420:(OAS) and the United Nations condemned the coup and expressed their support for Aristide's regime. The OAS implemented a trade embargo in October 1991. On 24 November 1992, the UN adopted a resolution urging member states to impose a trade embargo, although it did not impose a world-wide oil and arms embargo until 23 June 1993. The Governor's Island Agreement, signed on 3 July 1993, attempted to forge a compromise between Aristide and Cedras, in that sanctions would be lifted following Aristide's return to power by 30 October. The accord also promised amnesty for coup leaders, assistance in modernizing the Haitian army, and the establishment of a new Haitian police force. Sanctions were suspended following the appointment of a Prime Minister chosen by Aristide, but reimposed in October 1993 following accusations of renewed human rights violations by the military regime.
370:
and trade unions. Literacy, pro-democracy, students' and women's groups were also persecuted. Civilian deaths increased during this period, as did incidents of mass arrests without warrants. Before his assassination in 1993, pro-democracy activist
Antoine Izmery claimed, that 10,000 people had died as a result of political violence following the coup. Around 250,000 people had fled the city of Port-au-Prince by December 1991, fleeing not only political violence but economic hardship. However, persecution was not limited to the cities. Peasants made up a large part of Aristide's voter base, and thus were subject to military violence, including the destruction of food-storage silos and the killing of livestock.
2251:
398:, although the administration argued that this was irrelevant and claimed the reason for the refugee crisis was economic, due to the economic embargo, and not due to political persecution. Given the direct correlation between the refugee crisis and an uptick in political violence in Haiti, it is clear that the Bush administration's claim failed to encompass the whole situation. The Supreme Court supported the administration's rejection of refugees, deciding that the
299:- also called Pere Lebrun in Haiti - as a form of execution, potentially referring to necklacing as a "beautiful instrument." Others argue that Aristide was referring to the constitution, since necklacing is never explicitly mentioned and earlier in the same speech Aristide refers ambiguously in similar ways to using the constitution as an instrument or tool— "Your tool in hand, your instrument in hand, your constitution in hand!"
476:, directly refused to accept refugees for settlement, despite displaying support for the Aristide regime. Following Aristide's return in November 1994, a number of Caribbean states introduced programs for the repatriation of Haitians living in their countries. The most significant numbers came from the Bahamas, the Dominican Republic, and
1101:"Human Rights - Haitian Refugees - Haitian Refugees Housed at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Held to Have No Valid Constitutional or International Law Claims to Challenge Forced Repatriation by the U.S. Government. Haitian Refugee Center v. Baker, 953 F.2d 1498 (11th Cir. 1992), cert. denied, 112 S.Ct. 1245 (1992)"
432:
Initially, the Bush administration followed the international community in denouncing the military coup, calling for a restoration of democracy and the reinstatement of
Aristide. However, they soon reversed their policy, stating that the return of Aristide was not a requirement for the restoration of
369:
During the
Aristide government the military's reputation in regard to human rights began to improve, however this was quickly reversed after the coup. The military targeted pro-Aristide elected officials, as well as rural development and peasant organizations, neighborhood and community associations,
365:
The army justified the coup as a necessary intervention, claiming that
Aristide was meddling in army affairs. Cédras announced his victory at 11 p.m., on 29 September, via a televised broadcast, saying, "Today, the armed forces find themselves obligated to assume the heavy responsibility to keep the
494:
Francois and Biamby received military training in the US: Biamby received infantry training at Fort
Benning, Georgia, and Francois received small-arms and ammunition repair training at the Army Ordnance School in Aberdeen, Maryland, and also at the Savanna Army Depot in Illinois. It is frequently
373:
The military regime reduced freedom of the press by silencing radio stations, the most important news medium in the country. On the first day of the coup, at least 10 radio stations were destroyed or shut down. Radio personnel were arrested, tortured, and even executed. Significant arrests include
291:
and declared himself
President. After large numbers of Aristide supporters filled the streets in protest and Lafontant attempted to declare martial law, the Army crushed the incipient coup. Lafontant's trial was controversial, as he received a life sentence on the recommendation of Aristide, while
539:
memo stated that "all those jailed for drug-trafficking have been released and... Michel François has personally supervised the landing of planes carrying drugs and weapons." Francois was arrested in
Honduras in 1997 and held on drug charges for several months, but released after a US extradition
534:
Members of the coup regime, notably the Chief of
National Police, Michel François, were accused of drug smuggling at a much greater rate than before the coup. A 1992 US State Department report noted that Aristide was "planning new policies and institutions to combat narcotics trafficking, his
366:
ship of state afloat. After seven months of democratic experience, the country once again finds itself a prey to the horrors of uncertainty. With all
Haitians we will bring the ship to port." At least 26 people were killed and 200 wounded in the fighting, and gunfire lasted through the night.
