2847:
257:
173:
199:
20:
156:, frequently flooded during the rainy season in the mountains from April to November, causing great inconvenience to the residents of the plains. Therefore, from 200 BCE onwards these people built a system of channels that enabled them to control the flooding and make large areas practical for habitation and agriculture. The system was continually expanded. Covering 500,000 hectares between 200 BCE and 1000 CE, it was at its greatest extent in the San Jorge basin, but channels were also constructed in the lower reaches of the rivers Cauca and Sinú.
214:
381:, but their work is closely related to that of the Zenúes from the rivers. Since many items come from the mountains of San Jacinto, it may have been an important production center. It is unknown when the production of goldwork started in this area, but given the similarity of themes and techniques with those of the goldwork found in river valleys that was already being produced by 200 BCE, it could have started a long time ago.
281:
valleys. Like the channel system, which remained in use for many centuries, these cultural features lasted a long time and are part of what is called the Zenú tradition. Artisans from different localities in the area, however, expressed these ideas in their own way, making it possible to distinguish between them. Nevertheless, they showed a common Zenú identity.
190:
breastplate, was an allusion to the place where pregnancy and birth took place. Thus, women possessed great social and political significance. When the Zenú culture was discovered by the
Spaniards in the 16th century, the religious center of Finzenú at the river Sinú was led by Toto, a female chief who governed several nearby villages.
313:
According to the Zenú, Chief Zenúfana, a mythical figure, had governed the lower Cauca and Nechí area. During the
Spanish conquest, he was regarded as the foremost of the ancient chiefs because he organized the whole territory of Great Zenú and assigned political, economic and religious duties to the
271:
of the Zenú are almost completely lost, but the tools they used for producing these items, such as needles and spindles made of bone, shells, and ceramics, did survive. The development of woven fabrics can be traced from numerous representations in gold and ceramic objects. Women were portrayed with
184:
In the Zenú culture, women were the symbol of fertility, wisdom and respect. Female characters were frequently portrayed in clay and placed in the graves of the dead as a symbol of human and agricultural fertility. The presence of these statuettes in the grave symbolized conception and rebirth in the
119:
rivers, all culturally related with similar artistic expressions, concepts of life and death, and environmental practices. Their means of subsistence were hunting, farming, fishing, and trading in raw materials and finished products. Around 950 CE, about 160 inhabitants per square kilometer lived in
361:
Men and animals, in general, retain their own characteristics, like beautifully attired dignitaries with very stylized bodies, but images have also been found with anthropomorphic portrayals of various beings. These depict a human face and a headdress resembling a bird's crest, with the body of an
357:
Wildlife from the rugged mountains are often portrayed on these items, but animals from the marsh and river areas are also depicted. A typical feature of the objects produced in the mountains of San
Jacinto is the representation of scenes, such as ducks sitting on a branch, a feline figure fighting
189:
was built over the grave. On top of the mound a tree was planted, and golden bells were hung in the branches. The golden breastplates that important women and chiefs wore during ceremonies symbolized the pregnancy of women and the virility of men. The roundness of the mound, like the roundness of a
70:
The Zenú civilization peaked from about 200 BCE to about 1600 CE, constructing major waterworks and producing gold ornaments. The gold that was often buried with their dead lured the
Spanish conquistadors, who looted much of the gold. With the arrival of the Spaniards, the tribe almost died out due
309:
Under the Zenú, each valley made up its own province. The Sinú valley was called Finzenú, with its capital, Zenú. At the time of the
Spanish conquest, Finzenú was governed by a woman, Toto. Their most important holy place and the cemetery where dignitaries were buried was at Zenú, near the marsh
280:
The themes expressed in gold or ceramics show that the various ancient communities in the areas were politically and religiously related. The designs on textiles and clay baskets, the female clay figurines, and the construction of the burial mounds were similar for all the people of these river
345:
These items are similar to those of the lowland culture: fine cast circular and semi-circular filigree earrings, nose rings with horizontal extensions, pendants adorned with richly attired people, circular or n-shaped nose rings, staff heads, bells, and amphibious people with headdresses. Some
159:
The Zenú dug channels, sometimes as long as four kilometers, connected to the natural waterways. Perpendicular to these channels, smaller irrigation ditches were dug. The soil left by the excavations was used to build long artificial terraces, two to four meters high, on which they built their
90:
in 1905. The Zenú have fought for the restoration of the reserve, and in 1990 San Andrés de
Sotavento was restored as a Zenú reserve with a land area of 10,000 hectares (later 23,000). Since then, and especially in the first decades of the 21st century, more and more lands in
228:-work, on which living beings were placed. This symbolism is reflected in the patterns of fishing nets, textiles, pottery and goldwork. As the web of channels was the place where daily life took place, so also did people and animals appear in the metallic fabric of cast semi-
310:
Betanci. The San Jorge basin where food was grown was called Panzenú, governed by Yapel, with its main political center in Ayapel. Zenúfana, governed by
Nutibara, between the rivers Cauca and Nechí, was the primary place where gold was produced.
