882: 2847:original research 2828: 2827: 2820: 2770: 2769: 2692:The purge of the 2686:Alexander Yegorov 2650:Purge of the army 2517:further inquiry. 2452:spetzpereselentsy 2383:Mikhail Gorbachev 2301:Heinrich Brandler 2240:, former premier 2118:In May 1937, the 1717:ethnic minorities 1684:, hence the name 1644:interior ministry 1629:French Revolution 1617:in his 1968 book 1529: 1500: 1499: 1329:Soviet leadership 1315:Alma-Ata Protocol 1310:Belovezha Accords 1206:Velvet Revolution 1172:Economic blockade 1074:Soviet–Afghan War 1042:Angolan Civil War 993:Laotian Civil War 968:Era of Stagnation 963:Brezhnev Doctrine 932:Sino-Soviet split 862:: Khrushchev Thaw 753:Industrialization 668:Russian Civil War 562: 561: 506:De-Cossackization 498:Ethnic repression 318: 317: 83: 82: 75: 16:(Redirected from 12997: 12862: 12861: 12851: 12850: 12849: 12599: 12598: 12507: 12362:Collectivization 12107:Marxism–Leninism 11992: 11991: 11881: 11880: 11712: 11705: 11698: 11689: 11688: 11675: 11674: 11577: 11569: 11561: 11560:(brother-in-law) 11553: 11549:Sergei Alliluyev 11545: 11541:Joseph Alliluyev 11537: 11529: 11521: 11513: 11505: 11497: 11489: 11481: 11473: 11465: 11457: 11359:Pantheon, Moscow 11317:The Soviet Story 11291:Darkness at Noon 11180:De-Stalinization 11031:Leningrad Affair 10764:Decossackization 10562:1946 Iran crisis 10525:Yalta Conference 10397:Collectivization 10322: 10321: 10282: 10275: 10268: 10259: 10258: 10235: 10216: 10184: 10165: 10114: 10086: 10066: 10045: 10024: 10002: 9980: 9961: 9939: 9917: 9895: 9877: 9875: 9869:. Archived from 9858: 9846: 9837: 9815: 9797: 9780:Conquest, Robert 9775: 9752: 9712: 9678: 9668: 9651:Thurston, Robert 9646: 9644: 9630: 9611: 9592: 9569: 9566:Darkness at Noon 9562:Koestler, Arthur 9557: 9525: 9502: 9480: 9461: 9439: 9415: 9394: 9373: 9345: 9339: 9333: 9326: 9320: 9313: 9307: 9300: 9294: 9287: 9281: 9280: 9278: 9276: 9259: 9253: 9247: 9241: 9240: 9220: 9214: 9208: 9202: 9196: 9190: 9189: 9186:www.marxists.org 9178: 9172: 9171: 9168:www.marxists.org 9160: 9154: 9153: 9133: 9127: 9126: 9098: 9092: 9091: 9084: 9078: 9077: 9075: 9073: 9064:. Archived from 9051: 9045: 9044: 9042: 9040: 9017: 9011: 9010: 9003: 8997: 8996: 8991:. Archived from 8985: 8979: 8978: 8973:. Archived from 8967: 8961: 8960: 8958: 8956: 8941: 8935: 8934: 8932: 8930: 8904: 8898: 8897: 8895: 8893: 8882: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8856: 8850: 8843: 8837: 8831: 8822: 8821: 8798: 8792: 8791: 8768: 8757: 8756: 8736: 8730: 8729: 8709: 8703: 8702: 8682: 8676: 8665: 8659: 8652: 8646: 8618: 8612: 8593: 8587: 8569: 8563: 8556: 8550: 8549: 8527: 8521: 8514: 8508: 8501: 8495: 8494: 8466: 8457: 8451: 8445: 8439: 8438: 8420: 8414: 8413: 8411: 8409: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8367: 8361: 8355: 8349: 8343: 8337: 8331: 8325: 8319: 8313: 8307: 8298: 8292: 8286: 8285: 8274: 8268: 8262: 8256: 8250: 8244: 8238: 8232: 8231: 8229: 8227: 8210: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8199: 8176: 8170: 8167: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8156: 8135: 8129: 8118: 8112: 8106: 8100: 8094: 8088: 8073:John Earl Haynes 8070: 8064: 8063: 8061: 8059: 8048: 8042: 8036: 8030: 8029: 8018: 8012: 8011: 7991: 7985: 7984: 7964: 7958: 7955: 7949: 7943: 7937: 7919: 7913: 7912: 7910: 7908: 7893: 7884: 7869: 7863: 7860: 7849: 7846: 7840: 7831: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7820: 7806: 7800: 7799: 7779: 7773: 7772: 7752: 7746: 7745: 7725: 7719: 7718: 7698: 7692: 7691: 7680: 7674: 7673: 7653: 7647: 7646: 7606: 7600: 7599: 7579: 7573: 7572: 7552: 7546: 7545: 7525: 7519: 7518: 7498: 7492: 7491: 7471: 7465: 7464: 7444: 7438: 7437: 7427: 7421: 7420: 7400: 7394: 7393: 7373: 7367: 7366: 7346: 7340: 7339: 7319: 7313: 7312: 7292: 7286: 7285: 7245: 7239: 7238: 7210: 7201: 7200: 7180: 7174: 7173: 7153: 7147: 7146: 7126: 7120: 7119: 7099: 7093: 7092: 7056: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7045: 7034: 7028: 6955:Albats, Yevgenia 6945: 6939: 6938: 6937:. 29 April 2019. 6927: 6921: 6920: 6902: 6896: 6895: 6875: 6869: 6868: 6848: 6842: 6841: 6821: 6815: 6814: 6794: 6788: 6787: 6767: 6761: 6760: 6740: 6734: 6733: 6713: 6707: 6706: 6686: 6680: 6679: 6661: 6655: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6614: 6608: 6601: 6595: 6589: 6583: 6577: 6571: 6570: 6568: 6566: 6552: 6546: 6545: 6535: 6511: 6505: 6504: 6484: 6473: 6472: 6470: 6468: 6453: 6447: 6446: 6420: 6411: 6405: 6395: 6389: 6388: 6387:. 15 April 2019. 6377: 6371: 6370: 6352: 6346: 6345: 6322: 6316: 6311:Timothy Snyder, 6309: 6303: 6279: 6273: 6272: 6260: 6249: 6238: 6232: 6226: 6225: 6213: 6204: 6203: 6195: 6180: 6179: 6174:Original title: 6171: 6169: 6151: 6145: 6142: 6133: 6123: 6117: 6116: 6105: 6092: 6085: 6079: 6078: 6067: 6058: 6051: 6045: 6042: 6036: 6030: 6024: 6018: 6012: 6006: 6000: 5997: 5991: 5988: 5979: 5978: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5958:Cohen, Stephen. 5955: 5949: 5943: 5937: 5934: 5925: 5924: 5921:www.marxists.org 5913: 5907: 5906: 5880: 5874: 5871: 5865: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5836: 5830: 5824: 5818: 5812: 5806: 5800: 5794: 5791: 5785: 5782: 5776: 5775: 5731: 5725: 5719: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5708: 5703:. 7 October 2015 5693: 5687: 5686: 5684: 5682: 5668: 5662: 5648: 5642: 5636: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5600: 5599: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5569:Who Killed Kirov 5564: 5558: 5557: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5530: 5528: 5514: 5508: 5507: 5505: 5503: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5468: 5461: 5455: 5454: 5452: 5450: 5444:www.marxists.org 5435: 5420: 5419: 5416:www.marxists.org 5408: 5402: 5401: 5390: 5375: 5364: 5358: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5322: 5316: 5315: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5196:(7): 1151–1172. 