423:
The economic blockade had severe effects on an already-impoverished country. 140,000 private-sector jobs were lost. To compensate with the lack of fuel, people cut down more trees, which accelerated deforestation. The lack of electricity had a massive impact on public health, as vaccines and
302:
It has been suggested that
Aristide also threatened elite bourgeois families in that speech, for not supporting his government enough. A social network analysis of Haitian elites who participated in the coup has suggested that more central families were more likely to have been accused of
402:
did not apply on the high seas. After declaring its intention to close the Guantanamo camp, the US began to return Haitians immediately after their interception, without allowing them to apply for asylum. The only way to apply for asylum now was through the US embassy in Port-au-Prince.
389:
for those who were picked up by the US Coast Guard. As of 4 February 1992, more than 14,000 Haitian refugees had arrived at Guantanamo, but only 3609 qualified to apply for political asylum. The Bush administration began repatriation of refugees on 3 February 1992. On 24 May,
31:
506:
agents were present with Cédras at the army headquarters during the coup, but the CIA denied prior knowledge. Additionally, the CIA "paid key members of the coup regime forces, identified as drug traffickers, for information from the mid-1980s at least until the coup."
495:
reported that Cedras also received US training, but the Pentagon denies having evidence of this. It is unknown to what degree US assistance empowered or assisted the leaders of the coup, and to what degree the involvement of the CIA aided or subverted the regime.
276:. Aristide's main opposition was the Haitian army, on whom he attempted to enforce constitutional laws that had not previously been adhered to. These laws included the separation of the police from the army and its subsequent placement under the
530:
and received the mandatory sentence of forced labor for life. However, as all three men were convicted in absentia and have not returned to Haiti, they have not served their sentences. Biamby died in Panama in 2008.
258:
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and a critic of both the Duvaliers and Aristide, was murdered by a mob. Roger Lafontant was also murdered in prison during the coup, however the circumstances surrounding his death have never been made clear.
2780:
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265:("the flood" in Haitian Creole), which advocated the use of legislation and popular mobilization for economic reform, an end to corruption, and justice for the victims of the Haitian military and the
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257:
The 1990–91 general election was heralded as the first democratic election in Haiti's history. Aristide, a populist Roman Catholic priest, was the most controversial candidate of his party, the
347:
272:
Despite having popular support, the transition of power was rocky. Aristide's political platform threatened the power of some of the Haitian elite, specifically those who supported the
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319:, aligning themselves with Cédras over the Aristide administration. At daybreak, soldiers fired on Aristide's residence and his armored personnel carrier as he traveled to the
2608:
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in exile and Cédras announcing the success of the coup at 11 p.m. on the night of Monday, 30 September. On the night of 28 September, some army bases and police stations
2801:
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led the coup. Aristide was sent into exile, his life only saved by the intervention of U.S., French, and Venezuelan diplomats. Aristide would later return to power in 1994.
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democracy. The administration's willingness to compromise with the military junta was perceived as U.S. government support of Cédras, and sparked a number of protests by
452:. United States military forces were deployed in Haiti, and on 15 October 1994, the Clinton administration returned Aristide to Haiti to complete his term in office.
2775:
614:
Collins, Edward Jr.; Cole, Timothy M. (1996). "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide".
440:
The Clinton administration was more supportive of reinstating a broad democracy in Haiti. After large, pro-Aristide demonstrations in the United States, President
283:
The Haitian right mobilized in response to the Lavalas movement. A coup attempt against Aristide had taken place on 6 January, even before his inauguration, when
526:
Prior to Aristide's reinstatement Cedras and Biamby left the country and settled in Panama. Both, in addition to Francois, were convicted for their roles in the
311:
The coup was brief, with some conflict the night of 28 September 1991, but the bulk of the action taking place on 29 September, ending with Aristide deported to
1047:"Return to the darkest days : human rights in Haiti since the coup / Americas Watch, National Coalition for Haitian Refugees, Physicians for Human Rights"
2851:
2288:
3400:
464:, which supported the Haitian military regime, sought to stem the flow of over 30,000 refugees with an increased police and army presence on the border.
