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407:, composed mainly of former slaves, was able to wipe out the white Haitian population. Girard describes five main factors leading to the massacre, which he describes as a genocide: (1) Haitian soldiers were influenced by the French Revolution to justify murder and large-scale massacres on ideological grounds; (2) economic interests motivated French planters to want to quell the uprising, as well as influencing former slaves to want to kill the planters and take ownership of the plantations; (3) a slave revolt had been ongoing for more than a decade, and was itself a reaction to a century of brutal colonial rule, making violent death commonplace and therefore easier to accept; (4) the massacre was a form of
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574:." He referred to the massacre as an act of national authority. Dessalines regarded the elimination of the white Haitians an act of political necessity, as they were regarded as a threat to the peace between the black and the free people of color. It was also regarded as a necessary act of vengeance. Dessalines' secretary Boisrond-Tonnerre stated, "For our declaration of independence, we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!"
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and doctors" were spared, political affiliation was not considered. The white victims were almost entirely French, commensurate with their share in the white population of Haiti. About his targets of the massacre, Dessalines' slogan exemplified his mission to eradicate the white population with the saying "Break the eggs, take out the yoke and eat the white." Upper class whites were not the only target; any white of any socioeconomic status was also to be killed, including the urban poor known as
218:, a British soldier who served for many years with the British Army in the British West Indies, in 1805. In his book, Rainsford provides extensive documentation of the revolution, offering disturbing accounts of the brutal treatment of the enslaved population by their French masters, as well as the atrocities committed by all sides during the conflict. He also presented an original copy of the decree signed by Dessaline in February 1804.
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430:'s forces surrendered, Dessalines ordered the execution of 800 French soldiers who had been left behind due to illness during the evacuation. He did guarantee the safety of the remaining white civilian population. However, Jeremy Popkin writes that statements by Dessalines such as "There are still French on the island, and still you considered yourselves free," spoke of a hostile attitude toward the remaining white minority.
491:. Only a handful of killings had taken place there before his arrival, but the killings escalated to a massacre on the streets and outside the city after his arrival. Sources created at the time stated that 3,000 people were killed in Cap-HaĂŻtien; Philippe Girard writes that this figure was unrealistic as in the post-evacuation of the French people the settlement had only 1,700 white people.
643:) was fear of a genocide similar to the Haitian massacre of 1804. The perceived failure of abolition in Haiti and Jamaica were explicitly referred to in Confederate discourse as a reason for secession. The slave revolt was a prominent theme in the discourse of Southern political leaders and had influenced U.S. public opinion since the events took place. Historian Kevin Julius writes:
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Girard writes that the 1804 massacres must be understood in their specific, Haitian context. He classifies the massacres as a genocide, and contrasts them with their historical counterparts. The
Haitian massacres "lack the moral clarity typically associated with genocide," he says, because the French
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In the 1805 constitution, all citizens were defined as "black". The constitution also banned white men from owning land, except for people already born or born in the future to white women who were naturalized as
Haitian citizens and the Germans and Poles who got Haitian citizenship. The massacre had
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One of the most notorious of the massacre participants was Jean Zombi, a mulatto resident of Port-au-Prince who was known for his brutality. One account describes how Zombi stopped a white man on the street, stripped him naked, and took him to the stair of the
Presidential Palace, where he killed him
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The people chosen to be killed were targeted primarily based on three criteria: "skin color, citizenship and vocation." While some whites, such as Poles and
Germans who were granted citizenship and "a few non-French veterans and American merchants, along with some useful professionals such as priests
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complained that the declaration of independence was not aggressive enough, saying that "...we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!", Dessalines later himself specifically pledged to "kill every
Frenchman who soils the
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also occurred. As elsewhere, the majority of the women were initially not killed, and the soldiers were reportedly somewhat hesitant to do so. Dessalines's advisers, however, pointed out that the white
Haitians would not disappear if the women were left to give birth to white men, and after this,
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Before his departure from a city, Dessalines would proclaim an amnesty for all the whites who had survived in hiding during the massacre. When these people left their hiding place however, most (French) were killed as well. Many whites were, however, hidden and smuggled out to sea by foreigners.
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Rumors about the white population suggested that they would try to leave the country to convince foreign powers to invade and reintroduce slavery. Discussions between
Dessalines and his advisers openly suggested that the white population should be put to death for the sake of national security.
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in all cities should be put to death. The weapons used should be silent weapons such as knives and bayonets rather than gunfire, so that the killing could be done more quietly, and avoid warning intended victims by the sound of gunfire and thereby giving them the opportunity to escape.
487:, only a few killings had occurred in the city despite the orders. After Dessalines arrived on 18 March, the number of killings escalated. According to a merchant captain, about 800 people were killed in the city, while about 50 survived. On 18 April 1804, Dessalines arrived at
330:? Have they not put men and women inside barrels studded with spikes and rolled them down mountainsides into the abyss? Have they not consigned these miserable blacks to man-eating dogs until the latter, sated by human flesh, left the mangled victims to be finished off with
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Girard also contrasts the overt nature of the
Haitian massacres and the willingness of leadership to take responsibility for and justify the massacres with the diffusion and obfuscation of responsibility by both rank and file participants and leaders in other genocides.