5181: 5175: 5174: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5084: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5066: 5064: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5035: 5029: 5028: 5026: 5024: 4998: 4992: 4985: 4976: 4970: 4961: 4960: 4944: 4938: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4903: 4894: 4893: 4846: 4837: 4836: 4806: 4797: 4769:(Czechoslovakia) 4668:Leningrad affair 4617:, were based on 4552: 4540: 4524: 4504: 4484: 4464: 4452: 4389:Memorial Society 4360:"). It included 4281:Peljidiin Genden 4196:The Great Terror 4147:Stanislav Kosior 4087:, published the 4044:Joseph E. Davies 4018:Jean-Paul Sartre 3912: 3901: 3813:Garegin Apresoff 3733:Great Depression 3703:in front of the 3696: 3685: 3644:Julian Shchutsky 3629:Boris Shumyatsky 3622:Romeo and Juliet 3589:Nikolai Nekrasov 3554:was executed in 3540:, born into the 3510:Lefortovo prison 3382:abstract algebra 3267:Kondratiev waves 3199:Matvei Bronstein 3042:Andrey Vyshinsky 2941:Fritz Houtermans 2926:Polish Communist 2885: 2878: 2874: 2871: 2865: 2862:inline citations 2838: 2837: 2830: 2823: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2803: 2780: 2772: 2763: 2762: 2751: 2750: 2739: 2738: 2600:Khadija Gayibova 2526:Stanislav Kosior 2343:Darkness at Noon 2325:executed in 1938 2316:Nikolai Bukharin 2226:Stanislav Redens 2114:Dewey Commission 2108:Dewey Commission 2050:Grigory Zinoviev 2038:Grigory Zinoviev 1948:Lazar Kaganovich 1897:Pavel Sudoplatov 1869:Grigori Zinoviev 1841:Nikolai Bukharin 1668:wealthy peasants 1620:The Great Terror 1589: 1586: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1564: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1534: 1524: 1522: 1515: 1492: 1485: 1478: 1464: 1463: 1462: 1443:Soviet republics 1283:New Union Treaty 1084:Olympic boycotts 902:We will bury you 888:De-Stalinization 805:Battle of Berlin 729:Collectivization 610:World revolution 587: 564: 563: 554: 547: 540: 343:Collectivization 320: 319: 296:Lazar Kaganovich 292:Andrey Vyshinsky 233:Ethnic cleansing 138: 118: 117: 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 38: 37: 30: 21: 13005: 13004: 13000: 12999: 12998: 12996: 12995: 12994: 12875: 12874: 12873: 12868: 12847: 12845: 12832: 12780: 12754: 12674: 12588: 12533: 12505: 12479:Internet domain 12474:Five-year plans 12436: 12403: 12343: 12246: 12208: 12140:Communist Party 12128: 12087:Passport system 11977: 11953:European Russia 11931: 11870: 11811:Khrushchev Thaw 11790:(World War II) 11768:Creation treaty 11722: 11716: 11686: 11681: 11663: 11659:Stalin's bunker 11609:Room at Kremlin 11599:Tiflis Seminary 11580: 11575: 11567: 11559: 11551: 11543: 11536:(granddaughter) 11535: 11527: 11519: 11511: 11503: 11495: 11493:Artyom Sergeyev 11487: 11479: 11471: 11463: 11455: 11441: 11423: 11327: 11285:True Communists 11248: 11246: 11239: 11203:Khrushchev Thaw 11174: 11141:Stalin's poetry 11060: 10928:Japhetic theory 10866:Medvedev Forest 10759:Georgian Affair 10736: 10730: 10691:Five-year plans 10635: 10604:Berlin Blockade 10594:Greek Civil War 10383:August Uprising 10371: 10352:Political views 10317: 10311: 10291: 10286: 10233: 10209: 10191: 10181: 10160:]. Moscow: 10084: 10063: 10042: 10021: 10007:Snyder, Timothy 9999: 9977: 9958: 9936: 9914: 9873: 9867: 9856: 9834: 9813: 9794: 9772: 9749: 9733:. Moscow, 2003. 9726: 9720: 9718:Further reading 9715: 9676: 9665: 9627: 9608: 9589: 9554: 9544:Encounter Books 9522: 9499: 9477: 9458: 9436: 9412: 9391: 9370: 9353: 9348: 9340: 9336: 9327: 9323: 9314: 9310: 9301: 9297: 9288: 9284: 9274: 9272: 9260: 9256: 9252:, pp. 2–4. 9248: 9244: 9237: 9221: 9217: 9209: 9205: 9197: 9193: 9180: 9179: 9175: 9162: 9161: 9157: 9150: 9134: 9130: 9115:10.2307/2166597 9099: 9095: 9086: 9085: 9081: 9071: 9069: 9052: 9048: 9038: 9036: 9018: 9014: 9005: 9004: 9000: 8987: 8986: 8982: 8969: 8968: 8964: 8954: 8952: 8943: 8942: 8938: 8928: 8926: 8905: 8901: 8891: 8889: 8884: 8883: 8879: 8869: 8867: 8858: 8857: 8853: 8845:Chuev, Feliks. 8844: 8840: 8836:, p. 1348. 8834:Wheatcroft 1996 8832: 8825: 8818: 8799: 8795: 8788: 8772:Service, Robert 8769: 8760: 8753: 8737: 8733: 8726: 8710: 8706: 8699: 8683: 8679: 8666: 8662: 8653: 8649: 8632:Wayback Machine 8619: 8615: 8594: 8590: 8570: 8566: 8558:Chuev, Feliks. 8557: 8553: 8546: 8528: 8524: 8515: 8511: 8502: 8498: 8483:10.2307/2166597 8464: 8458: 8454: 8446: 8442: 8435: 8421: 8417: 8407: 8405: 8403:www.trussel.com 8395: 8391: 8384: 8368: 8364: 8356: 8352: 8344: 8340: 8332: 8328: 8320: 8316: 8308: 8301: 8293: 8289: 8276: 8275: 8271: 8263: 8259: 8251: 8247: 8239: 8235: 8225: 8223: 8211: 8207: 8197: 8195: 8193: 8177: 8173: 8168: 8164: 8154: 8152: 8151:on 14 June 2003 8137: 8136: 8132: 8119: 8115: 8107: 8103: 8095: 8091: 8083:" (appendix to 8071: 8067: 8057: 8055: 8049: 8045: 8037: 8033: 8020: 8019: 8015: 8008: 7992: 7988: 7981: 7965: 7961: 7956: 7952: 7944: 7940: 7920: 7916: 7906: 7904: 7894: 7887: 7870: 7866: 7861: 7852: 7847: 7843: 7839:, November 2006 7832: 7828: 7818: 7816: 7808: 7807: 7803: 7796: 7780: 7776: 7769: 7753: 7749: 7742: 7726: 7722: 7715: 7699: 7695: 7682: 7681: 7677: 7670: 7654: 7650: 7607: 7603: 7596: 7580: 7576: 7569: 7553: 7549: 7542: 7526: 7522: 7515: 7499: 7495: 7488: 7472: 7468: 7461: 7445: 7441: 7428: 7424: 7417: 7401: 7397: 7390: 7374: 7370: 7363: 7347: 7343: 7336: 7320: 7316: 7309: 7293: 7289: 7246: 7242: 7215:Current Science 7211: 7204: 7197: 7181: 7177: 7170: 7154: 7150: 7143: 7127: 7123: 7116: 7100: 7096: 7057: 7053: 7043: 7041: 7036: 7035: 7031: 6946: 6942: 6929: 6928: 6924: 6917: 6903: 6899: 6892: 6876: 6872: 6865: 6849: 6845: 6838: 6822: 6818: 6811: 6795: 6791: 6784: 6768: 6764: 6757: 6741: 6737: 6730: 6714: 6710: 6703: 6687: 6683: 6676: 6662: 6658: 6643: 6639: 6631: 6627: 6615: 6611: 6602: 6598: 6590: 6586: 6578: 6574: 6564: 6562: 6554: 6553: 6549: 6512: 6508: 6501: 6485: 6476: 6466: 6464: 6454: 6450: 6418: 6412: 6408: 6404:, Vol. 45, 2013 6396: 6392: 6379: 6378: 6374: 6367: 6353: 6349: 6342: 6326:Subtelny, Orest 6323: 6319: 6310: 6306: 6302:. pp. 102, 107. 6282:Snyder, Timothy 6280: 6276: 6269: 6258: 6250: 6241: 6233: 6229: 6214: 6207: 6196: 6183: 6167: 6165: 6158: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6136: 6124: 6120: 6107: 6106: 6095: 6086: 6082: 6068: 6061: 6052: 6048: 6043: 6039: 6031: 6027: 6019: 6015: 6007: 6003: 5998: 5994: 5989: 5982: 5971: 5967: 5956: 5952: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5928: 5915: 5914: 5910: 5895: 5881: 5877: 5872: 5868: 5860: 5856: 5837: 5833: 5825: 5821: 5813: 5809: 5801: 5797: 5792: 5788: 5783: 5779: 5732: 5728: 5720: 5716: 5706: 5704: 5695: 5694: 5690: 5680: 5678: 5670: 5669: 5665: 5649: 5645: 5637: 5630: 5622: 5618: 5610: 5603: 5596: 5580: 5576: 5565: 5561: 5540: 5536: 5526: 5524: 5516: 5515: 5511: 5501: 5499: 5490: 5489: 5485: 5477: 5473: 5462: 5458: 5448: 5446: 5438:Broué, Pierre. 