163:
After the
Spanish conquest, the drainage system probably did not function anymore, because the chroniclers made no mention of it. Although the system has now been overtaken by marshes, the channel patterns are still detectable in the landscape.
160:
houses. During times of high water, the channels led the water to areas where crops were grown. When the water withdrew, the nutrient-rich sludge was used to enrich the land. This system of water management was used over a period of 1300 years.
247:
with a high degree of gold. Waterfowl, alligators, fish, cat, and deer figures were sources of food as well as elements of their culture. The animal world was depicted in gold pendants and in gold ornaments to be placed on the head of a staff.
330:
and on the banks of the
Magdalena River. They distinguished themselves, however, from the lowland Zenúes who used cemeteries and burial mounds, by burying their dead in large pots which were placed under the floors of their homes.
342:, they were subjected to a chemical heating process. This dissolved the copper at the surface while the gold stayed behind. The gilding is often worn away in the course of time, revealing oxidized copper.
217:
Lowland Zenú cast-gold bird ornament that served as a staff head, dated 490 CE. This culture used alloys with a high gold content. The crest of the bird exemplifies the cast semi-filigree technique -
402:
120:
the San Jorge basin. After 1100, the Zenú population decreased for unknown reasons and moved to higher pastures that did not flood, requiring no drainage works, where they lived until the
23:
Caribbean area where the Zenú culture developed between 200 BCE and 1600 CE. The dark green area is the inland delta where most of the Zenú irrigation and drainage works were constructed.
71:
to excessive taxation, forced labor, and western diseases. The Zenú language disappeared around 200 years ago. However, the 2018 Colombian Census showed 307,091 Zenú people in
Colombia.
1241:
1205:
1188:
926:
1289:
1159:
914:
1217:
1094:
1058:
968:
87:
1253:
1229:
1082:
1070:
1033:
1004:
980:
243:, was the characteristic feature of the decoration of Zenú goldwork. Next to casting, gold was also hammered into plates and reliefs. Gold ornaments typically were made of an
1021:
992:
2827:
1277:
1171:
1147:
1118:
1106:
556:
495:
1415:
486:
2822:
185:
underworld, in the same way that seeds germinate and grow. During the funeral ceremony, which was attended by the whole community with music and dance, a
358:
with an alligator, or a man holding the claws of a bird of prey. Birds, feline and amphibious figures are the animals that are associated with men.