2203:
1841:
498:
Despite the US role in the 1994 Operation Uphold Democracy to reinstall Aristide to power, questions remain about its involvement in the coup itself.
261:. He was one of the only church figures to speak out against repression during the Duvalier years. However, due to the popularity of his populist
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343:
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1816:
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1655:
445:
1423:
974:
564:
2141:
74:
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2136:
1457:
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1492:
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489:
1390:
780:
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as well as the trial of military abuses against citizens by the military, when they were meant to be tried in civilian courts.
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3250:
3245:
2168:
2042:
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1548:
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The military's human rights abuses sparked a mass exodus of Haitian Nationals fleeing by boat. A tent camp was set up at the
2538:
2336:
1570:
2121:
926:
230:
3110:
1967:
1811:
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authorized a United States-led multinational force under unified command and control to restore Aristide to office, under
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1960:
1700:
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was issued, which ended all screening of the Haitian Nationals. This order violated the international principle of
3089:
3041:
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2826:
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2618:
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1992:
1927:
1911:
1856:
1715:
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1450:
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729:
520:
1947:
1801:
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331:, and US ambassadors successfully negotiated with coup leaders for Aristide's life. Aristide was forced into
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2083:
1955:
1881:
1751:
1650:
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391:
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1932:
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and a peaceful transferral of power. He then returned to the presidency in 2001, but was ousted again in a
2816:
1851:
2022:
1766:
1605:
277:
2007:
1871:
1520:
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2208:
2098:
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1972:
1937:
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1826:
1635:
1620:
1580:
1563:
449:
1443:
3410:
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3198:
2998:
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2012:
2002:
1987:
1977:
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1771:
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386:
2841:
1435:
1152:
2578:
2017:
1997:
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1600:
1525:
1420:
477:
444:, with the support of the United Nations, pressured the coup regime to step down. On 31 July 1994,
3173:
1318:
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1982:
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1558:
460:
The response of other Caribbean states to the crisis varied, but was generally anti-refugee. The
320:
153:
2664:
1276:
Buss, Terry F.; Gardner, Adam (2008). "Why Foreign Aid Has Failed and What We Can do About It".
515:
Aristide was returned to power on 15 October 1994 and remained in power until 1996, following a
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2471:
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1610:
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234:
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323:. Soldiers overtook the palace, captured Aristide and led him to army headquarters. There,
295:
On 27 September 1991, Aristide gave a speech that critics believe advocated for the use of
149:
1071:
910:
893:
8:
1100:
2891:
595:
Whitney, Kathleen Marie (1996). "Sin, Fraph, and the CIA: U.S. Covert Action in Haiti".
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527:
499:
434:
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2239:
2230:
1466:
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953:
927:"Social Origins of Dictatorships: Elite Networks and Political Transitions in Haiti"
866:
375:
140:
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who allowed refugee settlement offered minimal processing. Some countries, such as
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284:
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1131:
999:
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179:
133:
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1806:
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67:
1299:
Noelle-Mills, Maryse (Spring 1992). "Haiti: The coup and the refugee crisis".
945:
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and flew to France, later visiting the United States and speaking before the
262:
117:
89:
76:
1278:
Haiti in the Balance: Why Foreign Aid Has Failed and What We Can Do About It
714:
666:
342:
An outburst of popular protest associated with the coup also claimed lives.
3326:
441:
287:, a Tonton Macoute leader under Duvalier, seized the provisional President
1223:
836:
2679:
997:
536:
535:
ouster... crippled narcotics control efforts in Haiti." An internal 1993
465:
697:
Haiti's New Dictatorship: The Coup, the Earthquake and the UN Occupation
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1046:
296:
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2638:
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2222:
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473:
324:
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2392:
925:
Naidu, Suresh; Robinson, James A.; Young, Lauren E. (August 2021).