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The course of the massacre showed an almost identical pattern in every city he visited. Before his arrival, there were only a few killings, despite his orders. When
Dessalines arrived, he first spoke about the atrocities committed by former white authorities, such as
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We don't know any better than to imagine that emancipation would result in the utter extinction of civilization in the South, because the slave-holders, and those in their interest, have persistently told us ... and they always instance the 'horrors of St.
602:, writing that "the unfortunate country... was ruined economically, its population lacking in social culture, had its difficulties doubled by this massacre". James wrote that the massacre was "not policy but revenge, and revenge has no place in politics".
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Dessalines did not try to hide the massacre from the world. In an official proclamation of 8 April 1804, he stated, "We have given these true cannibals war for war, crime for crime, outrage for outrage. Yes, I have saved my country, I have avenged
54:
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The Great
Rebellion and the Haitian slave uprising are two examples of what we refer to as 'subaltern genocide': cases in which subaltern actors—those objectively oppressed and disempowered—adopt genocidal strategies to vanquish their
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On 1 January 1804, Dessalines proclaimed Haiti an independent nation. Mid-February, Dessalines told some cities (Léogâne, Jacmel, Les Cayes) to prepare for mass massacres. On 22 February 1804, he signed a decree ordering that all
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The French, who were one of the two main targets of the 1804 Haiti Massacre that Dessalines and his company specifically declared a massacre on, made up the overwhelming majority of the white population. Dessalines' secretary
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During February and March, Dessalines traveled among the cities of Haiti to assure himself that his orders were carried out. Despite his orders, the massacres were often not carried out until he visited the cities in person.
373:, he planned to massacre all the French living in Cap-Français. On 22 August 1791, the enslaved Africans descended on Le Cap, where they destroyed the plantations and executed all the French who lived in the region. King
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colonists had abused Black Haitians and would have carried out their own genocide had they won the conflict. Girard contrasts this with the Holocaust and other genocides perpetrated by the dominant group in a society:
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before the revolution; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, also people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.
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them with the lash, have they not cast them alive to be devoured by worms, or onto anthills, or lashed them to stakes in the swamp to be devoured by mosquitoes? Have they not thrown them into boiling cauldrons of
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By the end of April 1804, some 3,000 to 5,000 people had been killed and the white Haitians were practically eradicated, excluding a select group of whites who were given amnesty. Those spared consisted of the
476:, after which he demanded that his orders about mass killings of the area's white population should be put into effect. Reportedly, he ordered the unwilling to take part in the killings, especially men of
31:
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Lyon argued, however, that the abolition of slavery in the various Caribbean colonies of the European empires before the 1860s showed that an end to slavery could be achieved peacefully.
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At the conclusion of the slaughter, Dessalines reportedly stated: "I will go to my grave happy. We have avenged our brothers. Haiti has become a blood-red spot on the face of the globe!"
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651:", echoes of armed slave insurrections and racial genocide sounded in Southern ears. Much of their resentment towards the abolitionists can be seen as a reaction to the events in Haiti.
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Dessalines was eager to assure that Haiti was not a threat to other nations. He directed efforts to establish friendly relations also to nations where slavery was still allowed.
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defectors were given amnesty and granted Haitian citizenship for their renouncement of French allegiance and support of Haitian independence. Dessalines referred to the Poles as
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Despite the French proclamation of emancipation, the blacks sided with the Spanish who came to occupy the region. In July 1794, Spanish forces stood by while the black troops of
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in which former slaves were able to take revenge against their former masters; and (5) the last stages of the war became a racial conflict pitting whites against blacks and
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309:'s personal secretary, who was enslaved for much of his life, attempted to explain the incident by referencing the cruel treatment of black slaves by white slaveholders in
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671:, wrote "I remember the horrors of St. Domingo" and said that the election "will determine whether anything like this is to be visited upon our own southern countrymen."
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357:"Burning of the Plaine du Cap – Massacre of whites by the blacks." On August 22, 1791, slaves set fire to plantations, torched cities and massacred the white population.
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Haitian genocide, in contrast, was a form of revenge exacted by an oppressed group against those who dominated it, much like the Rwandan and Cambodian genocides.
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who were given Haitian citizenship for helping black Haitians in fights against white colonialists; a small group of German colonists invited to the
480:, so that the blame should not be placed solely on the black population. Mass killings took place on the streets and on places outside the cities.
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Philippe Girard wrote that "when the genocide was over, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent." Citing Girard, Nicholas Robins, and
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on 28 December 2005 – via Webster University. (Transcribed by Bob Corbett. This document is an English translation published in the
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592:: "Despite all of Dessalines' efforts at rationalization, the massacres were as inexcusable as they were foolish." Trinidadian historian
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was accused of indifference to the massacre, while the slaves seemed to think the king was on their side. In July 1793, the French in
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Throughout the early-to-mid nineteenth century, the events of the massacre were well known in the United States. Additionally, many
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Abolitionists recognized the strength of this argument on public opinion in both the North and South. In correspondence to the
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in September 1861 (during the war), an abolitionist named J. B. Lyon addressed this as a prominent argument of his opponents:
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who did not take part of the slave trade. They were instead granted full citizenship under the constitution and classified as
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Lost White Tribes: The End of Privilege and the Last Colonials in Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Brazil, Haiti, Namibia, and Guadeloupe
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Dessalines ordered that the women should be killed as well, with the exception of those who agreed to marry non-white men.