549:
2802:
1448:
2787:
294:
From 1100 onwards, the Zenú population declined for unknown reasons, and until the Spanish conquest the Zenú lived on higher pastures around
1764:
1387:
542:
2792:
1087:
1063:
303:
1123:
1796:
476:
256:
1210:
931:
2885:
1246:
1164:
1294:
1176:
919:
1258:
458:
1784:
1009:
83:
1193:
1026:
973:
461:, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Zenú
326:
Related groups of Zenú goldsmiths, merchants, and sailors lived around the time of the Spanish conquest in the mountains of
2698:
1813:
522:
481:
334:
Unlike the goldsmiths in the river valleys, these goldsmiths used gold alloys which contained a relatively large amount of
224:
The web of canals was reflected in their art, culture, and symbolic thinking. For the Zenú, the world seemed to be a large
1222:
1152:
1099:
2757:
1808:
1686:
314:
chiefs of Finzenú and Panzenú, who were his relatives. He had enacted laws and regulations that were still in force when
1282:
1111:
1075:
1038:
997:
985:
2812:
1791:
1430:
504:
40:
1234:
2751:
1820:
172:
2875:
2572:
2261:
513:
2890:
2880:
2642:
2272:
1954:
1769:
1380:
1317:
2734:
2577:
1425:
1354:
573:
2713:
1989:
2723:
1964:
1468:
1016:
2739:
2817:
2745:
2709:
1779:
2411:
2283:
1869:
1611:
1420:
19:
2638:
2522:
2365:
1373:
79:
1327:
207:
464:
428:
2345:
1949:
1874:
1751:
1726:
1440:
528:
385:
has shown that the production of San Jacinto certainly continued until after the Spanish conquest.
318:
invaded the country. The three chiefs had complementary political, religious and economic duties.
2421:
2094:
1591:
2646:
327:
198:
1140:
2064:
346:
designs are realistic, others stylized. People are naturalistically portrayed: people holding
2567:
2482:
2416:
2049:
1803:
1774:
1573:
1548:
1513:
306:. On their plunder raids, the Spaniards discovered the area by traveling via the Sinú River.
1701:
60:
2851:
2718:
2582:
2547:
2467:
2156:
1864:
1759:
1741:
1641:
1365:
153:
92:
56:
2044:
8:
2684:
2446:
1478:
1458:
956:
218:
1676:
776:
2807:
2797:
2703:
2527:
2436:
2215:
1959:
1904:
1879:
1543:
1538:
1508:
1503:
1349:
1322:
261:
177:
133:
2426:
2832:
2762:
2728:
2451:
2441:
2151:
2119:
1999:
1929:
1661:
1636:
1568:
1558:
1396:
1270:
1265:
1200:
1183:
961:
565:
534:
213:
2029:
1894:
1860:
586:
2532:
2472:
2456:
2339:
2303:
2210:
2114:
1914:
1731:
1706:
1523:
1518:
1135:
1130:
1050:
943:
315:
240:
203:
121:
64:
821:
676:
103:
Around 200 BCE, communities of farmers and goldsmiths lived in the valleys of the
2655:
2334:
2293:
2278:
2241:
2205:
2099:
1994:
1909:
1884:
1845:
1830:
1651:
1488:
1312:
951:
721:
378:
145:
137:
108:
52:
666:
631:
429:
Example of the remains of the drainage and irrigation works by the Zenú Indians
2586:
2552:
2396:
2371:
2328:
2318:
2308:
2298:
2256:
2039:
1850:
1840:
1533:
1493:
1483:
881:
856:
831:
816:
796:
686:
681:
651:
626:
591:
581:
2688:
2672:
2492:
621:
452:
149:
116:
2869:
2542:
2386:
2355:
2323:
2267:
2235:
2074:
2034:
2024:
2019:
2009:
2004:
1939:
1934:
1889:
1453:
1410:
851:
781:
771:
636:
382:
75:
2633:
2629:
1621:
1616:
104:
48:
2625:
2601:
2557:
2507:
2502:
2391:
2376:
2360:
2225:
2176:
2171:
2146:
2124:
2089:
1969:
1671:
1606:
1563:
886:
861:
836:
806:
786:
731:
711:
696:
671:
2109:
338:. These were objects for mass use. To give the surface of these objects a
2621:
2611:
2230:
2161:
2014:
1984:
1691:
1583:
1463:
871:
791:
766:
751:
726:
716:
706:
701:
616:
601:
518:
Revista Credencial Historia. (Bogotá – Colombia). Edición 44 Agosto
299:
236:
141:
112:
439:
It is thought that a prolonged drought took place between 1200 and 1300.