1199:"A/RES/46/7. The situation of democracy and human rights in Haiti"
975:"Haiti's Military Assumes Power After Troops Arrest the President"
565:"Haiti's Military Assumes Power After Troops Arrest the President"
303:
participating in the coup and more likely to benefit financially.
3104:
3072:
3008:
469:
3067:
755:"Haiti: Background to the 1991 Overthrow of President Aristide"
667:"Haiti: Background to the 1991 Overthrow of President Aristide"
328:
316:
312:
781:"Foreign Head of State Immunity: Lafontant v. Aristide (1994)"
16:
Overthrow of recently elected president Jean-Bertrand Aristide
2555:
2532:
540:
request was denied. Francois later died in Honduras in 2017.
332:
63:
1421:
Haiti: Drugs, Thugs, The CIA And the Deterrence Of Democracy
30:
3257:
3061:
468:
had a similar response to refugees. Even countries such as
1000:"Refworld | Human Rights Watch World Report 1993 - Haiti"
503:
1351:. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1132:"Executive Order 12807: Interdiction of Illegal Aliens"
1105:
Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law
597:
Southwestern Journal of Law and Trade in the Americas
269:, he received the majority of the vote, with 67.5%.
237:. Haitian military officers, primarily Army General
924:
416:Early on, international organizations such as the
1174:"Migration Emergencies and Human Rights in Haiti"
639:"Milestones: 1993–2000 - Office of the Historian"
3387:
2304:, and attempted coups in the Americas since 1900
225:took place on 29 September 1991, when President
998:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
382:), and Felix Lamy (director of Radio Galaxie).
446:United Nations Security Council Resolution 940
411:
259:National Front for Change and Democracy (FCND)
2282:
1451:
694:
1298:
1252:"Accord de Governors Island | UN Peacemaker"
695:Podur, Justin; Robinson, William I. (2012).
661:
659:
590:
588:
586:
559:
557:
555:
553:
1275:
804:
616:Journal of International Law & Practice
613:
2289:
2275:
1458:
1444:
1342:
490:United States involvement in regime change
292:the maximum sentence was set at 15 years.
1319:"George H.W. Bush's Grim Legacy in Haiti"
909:
819:
656:
583:
550:
455:
427:
406:
721:
2204:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2024)
1842:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2004)
1367:"Foreign Policy: Trained in The U.S.A."
594:
132:Commander-in-Chief of the Haitian Army
3421:September 1991 events in North America
3388:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1098:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1035:
993:
991:
894:"Networks of Conflict and Cooperation"
891:
885:
671:Congressional Research Service reports
374:those of Jacques Gary Simeon (head of
229:, elected eight months earlier in the
2270:
1439:
1246:
1244:
1094:
1092:
918:
911:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102523
815:
813:
778:
3401:1990s coups d'état and coup attempts
1391:"Raoul Cedras - TRIAL International"
1129:
749:
747:
745:
743:
690:
688:
633:
631:
629:
424:medications could not be preserved.
1159:
1032:
988:
892:Larson, Jennifer M. (11 May 2021).
823:(1992). "Haiti's Shattered Hopes".
378:), Paul Jean-Mario (a reporter for
13:
3396:Haitian military junta (1991-1994)
1241:
1089:
1024:Kean, Kathrine (Director) (1997).
898:Annual Review of Political Science
810:
245:and Chief of the National Police,
14:
3432:
934:American Political Science Review
740:
730:"Haiti – 1991–1994 – Raul Cedras"
685:
673:. CRSReports.com. 22 October 1993
626:
510:
483:
2250:
2249:
1473:, and attempted coups since 1991
727:
231:1990–91 Haitian general election
29:
2089:Central African Republic (2021)
1983:Central African Republic (2013)
1797:Central African Republic (2003)
1777:Central African Republic (2001)
1483:List of coups and coup attempts
1413:
1383:
1359:
1336:
1311:
1292:
1280:. Brookings Institution Press.
1269:
1216:
1191:
1123:
1064:
1017:
967:
859:
798:
418:Organization of American States
772:
607:
306:
188:Chief of the National Police,
1:
867:"Aristide's Pe Lebrun speech"
543:
252:
109:Removal of President Aristide
2154:São Tomé and Príncipe (2022)
1817:São Tomé and Príncipe (2003)
1656:São Tomé and Príncipe (1995)
1130:Bush, George (24 May 1992).