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The Early Haitian State and the Question of Political Legitimacy: American and British Representations of Haiti, 1804—1824
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them on planks, buried them alive, crushed them in mortars? Have they not forced them to consume faeces? And, having
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happened on 1 January 1804. From February 1804 until 22 April 1804, between 3,000 and 7,000 people were killed.
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with a dagger. Dessalines was reportedly among the spectators; he was said to be "horrified" by the episode. In
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The abolitionist decade, 1829–1838 : a year-by-year history of early events in the antislavery movement
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459:. It depicts the general, sword raised in one arm, while the other holds the severed head of a white woman.
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Dessalines came to power after France's defeat and subsequent evacuation from what was previously known as
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2136:, due to his affinity for English and his involvement with the publication, may have been the translator.)
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genocide" in which a previously disadvantaged group used a genocide to destroy their previous oppressors.
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The abolitionist decade, 1829-1838: a year-by-year history of early events in the antislavery movement
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225:, who had defected from the French legion to become allied with the enslaved Africans, as well as the
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The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804
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committed massacres but were defeated before they could accomplish genocide, while an army under
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Massacre of the White French people in Haiti by Black Haitians following the Haitian Revolution
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Paradise Lost: Haiti's Tumultuous Journey from Pearl of the Caribbean to Third World Hot Spot
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1630:. Littlefield History of the Civil War Era. University of North Carolina Press. p. 12.
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Girard, Philippe R. (2005b). "Missed Opportunities: Haiti after Independence (1804–1915)".
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was openly considered as a strategy by both sides in the conflict. White forces sent by
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279:, and other coastal cities. These events spurred fears of potential uprisings in the
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on July 15, 1805. This version does not include Articles 40–44. Corbett states that
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Decolonizing Auschwitz?: Komparativ-postkoloniale Ansätze in der Holocaustforschung
1870:
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However, there were notable exceptions to the ordered killings. A contingent of
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Girard, Philippe (2005a). "Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4".
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means to destroy its oppressors. Philippe Girard has suggested the threat of
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520:. During the massacre, stabbing, beheading, and disemboweling were common.
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Popkin, Jeremy D. (2008). "A Survivor of Dessalines's Massacres in 1804".
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The Frankenstein of 1790 and Other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France
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Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection
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Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection
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became the leader of the enslaved Africans held on a large plantation in
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The Black Jacobins; Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution
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477:
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Jones, Adam (2013). "Subaltern genocide: Genocides by the oppressed".
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Have they not hung up men with heads downward, drowned them in sacks,
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1964:
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Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice
585:. It contributed to a legacy of racial hostility in Haitian society.
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Plunging Into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy
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Plunging Into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy
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tradition, the figure of Jean Zombi has become a prototype for the
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Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South
1103:(Revised ed.). Lanham, Md; London: Univ. Press of America.
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Heinl, Michael; Heinl, Robert Debs; Heinl, Nancy Gordon (2005).
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1655:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 12–13.
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and they also polarized public opinion on the question of the
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2110:"A Brief History of Dessalines from 1825 Missionary Journal"
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Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1995
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refugees moved from Saint-Domingue to the U.S., settling in
1593:(2nd ed.). New York: Vintage Books. pp. 373–374.
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Whites trying to leave Haiti were prevented from doing so.
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The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction
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Listening to the Page: Adventures in Reading and Writing
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Six days in April : Lincoln and the Union in peril
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Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau
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503:, as an expression of his solidarity and gratitude.
212:"An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti"
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1192:. In Knight, Franklin W.; Palmer, Colin A. (eds.).
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1409:. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 75 ff.
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1196:. University of North Carolina Press. p. 32.
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596:concurred with this view in his breakthrough work
203:defeated the French army in November 1803 and the
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512:land of freedom with his sacrilegious presence."
59:Engraving depicting a killing during the massacre
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1757:Stripping Bare the Body: Politics, Violence, War
1717:, Department of Africana Studies. Archived from
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920:. With Nicholas Robins. Routledge. p. 169.
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918:The Scourge of Genocide: Essays and Reflections
893:Robins, Nicholas A.; Jones, Adam, eds. (2009).
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1140:. Columbia University Press. pp. 58–59.
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1224:. University of Chicago Press. p. 252.
1165:. University of Chicago Press. p. 110.
1034:"Christophe's Kingdom and PĂ©tion's Republic"
1012:. New York: Algora Publishing. p. 171.
523:In parallel to the killings, plundering and
248:genocide", in which an oppressed group uses
2028:A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution
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2697:Philibert François Rouxel de Blanchelande
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647:As abolitionists loudly proclaimed that "
581:a long-lasting effect on the view of the
256:as some of the reasons for the massacre.
2793:United States and the Haitian Revolution
2722:Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville
2004:
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361:In 1791, a man of Jamaican origin named
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1919:. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co.
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984:. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co.
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897:. Indiana University Press. p. 3.
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254:reinvasion and reinstatement of slavery
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1679:"What Shall be Done with the Slaves?"