2659:
2497:
2477:
1919:
1711:
1473:
371:
2104:
2680:
2676:
2651:
2401:
1736:
1626:
691:
661:
656:
2185:
1855:
741:
498:
Mujeres de barro: estudio de las figurinas cerámicas de Montelíebano
419:
Currently, that area is inhabited by no more than one person per km.
2667:
2517:
2059:
2054:
1944:
1924:
801:
646:
641:
611:
229:
44:
2079:
465:
A collection of photographs of the Museo del Oro Zenú in Cartagena
2663:
2200:
2084:
1825:
1721:
1696:
1681:
1601:
1596:
1553:
1528:
1498:
846:
826:
811:
596:
351:
339:
186:
2606:
2596:
1979:
1974:
1899:
1835:
1716:
1666:
1656:
1631:
866:
841:
761:
746:
736:
606:
367:
335:
295:
268:
225:
509:
Boletín del Museo del Oro. Año 4, septiembre – diciembre
2246:
2190:
2181:
2069:
1646:
876:
756:
347:
244:
2828:
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1395:
482:
Museo del Oro: Zenú, people and gold on the Caribbean plains
377:
Some characteristics of their goldwork were unique to these
489:
La cultura del oro y el agua. Un proyecto de reconstrucción
363:
354:, people sitting on chairs with a high back, or standing.
459:
The Art of Precolumbian Gold: The Jan Mitchell Collection
321:
47:, whose ancestral territory comprises the valleys of the
491:
Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico Número 6, Volumen XXIII
55:
rivers as well as the coast of the Caribbean around the
564:
260:
A jar with reproductions of wickerwork and textiles -
2823:
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
86:. This reserve existed until it was dissolved by the
2867:
2803:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2788:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
289:
272:long woven skirts with a variety of patterns.
176:Sinú, Standing Figure of a Mother and Child -
1381:
550:
284:
59:. These lands lie within the departments of
1388:
1374:
557:
543:
251:
2793:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1397:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
531:, National Museum of the American Indian
453:Aerial takes of the Zenú drainage-system
255:
235:Semi-filigree, which was not woven with
212:
197:
171:
18:
477:Museo del Oro Zenú, Cartagena de Indias
98:
2868:
322:Zenúes in the mountains of San Jacinto
167:
95:have been transferred to Zenú people.
1369:
538:
500:Boletín Museo del Oro. Nº 34–35
1821:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
13:
2813:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
1792:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
566:Ancestry and ethnicity in Colombia
362:animal from a swampy area, like a
14:
2902:
1804:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
1775:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
446:
403:"Indigenous World 2020: Colombia"
193:
2845:
1797:Archaeological sites in Colombia
1770:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
275:
1780:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
2886:Indigenous peoples in Colombia
1355:Race and ethnicity in Colombia
433:
422:
413:
395:
78:designated 83,000 hectares in
1:
2724:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
1785:Archaeological sites in Chile
470:
127:
88:National Assembly of Colombia
16:Indigenous people in Colombia
2818:Mesoamerican writing systems
2775:
1814:Archaeological sites in Peru
350:, musicians with flutes and
7:
2714:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán
455:(Museo del Oro de Colombia)
290:Zenúes of the river valleys
267:Pre-Columbian textiles and
10:
2907:
2740:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
2643:Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil
285:After the Spanish conquest
2841:
2783:
2774:
2694:
2617:
2592:
2563:
2538:
2513:
2488:
2463:
2432:
2407:
2382:
2351:
2314:
2289:
2252:
2221:
2196:
2167:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2143:
2138:
1965:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
1750:
1582:
1439:
1403:
1340:
1305:
1049:
942:
907:
900:
572:
208:San Antonio Museum of Art
2852:Civilizations portal
1809:Cultural periods of Peru
388:
2876:Circum-Caribbean tribes