5436: 5423: 5410: 5409: 5405: 5391: 5378: 5365: 5361: 5348: 5344: 5334: 5332: 5326:"Joseph Stalin" 5324: 5323: 5319: 5308: 5304: 5294: 5292: 5284: 5283: 5279: 5272: 5256: 5252: 5245: 5229: 5225: 5182: 5178: 5163: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5138: 5134: 5126: 5122: 5099:10.2307/2495035 5082: 5076: 5072: 5062: 5060: 5050: 5046: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5022: 5020: 5018: 5002:Helen Rappaport 4999: 4995: 4986: 4979: 4971: 4964: 4945: 4941: 4929: 4925: 4904: 4897: 4861:(1/2): 209–20. 4847: 4840: 4804: 4798: 4785: 4781: 4776: 4736: 4664: 4611:Robert Conquest 4585:Isaac Deutscher 4567: 4560: 4553: 4544: 4541: 4532: 4525: 4516: 4505: 4496: 4485: 4476: 4465: 4456: 4453: 4385: 4379: 4314: 4231: 4215:Bykivnia graves 4179:Robert Conquest 4164: 4103: 4097: 4077:newspaper, the 4026:Robert Conquest 4013: 3933:Lavrentiy Beria 3929: 3928: 3927: 3926: 3925: 3913: 3904: 3903: 3902: 3891: 3839: 3833: 3796: 3788:Main articles: 3786: 3769: 3763: 3754: 3729: 3724: 3723: 3722: 3721: 3720: 3697: 3688: 3687: 3686: 3675: 3538:Nikolai Durnovo 3484:Lavrentiy Beria 3465:Titsian Tabidze 3409:Boris Pasternak 3401:Osip Mandelstam 3394:Albert Einstein 3305:, chief of the 3299:Ivan Kleymyonov 3209:Nikolai Vavilov 3203:quantum gravity 3201:and pioneer of 3129:Nikolai Vavilov 3093:Osip Mandelstam 3085: 3067: 2886: 2875: 2869: 2866: 2851: 2839: 2835: 2824: 2813: 2807: 2804: 2793: 2781: 2760: 2748: 2742:External videos 2737: 2682:Vasily Blyukher 2674:Semyon Budyonny 2664:The first five 2658: 2652: 2550:album procedure 2499: 2487:Main articles: 2485: 2448:Orthodox clergy 2391: 2334:Anastas Mikoyan 2309: 2297:Arthur Koestler 2207: 2201: 2175: 2131:Georgy Pyatakov 2116: 2110: 2093:Alexander Orlov 2083:, in June 1937. 2022: 2017: 2011: 1861:Opposition Bloc 1758: 1752: 1725:mass operations 1633:Reign of Terror 1615:Robert Conquest 1587: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1540: 1532:Bol'shoy terror 1511: 1496: 1460: 1458: 1453: 1452: 1393: 1385: 1384: 1330: 1322: 1321: 1243:April 9 tragedy 1122: 1111: 1110: 958: 947: 946: 883:Khrushchev Thaw 863: 852: 851: 832:Berlin Blockade 719: 708: 707: 658: 657:: Establishment 647: 646: 625:Bolshevik Party 620:Bolshevik split 595: 558: 324: 323:Mass repression 280:Lavrentiy Beria 255: 242: 211: 180: 178: 149: 116: 98: 91:Reign of Terror 79: 68: 62: 59: 52: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13003: 12993: 12992: 12987: 12982: 12977: 12972: 12967: 12962: 12957: 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12902: 12897: 12892: 12887: 12870: 12869: 12867: 12866: 12856: 12841: 12838: 12837: 12834: 12833: 12831: 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12267: 12262: 12256: 12254: 12248: 12247: 12245: 12244: 12239: 12237:Deputy Premier 12234: 12229: 12228: 12227: 12220:Heads of state 12216: 12214: 12210: 12209: 12207: 12206: 12205: 12204: 12194: 12188: 12185:Supreme Soviet 12182: 12176: 12175: 12174: 12169: 12168: 12167: 12162: 12152: 12147: 12136: 12134: 12130: 12129: 12127: 12126: 12121: 12120: 12119: 12114: 12109: 12102:State ideology 12099: 12094: 12089: 12084: 12083: 12082: 12072: 12067: 12062: 12061: 12060: 12050: 12049: 12048: 12038: 12033: 12032: 12031: 12021: 12016: 12015: 12014: 12009: 11998: 11996: 11989: 11983: 11982: 11979: 11978: 11976: 11975: 11970: 11968:Ural Mountains 11965: 11960: 11958:North Caucasus 11955: 11950: 11945: 11939: 11937: 11933: 11932: 11930: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11918: 11917: 11907: 11902: 11901: 11900: 11889: 11887: 11878: 11872: 11871: 11869: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11838: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11802: 11801: 11796: 11785: 11780: 11775: 11770: 11765: 11760: 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Narrated by 10190: 10187: 10186: 10185: 10179: 10166: 10152:, ed. (1991). 10146: 10139: 10132: 10122: 10115: 10097:(8): 1319–53. 10074: 10067: 10061: 10046: 10040: 10025: 10019: 10003: 9997: 9981: 9975: 9962: 9956: 9944:Rogovin, Vadim 9940: 9934: 9918: 9912: 9896: 9878: 9865: 9847: 9838: 9832: 9817: 9811: 9798: 9792: 9776: 9770: 9753: 9747: 9734: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9713: 9687:(6): 1143–59. 9669: 9664:978-0300074420 9663: 9647: 9631: 9626:978-0275951139 9625: 9612: 9607:978-1403901194 9606: 9593: 9588:978-0300123890 9587: 9570: 9558: 9553:978-1893554726 9552: 9526: 9521:978-0198797869 9520: 9503: 9498:978-1400040056 9497: 9481: 9476:978-0691175775 9475: 9462: 9457:978-0713997026 9456: 9444:Figes, Orlando 9440: 9435:978-0674076082 9434: 9416: 9411:978-0195317008 9410: 9395: 9390:978-0195055795 9389: 9374: 9369:978-0465003129 9368: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9346: 9334: 9321: 9308: 9295: 9282: 9254: 9242: 9235: 9215: 9213:, p. 286. 9203: 9191: 9173: 9155: 9148: 9128: 9109:(4): 1030–35. 9093: 9079: 9046: 9012: 8998: 8980: 8962: 8936: 8899: 8888:. 16 July 2002 8877: 8866:. 17 July 1997 8851: 8838: 8823: 8817:978-0521446709 8816: 8793: 8787:978-0674016972 8786: 8758: 8751: 8731: 8724: 8704: 8697: 8677: 8660: 8647: 8621:Michael Ellman 8613: 8588: 8564: 8551: 8545:978-0300104073 8544: 8522: 8509: 8496: 8452: 8450:, p. 139. 8440: 8434:978-0691175775 8433: 8415: 8389: 8383:978-1417992775 8382: 8362: 8350: 8348:, p. 469. 8338: 8336:, p. 468. 8326: 8314: 8312:, p. 472. 8299: 8287: 8269: 8257: 8245: 8233: 8205: 8192:978-0521255141 8191: 8171: 8162: 8130: 8113: 8101: 8099:, p. 117. 8089: 8065: 8043: 8041:, p. 295. 8031: 8013: 8006: 7986: 7979: 7959: 7950: 7948:, p. 301. 7938: 7914: 7885: 7864: 7850: 7841: 7826: 7801: 7794: 7774: 7767: 7747: 7740: 7720: 7713: 7693: 7675: 7668: 7648: 7621:(3): 373–394. 7615:Soviet Studies 7601: 7594: 7574: 7567: 7547: 7540: 7520: 7513: 7493: 7486: 7466: 7459: 7439: 7422: 7415: 7406:Lenin's Moscow 7395: 7388: 7368: 7361: 7341: 7334: 7314: 7307: 7287: 7260:(8): 633–634. 7240: 7202: 7195: 7175: 7168: 7148: 7141: 7121: 7114: 7094: 7067:(1): 267–283. 7051: 7038:"Aino Forsten" 7029: 7011:978-0674587496 6940: 6922: 6916:978-0199560417 6915: 6897: 6890: 6870: 6863: 6843: 6836: 6816: 6809: 6789: 6782: 6762: 6755: 6735: 6728: 6708: 6701: 6681: 6674: 6656: 6637: 6625: 6609: 6596: 6594:, p. 198. 6584: 6582:, p. 211. 6572: 6547: 6506: 6500:978-0190637729 6499: 6474: 6448: 6435:10.1086/235168 6406: 6390: 6372: 6365: 6347: 6341:978-1442609914 6340: 6317: 6304: 6274: 6268:978-9176017777 6267: 6239: 6227: 6205: 6181: 6146: 6134: 6118: 6093: 6080: 6071:Werth, Nicolas 6059: 6046: 6037: 6025: 6023:, p. 352. 