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854:"Dessalines Reader, 29 February 1804"
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426:. In November 1803, three days after
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244:theorize that the executions were a "
3073:List of revolutions and coups d'Ă©tat
2682:Thomas-Antoine de Mauduit du Plessis
1704:
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1311:
811:Sutherland, Claudia (16 July 2007).
2458:Haitian Declaration of Independence
1957:Moses, Dirk A.; Stone, Dan (2013).
1534:Library of Congress Country Studies
1407:Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History
852:Gaffield, Julia (26 January 2016).
551:
205:Haitian Declaration of Independence
13:
2893:Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
2861:
2772:John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
2526:Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture
2124:. 10 December 2011. Archived from
2075:
1940:Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
1782:. University of California Press.
657:U.S. presidential election of 1860
14:
3668:
3617:Ethnic cleansing in North America
1832:(2: Colonial Genocide): 138–161.
1707:"Haitian Independence, 1804–1805"
690:
627:Abolitionism in the United States
2815:
2122:"The 1805 Constitution of Haiti"
1676:Lyon, J. B. (6 September 1861).
813:"Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)"
221:The massacre excluded surviving
2803:Women in the Haitian Revolution
2687:Honoré Joseph Antoine Ganteaume
1898:The University of Alabama Press
1698:
1626:Summers, Mark Wahlgren (2014).
1619:
1398:
1329:
1088:
1061:"Haiti: a long descent to hell"
1059:Henley, Jon (14 January 2010).
1052:
1026:
388:massacred the French whites in
3009:Anti-Duvalier protest movement
2531:Marie-Claire Heureuse Félicité
2011:. Univ. Press of Mississippi.
1705:Shen, Kona (9 December 2008).
1451:. Univ. Press of Mississippi.
845:
804:
191:against much of the remaining
1:
3652:1804 murders in North America
1161:Douthwaite, Julia V. (2012).
735:
501:"the White Negroes of Europe"
290:
45:Part of the aftermath of the
2712:Louis-Marie Stanislas Fréron
1892:Girard, Philippe R. (2011).
1780:Haiti, History, and the Gods
858:Haiti and the Atlantic World
609:describe the massacre as a "
546:
395:Philippe Girard writes that
233:, the new ruling ethnicity.
193:European population in Haiti
7:
2677:Gabriel, comte d'HĂ©douville
2448:Armistice of March 30, 1798
1711:History of Haiti, 1492–1805
1651:McCurry, Stephanie (2010).
1008:Marcotte, Frank B. (2005).
708:
446:
10:
3673:
3647:Massacres of ethnic groups
3627:Genocides in North America
2431:Blockade of Saint-Domingue
2146:: CS1 maint: postscript (
2054:World's Great Men of Color
2030:. Chicester, West Sussex:
2026:Popkin, Jeremy D. (2012).
1748:
1573:1805 Constitution of Haiti
1405:Buck-Morss, Susan (2009).
1220:Popkin, Jeremy D. (2007).
730:List of massacres in Haiti
620:
617:Effect on American society
588:Girard writes in his book
346:
299:
295:
175:, also referred to as the
87:– 22 April 1804
3538:
3429:
3371:
3362:
3302:
3293:
3181:
3172:
3090:
3081:
2982:Unification of Hispaniola
2873:
2811:
2785:
2777:Denmark Vesey's rebellion
2759:
2739:
2664:
2556:Marie-Jeanne Lamartinière
2478:
2471:
2401:Saint-Domingue expedition
2228:
2192:
1982:Orizio, Riccardo (2001).
1934:Klävers, Steffen (2019).
1915:Julius, Kevin C. (2004).
1838:10.1080/00313220500106196
1585:James, C. L. R. (1989) .
980:Julius, Kevin C. (2004).
649:All men are created equal
155:
144:
136:
128:
112:
102:
74:
64:
52:
44:
39:
3095:Administrative divisions
2561:Léger-Félicité Sonthonax
2005:Pezzullo, Ralph (2006).
1960:Colonialism and Genocide
1445:Pezzullo, Ralph (2006).
1189:"The Haitian Revolution"
801:, pp. 149, 157–159.
763:Moses & Stone (2013)
195:, which mainly included
183:soldiers, mostly former
3657:Discrimination in Haiti
2798:Haiti Independence Debt
2747:JoaquĂn GarcĂa y Moreno
2717:Louis Jean Nicolas Abbé
2501:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
1896:. Tuscaloosa, Alabama:
1875:10.1057/9781403980311_4
509:Louis Boisrond-Tonnerre
457:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
405:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
189:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
150:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
89:; 220 years ago
27:Infobox civilian attack
20:
3031:2010s cholera outbreak
2992:Post-imperial Republic
2641:Jean-Pierre Louverture
2636:Jean-François Papillon
2621:Charles Rivière-Hérard
2200:Devastations of Osorio
1186:Geggus, David (1989).
702:
685:
653:
635:, a major pretext for
460:
358:
340:
32:considered for merging
3592:First Empire of Haiti
3041:Crisis (2018–present)
2463:1804 Haitian massacre
2130:New York Evening Post
1825:Patterns of Prejudice
1797:Forde, James (2020).
1755:Danner, Mark (2009).
1335:Blancpain 2001, p. 7.