2746:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
1592:Mesoamerican chronology
525:, Museo del Oro, Bogotá
505:Plazas, C. e.a. (1981)
487:Plazas, C. e.a. (1986)
252:Textiles and wickerwork
206:gold earring, AD 800 -
80:San Andrés de Sotavento
2891:Prehistory of Colombia
2881:Pre-Columbian cultures
1449:Archaeological periods
264:
221:
210:
181:
24:
2752:List of Conquistadors
2639:Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal
2050:Quebrada de Humahuaca
1469:Caddoan Mississippian
259:
216:
201:
175:
41:pre-Columbian culture
22:
2719:Francisco de Montejo
2647:Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I
1760:Andean civilizations
1687:Shaft tomb tradition
154:Santa Cruz de Mompox
99:Pre-Columbian period
93:Antioquia Department
57:Gulf of Morrosquillo
2685:Manco Inca Yupanqui
1990:Manteño-Huancavilca
1459:Ancestral Puebloans
1350:Lists of Colombians
516:Los Señores de Zenú
239:but cast using the
219:Gold Museum, Bogota
168:Symbol of fertility
2808:Columbian exchange
2798:Portal:Mesoamerica
1950:La Tolita (Tumaco)
1765:Indigenous peoples
1504:Hopewell tradition
1431:Indigenous peoples
507:El Legendario Zenú
265:
262:Walters Art Museum
222:
211:
182:
178:Walters Art Museum
25:
2863:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2833:Pre-Columbian art
2769:
2768:
2763:Francisco Pizarro
2729:Pedro de Alvarado
2045:Pucará de Tilcara
1363:
1362:
1336:
1335:
523:Zenú masterpieces
514:Herera M. (1993)
496:Sáenz, J. (1993)
340:golden appearance
2898:
2850:
2849:
2848:
2772:
2771:
2758:Spanish Conquest
2735:Spanish Conquest
2710:Spanish Conquest
2699:Spanish Conquest
2141:
2140:
1390:
1383:
1376:
1367:
1366:
1346:
1298:
1286:
1262:
1250:
1238:
1226:
1214:
1197:
1180:
1168:
1156:
1127:
1115:
1103:
1091:
1079:
1067:
1042:
1030:
1013:
1001:
989:
977:
935:
923:
905:
904:
559:
552:
545:
536:
535:
440:
437:
431:
426:
420:
417:
411:
410:
399:
316:Pedro de Heredia
152:, south-west of
122:Spanish conquest
2906:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2855:
2846:
2844:
2837:
2779:
2770:
2760:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2726:
2722:
2716:
2712:
2701:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2656:Quemuenchatocha
2654:
2645:
2641:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2585:
2454:
2363:
2337:
2326:
2273:Human Sacrifice
2270:
2262:Human Sacrifice
2259:
2233:
2206:Mayan Languages
2134:
1746:
1578:
1435:
1416:Genetic history
1399:
1394:
1364:
1359:
1344:
1332:
1301:
1292:
1280:
1256:
1244:
1232:
1220:
1208:
1191:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1121:
1109:
1097:
1085:
1073:
1061:
1045:
1036:
1024:
1007:
995:
983:
971:
938:
929:
917:
896:
568:
563:
473:
449:
444:
443:
438:
434:
427:
423:
418:
414:
401:
400:
396:
391:
379:mountain people
324:
292:
287:
278:
254:
241:lost wax method
196:
170:
146:Magdalena River
138:San Jorge River
130:
101:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2904:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2767:
2766:
2755:
2732:
2707:
2696:
2692:
2691:
2670:
2649:
2636:
2619:
2618:Notable Rulers
2615:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2590:
2589:
2587:Neo-Inca State
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2332:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2265:
2254:
2250:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1799:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1756:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1445:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1400:
1393:
1392:
1385:
1378:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1287:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1263:
1251:
1239:
1227:
1215:
1203:
1198:
1186:
1181:
1169:
1157:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1133:
1128:
1116:
1104:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1055:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1031:
1019:
1014:
1002:
990:
978:
966:
965:
964:
959:
948:
946:
940:
939:
937:
936:
924:
911:
909:
902:
901:Non-indigenous
898:
897:
895:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
824:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
714:
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
682:Embera-Wounaan
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
578:
576:
570:
569:
562:
561:
554:
547:
539:
533:
532:
526:
520:
511:
502:
493:
484:
479:
472:
469:
468:
467:
462:
456:
448:
447:External links
445:
442:
441:
432:
421:
412:
393:
392:
390:
387:
323:
320:
291:
288:
286:
283:
277:
274:
253:
250:
195:
194:Gold ornaments
192:
169:
166:
136:formed by the
129:
126:
100:
97:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2903:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2854:
2853:
2840:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2764:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2747:
2741:
2736:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2704:Hernán Cortés
2700:
2697:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2142:
2137:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1752:South America
1749:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1574:Weeden Island
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1549:Poverty Point
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1514:Mississippian
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1441:North America
1438:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1411:Paleo-Indians
1409:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1386:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1343:
1342:
1339:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1040:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1003:
999:
994:
991:
987:
982:
979:
975:
970:
967:
963:
960:
958:
955:
954:
953:
950:
949:
947:
945:
941:
933:
928:
925:
921:
916:
913:
912:
910:
906:
903:
899:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
579:
577:
575:
571:
567:
560:
555:
553:
548:
546:
541:
540:
537:
530:
527:
524:
521:
519:
517:
512:
510:
508:
503:
501:
499:
494:
492:
490:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
474:
466:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
450:
436:
430:
425:
416:
408:
404:
398:
394:
386:
384:
383:Carbon dating
380:
375:
373:
369:
365:
359:
355:
353:
349:
343:
341:
337:
332:
329:
319:
317:
311:
307:
305:
301:
297:
282:
276:Zenú identity
273:
270:
263:
258:
249:
246:
242:
238:
233:
231:
227:
220:
215:
209:
205:
204:lost wax cast
200:
191:
188:
179:
174:
165:
161:
157:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
125:
123:
118:
114:
110:
106:
96:
94:
89:
85:
81:
77:
76:King of Spain
72:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
37:
32:
31:
21:
2843:
2776:
2626:Moctezuma II
2583:Inca history
2508:Andean Music
2452:Architecture
2447:Architecture
2442:Architecture
2437:Architecture
2433:Architecture
2427:Gender Roles
2172:Tenochtitlan
2129:
2095:Timoto–Cuica
2090:Tierradentro
1875:Casma–Sechin
1607:Chalcatzingo
1242:Scandinavian
891:
529:Zenú artwork
515:
506:
497:
488:
435:
424:
415:
406:
397:
376:
360:
356:
344:
333:
325:
312:
308:
293:
279:
266:
234:
223:
183:
162:
158:
134:inland delta
131:
102:
74:In 1773 the
73:
69:
35:
34:
29:
28:
26:
2689:Túpac Amaru
2673:Manco Cápac
2622:Moctezuma I
2533:Agriculture
2528:Agriculture
2523:Agriculture
2514:Agriculture
2457:Road System
2346:Mathematics
2211:Muysc Cubun
2065:San Agustín
2015:Monte Verde
1692:Teotihuacan
1584:Mesoamerica
1479:Coles Creek
1464:Anishinaabe
1421:Archaeology
1293: [
1281: [
1257: [
1245: [
1233: [
1221: [
1209: [
1192: [
1175: [
1163: [
1151: [
1122: [
1110: [
1098: [
1086: [
1074: [
1062: [
1037: [
1025: [
1008: [
996: [
984: [
972: [
930: [
918: [
792:Pira-tapuya
602:Awa-Kwaiker
328:San Jacinto
300:Montelibano
237:gold thread
150:Nechí River
142:Cauca River
2870:Categories
2660:Tisquesusa
2634:Cuauhtémoc
2630:Cuitláhuac
1960:Lauricocha
1930:Gran Chaco
1920:Cupisnique
1905:Chinchorro
1880:Chachapoya
1870:Caral–Supe
1712:Tlaxcaltec
1702:Teuchitlán
1617:Chupícuaro
1544:Plum Bayou
1539:Plaquemine
1509:Marksville
1474:Chichimeca
1206:Portuguese
1189:Lithuanian
927:Venezuelan
574:Indigenous
471:References
372:crustacean
269:wickerwork
232:earrings.