6013: 6011:, p. 258. 6001: 5992: 5980: 5965: 5950: 5948:, p. 164. 5938: 5926: 5908: 5894:978-0923891312 5893: 5875: 5866: 5854: 5831: 5829:, p. 121. 5819: 5817:, p. 182. 5807: 5805:, p. 142. 5795: 5786: 5777: 5726: 5714: 5688: 5663: 5643: 5639:Gellately 2007 5628: 5626:, p. 239. 5616: 5601: 5595:978-0521335706 5594: 5574: 5559: 5534: 5509: 5483: 5471: 5456: 5421: 5412:"Great Terror" 5403: 5394:Werth, Nicolas 5376: 5359: 5355:S. Fitzpatrick 5342: 5317: 5302: 5277: 5270: 5250: 5243: 5223: 5176: 5157: 5145: 5132: 5120: 5093:(2): 187–204. 5070: 5044: 5030: 5017:978-1576070840 5016: 4993: 4991:30#3 : 513–45. 4977: 4962: 4939: 4923: 4895: 4838: 4815:(7): 1151–72. 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4770: 4764: 4758: 4752: 4747: 4735: 4734:Similar events 4732: 4731: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4663: 4660: 4638:Old Bolsheviks 4566: 4563: 4562: 4561: 4554: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4535: 4533: 4526: 4519: 4517: 4507:A memorial to 4506: 4499: 4497: 4486: 4479: 4477: 4466: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4447: 4430:Wall of Sorrow 4381:Main article: 4378: 4375: 4313: 4310: 4230: 4227: 4163: 4160: 4152:Marxist theory 4099:Main article: 4096: 4095:Rehabilitation 4093: 4034:Walter Duranty 4012: 4009: 3975:dekulakization 3922:Nikolai Yezhov 3914: 3907: 3906: 3905: 3896: 3895: 3894: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3886: 3885: 3882: 3879: 3876: 3873: 3870: 3867: 3864: 3835:Main article: 3832: 3829: 3785: 3782: 3765:Main article: 3762: 3759: 3753: 3750: 3728: 3725: 3698: 3691: 3690: 3689: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3665: 3654: 3651:Nikolai Nevsky 3647: 3640: 3626: 3613: 3610:Platon Oyunsky 3603: 3596: 3581: 3574: 3567: 3552:Sergei Chavain 3545: 3534: 3531:Nikolai Klyuev 3527: 3516:David Riazanov 3513: 3491: 3487: 3476:Paolo Iashvili 3472: 3463:Georgian poet 3461: 3444: 3433: 3430:Butyrka prison 3417: 3405:Stalin Epigram 3397: 3365:Jewish German 3363: 3346:, director of 3344:Aleksei Gastev 3340: 3337:Pyotr Bogdanov 3329: 3314:astrophysicist 3310: 3295: 3288: 3276: 3270: 3255: 3236: 3229:Trofim Lysenko 3206: 3191: 3066: 3065:Intelligentsia 3063: 3038:Nikolai Yezhov 3003:Ramón Mercader 2888: 2887: 2842: 2840: 2833: 2826: 2825: 2784: 2782: 2775: 2768: 2767: 2756: 2755: 2744: 2743: 2736: 2733: 2651: 2648: 2632:Norman Naimark 2608:dekulakization 2589:Timothy Snyder 2507:Nikolai Yezhov 2484: 2481: 2403:Tsarist regime 2390: 2387: 2367:Romain Rolland 2308: 2305: 2254:Genrikh Yagoda 2222:Genrikh Yagoda 2200: 2197: 2174: 2171: 2166: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2112:Main article: 2109: 2106: 2085: 2084: 2077: 2062: 2021: 2018: 2013:Main article: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2005: 1998: 1995: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1968:dekulakization 1893:Ramón Mercader 1777:Vladimir Lenin 1771:Following the 1764:An excerpt of 1751: 1748: 1736:Nikolai Yezhov 1732:Genrikh Yagoda 1682:Nikolai Yezhov 1664:intelligentsia 1652:Old Bolsheviks 1648:Genrikh Yagoda 1521:Большой террор 1498: 1497: 1495: 1494: 1487: 1480: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1450: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1394: 1392:Related topics 1391: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1273:The Barricades 1270: 1268:January Events 1265: 1263:Dushanbe riots 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1225: 1224: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1164: 1159: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1123: 1117: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1032:Wars in Africa 1029: 1028: 1027: 1017: 1015:Yom Kippur War 1012: 1011: 1010: 1008:Fall of Saigon 1005: 1000: 998:Operation Menu 995: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 959: 953: 952: 949: 948: 945: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 898: 897: 885: 880: 875: 870: 864: 858: 857: 854: 853: 850: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 813: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 772: 771: 770: 760: 755: 750: 749: 748: 747: 746: 741: 726: 720: 714: 713: 710: 709: 706: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 659: 653: 652: 649: 648: 645: 644: 639: 634: 632:Russian Empire 629: 628: 627: 622: 617: 607: 602: 596: 593: 592: 589: 588: 580: 579: 573: 572: 560: 559: 557: 556: 549: 542: 534: 531: 530: 529: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 500: 499: 495: 494: 493: 492: 487: 486: 485: 475: 470: 469: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 415: 414: 408: 407: 406: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 377: 376: 370: 369: 368: 367: 366: 365: 360: 350: 348:Dekulakization 345: 340: 332: 331: 327: 326: 316: 315: 312: 308: 307: 276:Nikolai Yezhov 272:Genrikh Yagoda 261: 257: 256: 248: 244: 243: 241: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 214: 212: 209: 206: 205: 187: 183: 182: 173: 169: 168: 155: 151: 150: 139: 131: 130: 123: 122: 81: 80: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13002: 12991: 12988: 12986: 12983: 12981: 12978: 12976: 12973: 12971: 12968: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12882: 12880: 12865: 12857: 12855: 12854: 12843: 12842: 12839: 12829: 12826: 12822: 12819: 12818: 12817: 12814: 12810: 12807: 12806: 12805: 12802: 12798: 12795: 12794: 12793: 12790: 12789: 12787: 12783: 12775: 12772: 12771: 12769: 12766: 12765: 12763: 12761: 12757: 12751: 12748: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12725:Printed media 12723: 12721: 12718: 12714: 12711: 12710: 12709: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12699: 12696: 12694: 12691: 12689: 12686: 12685: 12683: 12681: 12677: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12659: 12658:Cyrillisation 12656: 12654: 12651: 12650: 12649: 12646: 12644: 12641: 12639: 12636: 12632: 12629: 12627: 12626:Working class 12624: 12622: 12621:Soviet people 12619: 12618: 12617: 12614: 12612: 12609: 12607: 12604: 12603: 12600: 12597: 12595: 12591: 12583: 12580: 12579: 12578: 12575: 12573: 12570: 12568: 12565: 12563: 12560: 12558: 12555: 12553: 12550: 12548: 12545: 12544: 12542: 12540: 12536: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12514: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12469:Energy policy 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12451: 12449: 12447: 