698:
680:
655:In the run-up to the
645:
621:Further information:
455:An 1806 engraving of
454:
369:. In the wake of the
356:
347:Further information:
315:
300:Further information:
179:, was carried out by
160:Anti-French sentiment
69:First Empire of Haiti
3632:February 1804 events
3454:Citadelle Laferrière
3421:Water and sanitation
3160:World Heritage Sites
2905:Atlantic slave trade
2707:Jean Augustin Ernouf
2606:Jean-Baptiste Belley
2536:Henriette Saint Marc
2486:Toussaint Louverture
2058:Simon & Schuster
1988:Simon & Schuster
1778:Dayan, Joan (1998).
1194:The Modern Caribbean
285:abolition of slavery
187:, under orders from
3245:Chamber of Deputies
3228:Commanders-in-chief
2406:Ravine-Ă -Couleuvres
2114:faculty.webster.edu
1362:, pp. 321–322.
842:, pp. 319–322.
753:, pp. 158–159.
631:At the time of the
223:Polish Legionnaires
173:1804 Haiti massacre
164:Revenge for slavery
40:1804 Haiti massacre
3602:Massacres in Haiti
3587:Haitian Revolution
3526:The Unknown Maroon
3340:Telecommunications
2942:Haitian Revolution
2925:Colonial governors
2898:Colonial governors
2767:Louisiana Purchase
2586:Jean-Louis Pierrot
2453:Law of 20 May 1802
2436:MĂ´le-Saint-Nicolas
2426:2nd Port-au-Prince
2256:1st Port-au-Prince
2241:Croix-des-Bouquets
2229:Battles and events
2215:François Mackandal
2186:Haitian Revolution
1869:. pp. 55–75.
1867:Palgrave Macmillan
1742:, p. 158-159.
1684:The New York Times
1038:Travelinghaiti.com
725:Beheadings of Moca
633:American Civil War
599:The Black Jacobins
583:Haitian Revolution
559:Polish ex-soldiers
461:
401:Napoleon Bonaparte
359:
349:Haitian Revolution
343:Haitian Revolution
210:Based on the book
201:Haitian Revolution
79:February 1804
47:Haitian Revolution
3642:April 1804 events
3637:March 1804 events
3607:Conflicts in 1804
3597:Massacres in 1804
3574:
3573:
3534:
3533:
3511:Sans-Souci Palace
3358:
3357:
3289:
3288:
3252:Political parties
3196:Foreign relations
3168:
3167:
3068:List of massacres
3058:COVID-19 pandemic
3036:Hurricane Matthew
2829:
2828:
2755:
2754:
2616:Magloire Ambroise
2601:Philippe Guerrier
2596:Faustin Soulouque
2506:Jean-Pierre Boyer
2479:Rebels and allies
2210:French Revolution
2101:978-0-226-67583-1
2067:978-1-4516-0307-1
2041:978-1-4051-9820-2
2018:978-1-60473-534-5
1997:978-0-7432-1197-0
1974:978-1-317-99753-5
1949:978-3-11-060041-4
1907:978-0-8173-1732-4
1884:978-1-4039-8031-1
1814:978-3-030-52608-5
1789:978-0-520-21368-5
1770:978-1-5685-8413-3
1662:978-0-6740-4589-7
1637:978-1-4696-1758-9
1530:Independent Haiti
1486:, pp. 35–38.
1458:978-1-60473-534-5
1416:978-0-8229-7334-8
1231:978-0-226-67582-4
1203:978-0-8078-4240-9
1172:978-0-226-16058-0
1147:978-0-231-12271-9
1040:. 12 January 2016
927:978-1-1350-4715-3
904:978-0-2532-2077-6
563:north-west region
371:French Revolution
236:Nicholas Robins,
169:
168:
3664:
3554:
3547:
3369:
3368:
3330:
3300:
3299:
3179:
3178:
3088:
3087:
3021:2004 coup d'Ă©tat
3016:1991 coup d'Ă©tat
3004:Duvalier dynasty
2915:Peace of Ryswick
2856:
2849:
2842:
2833:
2832:
2822:Haiti portal
2820:
2819:
2818:
2611:Étienne Polverel
2571:Henri Christophe
2566:Alexandre PĂ©tion
2476:
2475:
2301:Port-RĂ©publicain
2205:Slavery in Haiti
2179:
2172:
2165:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2145:
2137:
2134:Henri Christophe
2117:
2105:
2071:
2056:. Vol. II.
2045:
2022:
2001:
1978:
1953:
1930:
1911:
1888:
1857:
1818:
1793:
1774:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1715:Brown University
1702:
1696:
1695:
1681:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1592:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1506:
1500:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1442:
1433:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1274:
1268:
1253:
1247:
1236:
1235:
1217:
1208:
1207:
1191:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1139:
1126:
1115:
1114:
1102:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1005:
996:
995:
977:
968:
962:
945:
939:
933:
931:
912:
890:
881:
875:
869:
868:
866:
864:
849:
843:
837:
828:
827:
825:
823:
808:
802:
796:
790:
784:
778:
772:
766:
760:
754:
748:
720:Parsley massacre
715:History of Haiti
552:Effects in Haiti
381:were massacred.