128:Waterworks
115:and lower
82:as a Zenú
2681:Atahualpa
2677:Pachacuti
2652:Nemequene
2518:Chinampas
2340:Astronomy
2329:Astronomy
2309:Mythology
2304:Mythology
2299:Mythology
2294:Mythology
2290:Mythology
2120:Wankarani
2110:Tuncahuán
2000:Marajoara
1955:Las Vegas
1841:Atacameño
1737:Xochipala
1677:Purépecha
1637:Epi-Olmec
1627:Cuicuilco
1569:Troyville
1559:St. Johns
1290:Ukrainian
1160:Hungarian
1141:Mennonite
915:Argentine
777:Patángoro
692:Guambiano
662:Cocamilla
657:Chitarero
109:San Jorge
53:San Jorge
2777:See also
2695:Conquest
2668:Zoratama
2335:Calendar
2324:Calendar
2319:Calendar
2315:Calendar
2284:Religion
2279:Religion
2268:Religion
2257:Religion
2253:Religion
2242:Numerals
2236:Numerals
2197:Language
2177:Multiple
2115:Valdivia
2100:Tiwanaku
2060:Saladoid
2055:Quimbaya
1945:Kuhikugu
1925:Diaguita
1915:Chorrera
1732:Veraguas
1727:Veracruz
1707:Tlatilco
1519:Mogollon
1426:Cultures
1404:Americas
1345:See also
1218:Romanian
1095:Croatian
1059:Austrian
1017:Japanese
969:Armenian
957:Lebanese
908:Americas
802:Quimbaya
722:Kankuamo
647:Carijona
642:Carabayo
612:Barasana
230:filigree
148:and the
45:Colombia
2664:Tundama
2593:Peoples
2578:History
2573:History
2568:History
2564:History
2558:Cuisine
2553:Cuisine
2548:Cuisine
2543:Cuisine
2539:Cuisine
2397:Warfare
2392:Warfare
2387:Warfare
2383:Warfare
2377:Society
2372:Economy
2361:Society
2356:Society
2352:Society
2222:Writing
2216:Quechua
2201:Nahuatl
2168:Capital
2105:Toyopán
2085:Tairona
1995:Mapuche
1910:Chiripa
1885:Chancay
1856:Cañaris
1831:Amotape
1826:El Abra
1742:Zapotec
1722:Totonac
1697:Tepanec
1682:Quelepa
1652:Mezcala
1642:Huastec
1612:Cholula
1602:Capacha
1597:Acolhua
1554:Sinagua
1529:Patayan
1499:Hohokam
1489:Fremont
1323:Mestizo
1313:African
1266:Spanish
1254:Slovene
1230:Russian
1184:Italian
1083:British
1071:Belgian
1034:Turkish
1005:Iranian
981:Chinese
882:Yarigui
847:Tinigua
832:Tariana
827:Tairona
817:Sutagao
812:Siriano
797:Quechua
687:Guahibo
652:Chimila
597:Arhuaco
592:Andoque
587:Andaquí
582:Achagua
370:, or a
352:maracas
304:Betanci
84:reserve
61:Córdoba
2607:Muisca
2602:Mayans
2597:Aztecs
2231:Script
2226:Script
2186:Bacatá
2157:Muisca
2040:Pucará
2035:Piaroa
2030:Paiján
2025:Omagua
1980:Lupaca