12443: 12433: 12430: 12428: 12425: 12423: 12420: 12418: 12415: 12414: 12412: 12410: 12406: 12400: 12397: 12395: 12392: 12388: 12385: 12384: 12383: 12380: 12378: 12375: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12363: 12360: 12358: 12355: 12354: 12352: 12350: 12346: 12338: 12334: 12330: 12326: 12322: 12319: 12318: 12317: 12314: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12301: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12288: 12285: 12284: 12283: 12280: 12276: 12273: 12272: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12257: 12255: 12253: 12249: 12243: 12240: 12238: 12235: 12233: 12230: 12226: 12223: 12222: 12221: 12218: 12217: 12215: 12211: 12203: 12200: 12199: 12198: 12197:Supreme Court 12195: 12192: 12189: 12186: 12183: 12180: 12177: 12173: 12170: 12166: 12163: 12161: 12158: 12157: 12156: 12153: 12151: 12148: 12146: 12143: 12142: 12141: 12138: 12137: 12135: 12131: 12125: 12122: 12118: 12115: 12113: 12110: 12108: 12105: 12104: 12103: 12100: 12098: 12095: 12093: 12090: 12088: 12085: 12081: 12078: 12077: 12076: 12073: 12071: 12068: 12066: 12063: 12059: 12056: 12055: 12054: 12051: 12047: 12044: 12043: 12042: 12039: 12037: 12034: 12030: 12027: 12026: 12025: 12022: 12020: 12017: 12013: 12010: 12008: 12005: 12004: 12003: 12000: 11999: 11997: 11993: 11990: 11988: 11984: 11974: 11971: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11959: 11956: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11940: 11938: 11934: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11916: 11913: 11912: 11911: 11908: 11906: 11903: 11899: 11896: 11895: 11894: 11891: 11890: 11888: 11886: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11873: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11834: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11800: 11799:The Holocaust 11797: 11795: 11792: 11791: 11789: 11786: 11784: 11781: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11743: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11733: 11731: 11729: 11725: 11720: 11713: 11708: 11706: 11701: 11699: 11694: 11693: 11690: 11678: 11670: 11669: 11666: 11660: 11657: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11643: 11640: 11638: 11635: 11633: 11632:Semyonovskoye 11630: 11628: 11625: 11623: 11620: 11618: 11615: 11614: 11612: 11610: 11607: 11605: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11595: 11592: 11591: 11589: 11587: 11583: 11574: 11571: 11566: 11563: 11558: 11555: 11550: 11547: 11542: 11539: 11534: 11531: 11526: 11523: 11518: 11515: 11510: 11509:Vasily Stalin 11507: 11504:(second wife) 11502: 11499: 11496:(adopted son) 11494: 11491: 11486: 11483: 11478: 11475: 11470: 11469:Kato Svanidze 11467: 11462: 11459: 11454: 11451: 11450: 11448: 11444: 11438: 11437: 11433: 11432: 11430: 11426: 11420: 11417: 11415: 11412: 11410: 11407: 11405: 11402: 11400: 11397: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11375: 11372: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11347: 11345: 11342: 11340: 11337: 11336: 11334: 11330: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11318: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11307: 11306: 11302: 11300: 11299: 11295: 11293: 11292: 11288: 11286: 11283: 11281: 11278: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11265:Ryutin Affair 11263: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11253: 11252: 11250: 11245:Criticism and 11242: 11236: 11233: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11210: 11206: 11204: 11201: 11199: 11196: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11185: 11183: 11181: 11177: 11171: 11168: 11165: 11161: 11159: 11158:Order No. 270 11156: 11154: 11153:Order No. 227 11151: 11149: 11148: 11144: 11142: 11139: 11137: 11134: 11132: 11131: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11119: 11115: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11102: 11098: 11095: 11091: 11088: 11084: 11081: 11077: 11074: 11070: 11069: 11067: 11063: 11057: 11054: 11052: 11051:Doctors' plot 11049: 11047: 11044: 11042: 11039: 11037: 11034: 11032: 11029: 11027: 11024: 11022: 11019: 11015: 11012: 11010: 11009:Nazino affair 11007: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10981: 10980: 10977: 10974: 10973:German–Soviet 10970: 10967: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10957: 10955: 10952: 10950: 10947: 10945: 10942: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10932:Slavists case 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10915: 10913: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10898:Moscow Trials 10896: 10892: 10889: 10887: 10884: 10882: 10879: 10877: 10874: 10872: 10869: 10867: 10864: 10862: 10859: 10857: 10854: 10852: 10849: 10847: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10834: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10823: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10813: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10795: 10792: 10791: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10741: 10739: 10733: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10661:Korenizatsiya 10659: 10657: 10656:Neo-Stalinism 10654: 10652: 10649: 10648: 10646: 10642: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10610: 10607: 10605: 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10587: 10583: 10580: 10579: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10559: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10542:Ili Rebellion 10540: 10538: 10535: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10494: 10491: 10490: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10480: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10444: 10441: 10439: 10436: 10434: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10422: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10399: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10389: 10386: 10384: 10381: 10380: 10378: 10374: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10350: 10348: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10338: 10335: 10333: 10330: 10329: 10327: 10323: 10320: 10314: 10307: 10304: 10301: 10298: 10297: 10294: 10290: 10289:Joseph Stalin 10283: 10278: 10276: 10271: 10269: 10264: 10263: 10260: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10244:Nicolas Werth 10242: 10240: 10236: 10231: 10228: 10227: 10223: 10220: 10215: 10211: 10210: 10201: 10197: 10193: 10192: 10182: 10176: 10172: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10145:(2019): 1–24. 