307:Henri Christophe
302:Slavery in Haiti
216:Marcus Rainsford
177:Haitian genocide
98:
97:
95:
90:
86:
84:
57:
37:
36:
3672:
3671:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3557:
3550:
3543:
3530:
3516:Public holidays
3506:National anthem
3425:
3354:
3328:
3285:
3218:Law enforcement
3164:
3100:Arrondissements
3077:
3063:2021 earthquake
3026:2010 earthquake
2997:U.S. occupation
2888:TaĂno chiefdoms
2869:
2860:
2830:
2825:
2816:
2814:
2807:
2781:
2751:
2735:
2702:Charles Leclerc
2660:
2651:Gaou Louverture
2646:Paul Louverture
2631:Victoria Montou
2591:François Capois
2491:Georges Biassou
2467:
2421:CrĂŞte-Ă -Pierrot
2224:
2188:
2183:
2139:
2138:
2108:
2102:
2078:
2076:Further reading
2068:
2052:(6 July 2010).
2042:
2032:Wiley-Blackwell
2019:
1998:
1975:
1950:
1927:
1908:
1885:
1815:
1805:Springer Nature
1790:
1771:
1751:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1724:
1722:
1703:
1699:
1674:
1670:
1663:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1624:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1583:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1559:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1528:
1524:
1516:
1509:
1501:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1443:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1417:
1403:
1399:
1391:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1358:
1351:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1326:, pp. 3–4.
1322:
1318:
1310:
1306:
1298:
1294:
1286:
1277:
1269:
1256:
1248:
1239:
1232:
1218:
1211:
1204:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1127:
1118:
1111:
1093:
1089:
1079:
1077:
1057:
1053:
1043:
1041:
1032:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1006:
999:
992:
978:
971:
963:
948:
940:
936:
932:
928:
905:
891:
884:
876:
872:
862:
860:
850:
846:
838:
831:
821:
819:
809:
805:
797:
793:
785:
781:
773:
769:
761:
757:
749:
742:
738:
711:
693:
637:Southern whites
629:
619:
554:
549:
449:
351:
345:
304:
298:
293:
261:Saint Dominican
162:
115:
93:
91:
88:
82:
80:
78:
60:
35:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3670:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3572:
3571:
3569:
3568:
3563:
3556:
3555:
3548:
3540:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3479:Haitian French
3476:
3474:Haitian Creole
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3303:
3297:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3269:Prime Minister
3266:
3265:
3264:
3254:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3220:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3145:National parks
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3091:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2972:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2920:Saint-Domingue
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2890:
2885:
2879:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2859:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2763:
2761:
2760:Related events
2757:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2656:Armée Indigène
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2576:Julien Raimond
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2551:Catherine Flon
2548:
2546:Charles BĂ©lair
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2521:CĂ©cile Fatiman
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2482:
2480:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2366:Petite-Rivière
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2346:Grande-Rivière
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2189:
2182:
2181:
2174:
2167:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2118:
2106:
2100:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2066:
2046:
2040:
2023:
2017:
2002:
1996:
1979:
1973:
1954:
1948:
1931:
1925:
1912:
1906:
1889:
1883:
1858:
1819:
1813:
1794:
1788:
1775:
1769:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1740:Girard (2005a)
1732:
1697:
1668:
1661:
1643:
1636:
1618:
1616:, p. 140.
1614:Girard (2005a)
1606:
1599:
1577:
1565:
1563:, p. 325.
1550:
1548:, p. 326.
1538:
1522:
1518:Girard (2005b)
1507:
1505:, p. 322.
1488:
1476:
1464:
1457:
1434:
1432:, p. 139.
1430:Girard (2005a)
1422:
1415:
1397:
1395:, p. 321.
1376:
1364:
1349:
1337:
1328:
1316:
1304:
1292:
1290:, p. 319.
1275:
1273:, p. 137.
1254:
1250:Girard (2005a)
1237:
1230:
1209:
1202:
1178:
1171:
1153:
1146:
1116:
1109:
1087:
1051:
1025:
1018:
997:
990:
969:
965:Girard (2005a)
946:
944:, p. 110.
942:Klävers (2019)
934:
926:
913:
903:
882:
870:
844:
829:
803:
791:
789:, p. 353.
779:
767:
755:
751:Girard (2005a)
739:
737:
734:
733:
732:
727:
722:
717:
710:
707:
692:
691:Academic study
689:
676:New York Times
661:Roger B. Taney
618:
615:
594:C. L. R. James
553:
550:
548:
545:
485:Port-au-Prince
448:
445:
424:Saint-Domingue
344:
341:
311:Saint-Domingue
297:
294:
292:
289:
167:
166:
157:
153:
152:
146:
142:
141:
138:
134:
133:
130:
126:
125:
116:
113:
110:
109:
104:
100:
99:
76:
72:
71:
66:
62:
61:
58:
50:
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42:
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3669:
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3648:
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3640:
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3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3622:1804 in Haiti
3620:
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3404:
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3391:Ethnic groups
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3333:
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3323:
3320:
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3317:External debt
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3281:Supreme Court
3279:
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3141:
3138:
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3128:
3126:
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3118:
3116:
3115:Deforestation
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2987:Second Empire
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2971:
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2947:1804 massacre
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2937:Le Jeune Case
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2541:Sanité Bélair
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2496:Dutty Boukman
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2396:War of Knives
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2361:2nd Verrettes
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2341:1st Verrettes
2339:
2337:
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2326:Saint-Raphaël
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2173:
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2123:
2119:
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2103:
2097:
2093:
2089:
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2080:
2079:
2069:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2050:Rogers, J. A.