1975:Lokono
1940:Kalina
1935:Huetar
1895:Chavín
1890:Chango
1865:Nariño
1861:Capulí
1851:Calima
1846:Aymara
1836:Arawak
1717:Toltec
1667:Olmecs
1662:Nicoya
1657:Mixtec
1632:Diquis
1534:Picosa
1524:Oshara
1494:Glades
1484:Dorset
1328:Romani
1318:Jewish
1306:Others
1271:Basque
1201:Polish
1136:German
1131:French
1051:Europe
1022:Korean
993:Indian
962:Syrian
867:Witoto
852:Tucano
842:Ticuna
822:Tahamí
782:Piaroa
772:Panche
762:Nutabe
747:Muisca
742:Mokaná
737:Macuna
677:Emberá
627:Calima
607:Baniwa
368:lizard
348:gourds
336:copper
302:, and
296:Ayapel
226:wicker
144:, the
140:, the
2612:Incas
2503:Music
2498:Music
2493:Music
2489:Music
2422:Women
2417:Women
2412:Women
2408:Women
2366:Trade
2247:Quipu
2191:Cusco
2182:Hunza
2147:Aztec
2080:Taíno
2075:Sican
2070:Shuar
2020:Nazca
2010:Mollo
2005:Moche
1985:Luzia
1900:Chimú
1672:Pipil
1647:Izapa
1622:Coclé
1564:Thule
1454:Adena
1297:]
1285:]
1278:Swiss
1261:]
1249:]
1237:]
1225:]
1213:]
1196:]
1179:]
1172:Irish
1167:]
1155:]
1148:Greek
1126:]
1119:Dutch
1114:]
1107:Czech
1102:]
1090:]
1078:]
1066:]
1041:]
1029:]
1012:]
1000:]
988:]
976:]
934:]
922:]
887:Yukpa
877:Yagua
862:Wayuu
837:Tegua
807:Siona
787:Pijao
757:Nukak
732:Lache
712:Hupda
697:Guane
672:Cubeo
667:Cofán
637:Cauca
632:Camsá
407:IWGIA
389:Notes
245:alloy
202:Zenú
187:mound
117:Nechí
113:Cauca
65:Sucre
39:is a
2402:Army
2184:and
2162:Inca
2152:Maya
2130:Zenú
2125:Wari
1970:Lima
952:Arab
944:Asia
892:Zenú
872:Wiwa
857:U'wa
767:Paez
752:Muzo
727:Kogi
717:Inga
707:Hiwi
702:Guna
622:Barí
617:Bora
366:, a
364:fish
132:The
105:Sinú
63:and
51:and
49:Sinú
36:Sinú
30:Zenú
27:The
2483:Art
2478:Art
2473:Art
2468:Art
2464:Art
43:in
33:or
2872::
2721:)
1295:es
1283:es
1259:es
1247:es
1235:es
1223:es
1211:es
1194:es
1177:es
1165:es
1153:es
1124:es
1112:es
1100:es
1088:es
1076:es
1064:es
1039:es
1027:es
1010:es
998:es
986:es
974:es
932:es
920:es
405:.
374:.
298:,
124:.
111:,
107:,
67:.
2765:)
2761:(
2754:)
2750:(
2748:)
2744:(
2742:)
2738:(
2731:)
2727:(
2717:(
2706:)
2702:(
2459:)
2455:(
2368:)
2364:(
2342:)
2338:(
2331:)
2327:(
2275:)
2271:(
2264:)
2260:(
2238:)
2234:(
1863:/
1389:e
1382:t
1375:v
558:e
551:t
544:v
409:.
180:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