10144: 10140: 10137: 10133: 10131: 10127: 10123: 10120: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10096: 10092: 10091: 10083: 10079: 10075: 10072: 10068: 10064: 10058: 10054: 10053: 10047: 10043: 10037: 10033: 10032: 10026: 10022: 10016: 10012: 10008: 10004: 10000: 9994: 9990: 9989:Red Holocaust 9986: 9982: 9978: 9972: 9968: 9963: 9959: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9937: 9931: 9927: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9909: 9905: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9888: 9883: 9882:Lyons, Eugene 9879: 9872: 9868: 9862: 9855: 9854: 9848: 9844: 9839: 9835: 9829: 9825: 9824: 9818: 9814: 9808: 9804: 9799: 9795: 9789: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9767: 9763: 9762:Belknap Press 9759: 9754: 9750: 9744: 9740: 9735: 9732: 9728: 9727: 9725: 9710: 9706: 9702: 9698: 9694: 9690: 9686: 9682: 9675: 9670: 9666: 9660: 9656: 9652: 9648: 9643: 9642: 9636: 9632: 9628: 9622: 9618: 9613: 9609: 9603: 9599: 9594: 9590: 9584: 9580: 9576: 9571: 9567: 9563: 9559: 9555: 9549: 9545: 9541: 9540: 9535: 9534:Klehr, Harvey 9531: 9527: 9523: 9517: 9513: 9509: 9504: 9500: 9494: 9490: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9472: 9468: 9463: 9459: 9453: 9449: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9431: 9427: 9426: 9421: 9417: 9413: 9407: 9403: 9402: 9396: 9392: 9386: 9382: 9381: 9375: 9371: 9365: 9361: 9356: 9355: 9344:, p. xx. 9343: 9342:Thurston 1998 9338: 9331: 9325: 9318: 9312: 9305: 9299: 9292: 9286: 9271: 9270: 9265: 9258: 9251: 9246: 9238: 9232: 9228: 9227: 9219: 9212: 9211:Conquest 2008 9207: 9200: 9199:Conquest 2008 9195: 9187: 9183: 9177: 9169: 9165: 9159: 9151: 9145: 9141: 9140: 9132: 9124: 9120: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9097: 9089: 9083: 9067: 9063: 9062: 9057: 9050: 9035: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9016: 9008: 9002: 8994: 8990: 8984: 8976: 8972: 8966: 8951:. 9 June 2010 8950: 8946: 8940: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8909: 8903: 8887: 8881: 8865: 8861: 8855: 8848: 8842: 8835: 8830: 8828: 8819: 8813: 8809: 8808: 8803: 8797: 8789: 8783: 8779: 8778: 8773: 8767: 8765: 8763: 8754: 8748: 8744: 8743: 8735: 8727: 8721: 8717: 8716: 8708: 8700: 8694: 8690: 8689: 8681: 8674: 8670: 8664: 8657: 8651: 8644: 8640: 8636: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8622: 8617: 8610: 8606: 8602: 8598: 8592: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8574: 8568: 8561: 8555: 8547: 8541: 8537: 8533: 8526: 8519: 8513: 8506: 8500: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8471: 8463: 8456: 8449: 8448:Thurston 1998 8444: 8436: 8430: 8426: 8419: 8404: 8400: 8393: 8385: 8379: 8375: 8374: 8366: 8359: 8358:Conquest 2008 8354: 8347: 8346:Conquest 2008 8342: 8335: 8334:Conquest 2008 8330: 8323: 8322:Conquest 2008 8318: 8311: 8310:Conquest 2008 8306: 8304: 8296: 8295:Conquest 2008 8291: 8283: 8279: 8273: 8267:, p. 33. 8266: 8261: 8254: 8249: 8243:, p. 32. 8242: 8237: 8222: 8221: 8216: 8209: 8194: 8188: 8184: 8183: 8175: 8166: 8150: 8146: 8145: 8140: 8134: 8127: 8123: 8117: 8110: 8109:Kuromiya 2007 8105: 8098: 8093: 8086: 8082: 8078: 8074: 8069: 8054: 8047: 8040: 8039:Conquest 2008 8035: 8027: 8023: 8017: 8009: 8003: 7999: 7998: 7990: 7982: 7976: 7972: 7971: 7963: 7954: 7947: 7946:Conquest 2008 7942: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7918: 7903: 7899: 7892: 7890: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7868: 7859: 7857: 7855: 7845: 7838: 7837: 7830: 7815: 7811: 7805: 7797: 7791: 7787: 7786: 7778: 7770: 7764: 7760: 7759: 7751: 7743: 7737: 7733: 7732: 7724: 7716: 7710: 7706: 7705: 7697: 7689: 7685: 7679: 7671: 7665: 7661: 7660: 7652: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7605: 7597: 7591: 7587: 7586: 7578: 7570: 7564: 7560: 7559: 7551: 7543: 7537: 7533: 7532: 7524: 7516: 7510: 7506: 7505: 7497: 7489: 7483: 7479: 7478: 7470: 7462: 7456: 7452: 7451: 7443: 7435: 7434: 7426: 7418: 7412: 7408: 7407: 7399: 7391: 7385: 7381: 7380: 7372: 7364: 7358: 7354: 7353: 7345: 7337: 7331: 7327: 7326: 7318: 7310: 7304: 7300: 7299: 7291: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7244: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7209: 7207: 7198: 7192: 7188: 7187: 7179: 7171: 7165: 7161: 7160: 7152: 7144: 7138: 7134: 7133: 7125: 7117: 7111: 7107: 7106: 7098: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7055: 7039: 7033: 7026: 7025: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6952: 6951: 6944: 6936: 6932: 6926: 6918: 6912: 6908: 6901: 6893: 6887: 6883: 6882: 6874: 6866: 6860: 6856: 6855: 6847: 6839: 6833: 6829: 6828: 6820: 6812: 6806: 6802: 6801: 6793: 6785: 6779: 6775: 6774: 6766: 6758: 6752: 6748: 6747: 6739: 6731: 6725: 6721: 6720: 6712: 6704: 6698: 6694: 6693: 6685: 6677: 6671: 6667: 6660: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6641: 6634: 6633:Conquest 2008 6629: 6622: 6618: 6617:Conquest 2008 6613: 6606: 6603:Stephen Lee, 6600: 6593: 6592:Courtois 1999 6588: 6581: 6580:Conquest 2008 6576: 6561: 6557: 6551: 6543: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6510: 6502: 6496: 6492: 6491: 6483: 6481: 6479: 6463: 6459: 6452: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6429:(4): 813–61. 6428: 6424: 6417: 6410: 6403: 6399: 6394: 6386: 6382: 6376: 6368: 6362: 6358: 6351: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6332: 6327: 6321: 6314: 6308: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6270: 6264: 6257: 6256: 6248: 6246: 6244: 6236: 6235:Courtois 1999 6231: 6223: 6219: 6212: 6210: 6201: 6194: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6186: 6178: 6177: 6163: 6159: 6150: 6141: 6139: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6102: 6100: 6098: 6090: 6084: 6076: 6072: 6066: 6064: 6057:. pp. 667–68. 6056: 6050: 6041: 6034: 6033:Conquest 2008 6029: 6022: 6021:Conquest 2008 6017: 6010: 6009:Koestler 1940 6005: 5996: 5987: 5985: 5976: 5969: 5961: 5954: 5947: 5946:Conquest 2008 5942: 5933: 5931: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5886: 5879: 5870: 5864:, p. 87. 5863: 5862:Conquest 2008 5858: 5850: 5846: 5845:Labour Review 5842: 5835: 5828: 5827:Conquest 2008 5823: 5816: 5815:Conquest 2008 5811: 5804: 5803:Conquest 2008 5799: 5790: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5750:(3): 524–26. 