2047:
2043:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1941:
1938:(in German).
1937:
1932:
1928:
1926:0-7864-1946-6
1922:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1886:
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1876:
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1741:
1736:
1721:on 3 May 2011
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1686:. p. 2.
1685:
1680:
1672:
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1639:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1615:
1610:
1602:
1600:0-679-72467-2
1596:
1591:
1590:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1562:
1561:Girard (2011)
1557:
1555:
1547:
1546:Girard (2011)
1542:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1520:, p. 56.
1519:
1514:
1512:
1504:
1503:Girard (2011)
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1485:
1480:
1474:, p. 36.
1473:
1468:
1460:
1454:
1450:
1449:
1441:
1439:
1431:
1426:
1418:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1394:
1393:Girard (2011)
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
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1373:
1368:
1361:
1360:Girard (2011)
1356:
1354:
1346:
1341:
1332:
1325:
1320:
1313:
1308:
1301:
1296:
1289:
1288:Girard (2011)
1284:
1282:
1280:
1272:
1271:Popkin (2012)
1267:
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1125:
1123:
1121:
1112:
1110:0-7618-3177-0
1106:
1101:
1100:
1091:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1055:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1021:
1019:0-8758-6313-2
1015:
1011:
1004:
1002:
993:
991:0-7864-1946-6
987:
983:
976:
974:
966:
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959:
957:
955:
953:
951:
943:
938:
929:
923:
919:
911:
906:
900:
896:
889:
887:
879:
878:Girard (2011)
874:
859:
855:
848:
841:
840:Girard (2011)
836:
834:
818:
817:Blackpast.org
814:
807:
800:
799:Orizio (2001)
795:
788:
787:Rogers (2010)
783:
777:, p. 40.
776:
771:
765:, p. 63.
764:
759:
752:
747:
745:
740:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
712:
706:
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697:
688:
684:
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677:
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670:
669:Supreme Court
666:
665:Chief Justice
662:
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652:
650:
644:
642:
638:
634:
628:
624:
614:
612:
608:
603:
601:
600:
595:
591:
590:Paradise Lost
586:
584:
578:
575:
573:
567:
564:
560:
544:
541:
539:
535:
534:Haitian Vodou
529:
526:
521:
519:
518:petits blancs
513:
510:
504:
502:
498:
492:
490:
486:
481:
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475:
471:
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458:
453:
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441:
435:
431:
429:
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420:
418:
414:
410:
409:class warfare
406:
402:
398:
393:
391:
387:
386:Jean-François
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
363:Dutty Boukman
355:
350:
339:
337:
333:
329:
324:
320:
314:
312:
308:
303:
288:
286:
282:
281:Southern U.S.
278:
274:
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266:
262:
257:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
234:
232:
228:
224:
219:
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208:
206:
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198:
197:French people
194:
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182:
178:
174:
165:
161:
158:
154:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
124:
120:
117:
111:
108:
107:French people
105:
101:
77:
73:
70:
67:
63:
56:
51:
48:
43:
38:
33:
29:
28:
24:
19:
3444:Coat of arms
3411:Social class
3381:Demographics
3312:Central bank
3206:Human rights
3186:Constitution
2952:First Empire
2813:
2516:Dédée Bazile
2511:André Rigaud
2462:
2311:2nd Tannerie
2296:Les GonaĂŻves
2271:Fort-Dauphin
2261:Cap-Français
2251:1st Tannerie
2129:
2126:the original
2113:
2083:
2053:
2027:
2007:
1983:
1959:
1935:
1916:
1893:
1862:
1829:
1823:
1799:
1779:
1761:Nation Books
1759:. New York:
1756:
1735:
1723:. Retrieved
1719:the original
1710:
1700:
1683:
1671:
1652:
1646:
1627:
1621:
1609:
1588:
1580:
1568:
1541:
1525:
1484:Dayan (1998)
1479:
1472:Dayan (1998)
1467:
1447:
1425:
1406:
1400:
1372:Dayan (1998)
1367:
1347:, p. 4.
1345:Dayan (1998)
1340:
1331:
1324:Dayan (1998)
1319:
1307:
1300:Dayan (1998)
1295:
1221:
1193:
1181:
1162:
1156:
1135:
1130:Cheuse, Alan
1098:
1090:
1078:. Retrieved
1066:The Guardian
1064:
1054:
1042:. Retrieved
1037:
1028:
1009:
981:
937:
917:
908:
894:
873:
863:15 September
861:. Retrieved
857:
847:
820:. Retrieved
816:
806:
794:
782:
775:Forde (2020)
770:
758:
703:
699:
694:
686:
681:
675:
673:
654:
646:
630:
604:
597:
589:
587:
579:
576:
568:
555:
542:
530:
522:
517:
514:
505:
500:
493:
482:
466:
462:
436:
432:
421:
394:
390:Fort-Dauphin
383:
367:Cap-Français
360:
316:
305:
258:
235:
230:
220:
209:
181:Afro-Haitian
176:
172:
170:
145:Perpetrators
25:
18:
3322:Foreign aid
3307:Agriculture
3211:LGBT rights
3130:Environment
3125:Earthquakes
3120:Departments
3051:2022 crisis
2727:French Army
2351:Las Cahobas
2336:3rd Tiburon
2291:2nd Tiburon
2286:La Bombarde
2276:1st Tiburon
2236:Bois CaĂŻman
2220:Vincent Ogé
1374:, p. .
1312:Shen (2008)
1252:, abstract.
910:oppressors.
641:Confederacy
489:Cap-HaĂŻtien
265:New Orleans
214:written by
132:3,000–7,000
114:Attack type
21:‹ The
3581:Categories
3521:Television
3486:Literature
3329:(currency)
3235:Parliament
3201:Government
3135:Hispaniola
2381:Jean-Rabel
2371:2nd Dondon
2356:Mirebalais
2316:Saint-Marc
2306:1st Dondon
2246:Morne Pelé
2193:Background
1725:1 February
914:See also:
736:References
623:Haitianism
607:Adam Jones
478:mixed race
470:Rochambeau
428:Rochambeau
328:cane syrup
291:Background
269:Charleston
242:Dirk Moses
238:Adam Jones
94:1804-04-22
3501:Mythology
3469:Languages
3416:Squatting
3386:Education
3350:Transport
3257:President
3191:Elections
3083:Geography
2975:1820–1849
2970:1806–1820
2966:Republic
2441:Vertières
2416:Plaisance
2386:2nd Irois
2376:1st Irois
2266:Marmelade
1965:Routledge
1854:145204936
1846:0031-322X
1692:0362-4331
1075:0261-3077
683:Domingo.'
611:subaltern
547:Aftermath
413:mulattoes
379:Les Cayes
375:Louis XVI
319:crucified
277:Baltimore
250:genocidal
246:subaltern
30:is being
3561:Category
3401:Religion
3223:Military
3174:Politics
3155:Wildlife
3046:Gang war
2883:Timeline
2867:articles
2786:See also
2672:Napoleon
2142:cite web
1132:(2002).
709:See also
447:Massacre
417:genocide
397:genocide
273:New York
148:Army of
123:genocide
119:Massacre
65:Location
34:. ›
23:template
3545:Outline
3459:Cuisine
3431:Culture
3364:Society
3345:Tourism
3335:Poverty
3327:Gourde
3295:Economy
3140:Islands
2962:Kingdom
2932:Slavery
2910:Maroons
2875:History
2626:Jeannot
2411:Kellola
2331:Trutier
2321:LĂ©ogane
1749:Sources
1044:17 June
822:17 June
667:of the
572:America
474:Leclerc
336:poniard
332:bayonet
296:Slavery
227:Germans
140:Unknown
137:Injured
92: (
83:1804-02
81: (
3566:Portal
3449:Cinema
3406:People
3396:Health
3240:Senate
3150:Rivers
3110:Cities
3105:Border
2865:
2665:French
2581:Macaya
2472:People
2391:Jacmel
2098:
2064:
2038:
2015:
1994:
1971:
1946:
1923:
1904:
1881:
1852:
1844:
1811:
1786:
1767:
1690:
1659:
1634:
1597:
1455:
1413:
1228:
1200:
1169:
1144:
1107:
1080:8 July
1073:
1016:
988:
924:
901:
538:zombie
497:Polish
440:whites
323:flayed
240:, and
199:. The
185:slaves
156:Motive
129:Deaths
103:Target
3552:Index
3496:Music
3491:Media
3376:Crime
2957:State
2863:Haiti
2740:Other
1850:S2CID
3464:Flag
3274:List
3262:List
2731:Navy
2729:and
2281:Acul
2148:link
2096:ISBN
2062:ISBN
2036:ISBN
2013:ISBN
1992:ISBN
1969:ISBN
1944:ISBN
1921:ISBN
1902:ISBN
1879:ISBN
1842:ISSN
1809:ISBN
1784:ISBN
1765:ISBN
1727:2012
1688:ISSN
1657:ISBN
1632:ISBN
1595:ISBN
1453:ISBN
1411:ISBN
1226:ISBN
1198:ISBN
1167:ISBN
1142:ISBN
1105:ISBN
1082:2023
1071:ISSN
1046:2022
1014:ISBN
986:ISBN
922:ISBN
899:ISBN
865:2024
824:2022
625:and
525:rape
472:and
334:and
231:Noir
171:The
75:Date
3439:Art
2088:doi
1871:doi
1834:doi
483:In
3583::
2144:}}
2140:{{
2112:.
2094:.
2086:.
2060:.
2034:.
1990:.
1986:.
1967:.
1963:.
1942:.
1900:.
1877:.
1865:.
1848:.
1840:.
1830:39
1828:.
1807:.
1803:.
1763:.
1713:.
1709:.
1682:.
1553:^
1532:,
1510:^
1491:^
1437:^
1379:^
1352:^
1278:^
1257:^
1240:^
1212:^
1119:^
1069:.
1063:.
1036:.
1000:^
972:^
949:^
907:.
885:^
856:.
832:^
815:.
743:^
663:,
659:,
540:.
419:.
392:.
313::
287:.
275:,
271:,
267:,
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2178:e
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2164:v
2150:)
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