5749: 5745: 5741: 5739: 5730: 5723: 5718: 5702: 5698: 5692: 5677: 5673: 5667: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5647: 5640: 5635: 5633: 5625: 5620: 5613: 5612:Conquest 1987 5608: 5606: 5597: 5591: 5587: 5586: 5578: 5570: 5563: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5546: 5538: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5497: 5493: 5487: 5480: 5475: 5467: 5460: 5445: 5441: 5434: 5432: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5417: 5413: 5407: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5331: 5327: 5321: 5313: 5306: 5291: 5287: 5281: 5273: 5267: 5263: 5262: 5254: 5246: 5240: 5236: 5235: 5227: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5180: 5172: 5168: 5161: 5154: 5149: 5142: 5136: 5129: 5128:Conquest 2008 5124: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5087:Slavic Review 5081: 5074: 5059: 5055: 5048: 5040: 5034: 5019: 5013: 5009: 5008: 5003: 4997: 4990: 4984: 4982: 4975:, p. 16. 4974: 4969: 4967: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4943: 4936: 4932: 4931:Conquest 2008 4927: 4920: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4902: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4843: 4835: 4834:world—history 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4803: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4783: 4768: 4767:Prague Spring 4765: 4762: 4759: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4745: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4650: 4645: 4641: 4639: 4634: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4601:According to 4598: 4594: 4592: 4588: 4586: 4581: 4579: 4578: 4573: 4558: 4551: 4546: 4539: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4503: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4463: 4458: 4451: 4446: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4438: 4433: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4420: 4416: 4411: 4409: 4405: 4400: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4384: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4318: 4308: 4303: 4300: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4275: 4271: 4268: 4263: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4229:Stalin's role 4226: 4224: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4204: 4203:J. Arch Getty 4201:According to 4199: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4177:According to 4175: 4173: 4169: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4139:rehabilitated 4135: 4132: 4124: 4119: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4089:Secret Speech 4086: 4082: 4081: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4063: 4062: 4057: 4054:, authors of 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4040: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4024:According to 4022: 4019: 4008: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3995: 3994:rehabilitated 3991: 3987: 3983: 3978: 3976: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3923: 3919: 3918: 3911: 3900: 3883: 3880: 3877: 3874: 3871: 3868: 3865: 3862: 3861: 3857: 3854: 3850: 3849:Israil Pliner 3846: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3795: 3791: 3781: 3778: 3774: 3768: 3758: 3749: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3695: 3684: 3670: 3666: 3663: 3659: 3658:Mykola Kulish 3655: 3652: 3648: 3645: 3641: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3627: 3624: 3623: 3618: 3614: 3611: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3546: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3532: 3528: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3492: 3488: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3452:Zinaida Raikh 3449: 3445: 3442: 3438: 3437:Boris Pilnyak 3434: 3431: 3426: 3425:André Malraux 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3370:Fritz Noether 3368: 3364: 3361: 3360:cybernetician 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3293: 3292:Boris Numerov 3289: 3286: 3285: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3240:Lev Shubnikov 3237: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3197: 3193: 3192: 3190: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3152: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3125: 3118: 3113: 3106: 3101: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3062: 3060: 3056: 3050: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3020: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2952: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2933:Eric D. Weitz 2929: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2898:Vadim Rogovin 2895: 2884: 2881: 2873: 2870:February 2022 2863: 2859: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2843:This section 2841: 2832: 2831: 2822: 2819: 2811: 2808:February 2022 2801: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2785:This section 2783: 2779: 2774: 2773: 2766: 2757: 2754: 2745: 2740: 2732: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2633: 2629: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2601: 2596: 2592: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2515: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2480: 2477: 2473: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2460: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2395: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2379:rehabilitated 2376: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2344: 2338: 2335: 2331: 2324: 2323:revolutionary 2321: 2317: 2313: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2293:Jay Lovestone 2290: 2289:Bertram Wolfe 2286: 2280: 2278: 2272: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2257: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2218:Yakov Agranov 2215: 2211: 2206: 2195: 2190: 2188: 2183: 2180: 2170: 2162: 2158: 2155: 2154: 2153: 2149: 2147: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2129:For example, 2127: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2105: 2103: 2097: 2094: 2090: 2082: 2078: 2075: 2071: 2070:Yuri Piatakov 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2046: 2045: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2026: 2016: 2015:Moscow trials 2009:Moscow trials 2003: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1977: 1976: 1975: 1971: 1969: 1963: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1909:party leader 1908: 1904: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1853:Ryutin affair 1849: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1721:Volga Germans 1718: 1714: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1686:Yezhovshchina 1683: 1679: 1675: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1595:Joseph Stalin 1593: 1585: 1569: 1559: 1558:Yezhovshchina 1554: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1527: 1518: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1481: 1479: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1457: 1456: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1433:Soviet Empire 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1395: 1389: 1388: 1379: 1378: 1373: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1326: 1325: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1295: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1248:Black January 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1180: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1115: 1114: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1101:Polish strike 1099: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1020:Prague Spring 1018: 1016: 1013: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 990: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 960: 956: 951: 950: 943: 940: 938: 937:Space program 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 895: 891: 890: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 865: 861: 856: 855: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 777: 776: 773: 769: 768:Moscow trials 766: 765: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 745: 742: 740: 737: 736: 735: 732: 731: 730: 727: 725: 722: 721: 717: 712: 711: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 683:War communism 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 660: 656: 651: 650: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 612: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 597: 591: 590: 586: 582: 581: 578: 575: 574: 570: 566: 565: 555: 550: 548: 543: 541: 536: 535: 533: 532: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 503: 502: 501: 497: 496: 491: 488: 484: 481: 480: 479: 476: 474: 471: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 423: 422: 419: 418: 417: 416: 413: 410: 409: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 380: 379: 378: 375: 372: 371: 364: 361: 359: 356: 355: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 338:War communism 336: 335: 334: 333: 329: 328: 322: 321: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 286:and others), 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 264:Joseph Stalin 262: 258: 253: 249: 245: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 215: 213: 207: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 177: 174: 170: 167: 163: 159: 156: 152: 147: 143: 137: 132: 129: 124: 119: 114: 110: 109: 105: 100: 96: 92: 88: 77: 74: 66: 63:November 2023 56: 50: 48: 43:This article 41: 32: 31: 19: 18:Yezhovshchina 12844: 12616:Demographics 12606:Antisemitism 12459:Central Bank 12377:Forced labor 12366: 12325:Spetsnaz GRU 12145:organisation 12053:Human rights 12002:Constitution 11885:Subdivisions 11782: 11763:Russian SFSR 11719:Soviet Union 11576:(son-in-law) 11568:(son-in-law) 11565:Yuri Zhdanov 11472:(first wife) 11461:Keke Geladze 11434: 11323:Antisemitism 11315: 11303: 11296: 11289: 11280:Kremlin Plot 11207: 11145: 11129: 11116: 11021:Tax on trees 10979:Deportations 10810: 10716:Stakhanovite 10577:Eastern Bloc 10478:World War II 10431: / 10318:and politics 10225: 10200:Meryl Streep 10195: 10170: 10157: 10153: 10142: 10135: 10125: 10118: 10094: 10088: 10070: 10051: 10030: 10010: 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The term 1537:Year of '37 1504:Great Purge 1288:August Coup 1258:War of Laws 1137:Perestroika 988:Vietnam War 978:Six-Day War 763:Great Purge 718:: Stalinism 637:World War I 466:Legislation 393:Great Purge 228:Mass murder 210:Attack type 191:Trotskyists 176:Main phase: 121:Great Purge 102:‹ The 12879:Categories 12760:Opposition 12750:Television 12730:Propaganda 12703:Literature 12577:Naukograds 12572:Sharashkas 12506:(currency) 12484:Inventions 12427:Censorship 12357:Red Terror 12041:Government 11915:Autonomous 11898:Autonomous 11831:Stagnation 11794:Evacuation 11647:Lake Ritsa 11627:Uspenskoye 11544:(grandson) 11528:(grandson) 11520:(daughter) 11275:Trotskyism 11247:opposition 10923:Lysenkoism 10609:Korean War 10488:Winter War 10376:Chronology 10367:Death toll 10332:Early life 9722:See also: 9275:1 December 9072:6 November 8667:Quoted in 8609:0817929029 8584:0300110669 7935:0253209153 7881:1929631146 6993:. p. 200; 6991:0142000639 6977:. p. 460; 6975:1400040051 6961:. p. 101; 6560:goarmy.com 6313:Bloodlands 6300:0465002390 6128:, p. 6126:Figes 2007 5660:1400040051 5624:Figes 2007 5554:B0711N78KN 5527:3 December 5335:2 December 5153:Figes 2007 5063:3 December 4933:, p. 4774:References 4757:(Cambodia) 4718:Lustration 4583:Historian 4557:Sandarmokh 4489:Krasny Bor 4251:Kaganovich 4247:Voroshilov 4125:, Mongolia 3986:Ivan Fedko 3825:Hoja-Niyaz 3815:, General 3742:Sandarmokh 3699:Statue of 3571:Les Kurbas 3318:astronomer 3213:geneticist 3069:See also: 2983:Bolsheviks 2970:, Spanish 2968:Andreu Nin 2960:Trotskyist 2924:and other 2896:historian 2894:Trotskyist 2854:improve it 2710:commissars 2426:White Army 2318:, Russian 2203:See also: 2179:Karl Radek 2146:Not Guilty 2124:John Dewey 2066:Karl Radek 2000:1938, the 1991:1937, the 1978:1936, the 1960:Red Terror 1824:The term " 1754:See also: 1750:Background 1582:period of 1556:) and the 1423:Leadership 1350:Khrushchev 1303:referendum 1278:Referendum 1162:Baltic Way 837:Korean War 678:Red Terror 605:Bolshevism 594:Background 478:Censorship 383:Red Terror 363:Kazakhstan 306:and others 284:Ivan Serov 140:People of 55:editing it 12955:Stalinism 12821:Republics 12809:Republics 12797:Republics 12648:Languages 12512:Transport 12394:Holodomor 12287:Militsiya 12225:President 12117:Stalinism 12019:Elections 11893:Republics 11876:Geography 11866:Nostalgia 11778:Stalinism 11637:New Athos 10903:Hotel Lux 10886:Vinnytsia 10841:Chortkiv 10831:Berezwecz 10826:Berezhany 10794:Holodomor 10651:Stalinism 10589:Cominform 10325:Overviews 9782:(1973) . 9709:205667754 9653:(1998) . 9491:. 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