779:Juste, Jonel (1 June 2023).
354:
274:Duvalier family dictatorship
7:
412:International organizations
10:
3437:
3225:Trinidad and Tobago (1990)
1343:Von Hippel, Karin (2000).
487:
450:Operation Uphold Democracy
358:
348:Christian Democratic Party
3361:
3340:
3289:
3217:
3141:
2991:
2948:Dominican Republic (1963)
2905:
2789:
2647:
2495:
2454:
2370:
2309:
2217:
2076:
1920:
1734:
1503:
1478:
1099:Golden, Jason A. (1992).
946:10.1017/S0003055421000289
387:Guantanamo Bay Naval Base
211:
203:
198:
166:
161:
136:ousted President Aristide
123:
113:
105:
58:
40:
28:
23:
1837:Equatorial Guinea (2004)
1419:Project Censored, 1994,
579:– via NYTimes.com.
223:1991 Haitian coup d'état
24:1991 Haitian coup d'état
3416:Military coups in Haiti
805:Collins & Cole 1996
154:Prime Minister of Haiti
139:Superior Court justice
2256:Plots and conspiracies
1757:Solomon Islands (2000)
1147:Cite journal requires
759:www.everycrsreport.com
734:www.globalsecurity.org
456:Response in the region
428:United States response
407:International response
361:Haitian refugee crisis
289:Ertha Pascal-Trouillot
241:, Army Chief of Staff
227:Jean-Bertrand Aristide
172:Jean-Bertrand Aristide
46:; 33 years ago
44:29 September 1991
1621:Bophuthatswana (1994)
837:10.1353/jod.1992.0011
392:Executive Order 12807
359:Further information:
235:Armed Forces of Haiti
233:, was deposed by the
2194:Guinea-Bissau (2023)
2149:Guinea-Bissau (2022)
2133:Burkina Faso (2022)
1968:Guinea-Bissau (2012)
1943:Guinea-Bissau (2011)
1812:Guinea-Bissau (2003)
1787:Côte d'Ivoire (2002)
1762:Côte d'Ivoire (2001)
1726:Côte d'Ivoire (1999)
1711:Guinea-Bissau (1998)
1426:15 July 2011 at the
871:www.hartford-hwp.com
825:Journal of Democracy
502:later reported that
346:, the leader of the
215:At least 200 wounded
183:Army Chief of Staff
150:Jean-Jacques Honorat
145:président provisoire
2781:Paraguay (Sep 1949)
2189:Sierra Leone (2023)
2184:Burkina Faso (2023)
2038:Burkina Faso (2016)
2028:Burkina Faso (2015)
1792:Burkina Faso (2003)
1571:Sierra Leone (1992)
1536:Georgia (1991–1992)
1526:Soviet Union (1991)
1401:on 7 September 2018
1395:TRIAL International
1286:10.7864/j.ctt6wphjk
873:. Haiti Observateur
517:democratic election
278:Ministry of Justice
207:At least 21 killed.
86: /
3128:El Salvador (1979)
3037:El Salvador (1972)
2918:El Salvador (1961)
2913:El Salvador (1960)
2743:El Salvador (1948)
2528:El Salvador (1931)
1887:Philippines (2007)
1807:Philippines (2003)
1347:Democracy by Force
569:The New York Times
462:Dominican Republic
400:Refugee Convention
3383:
3382:
3194:Panama (Mar 1988)
2441:Costa Rica (1917)
2264:
2263:
1948:Bangladesh (2011)
1933:Madagascar (2010)
1907:Madagascar (2009)
1897:Mauritania (2008)
1877:Madagascar (2006)
1862:Mauritania (2005)
1802:Mauritania (2003)
1691:Bangladesh (1996)
1646:Azerbaijan (1995)
1591:Azerbaijan (1993)
1540:Venezuela (1992)
1301:TransAfrica Forum
1256:peacemaker.un.org
1028:(Motion picture).
821:Constable, Pamela
643:history.state.gov
528:Raboteau Massacre
500:Emmanuel Constant
435:Haitian-Americans
219:
218:
90:18.533°N 72.333°W
3428:
3411:1991 in politics
3317:Venezuela (2002)
3276:Guatemala (1993)
3189:Haiti (Sep 1988)
3184:Haiti (Jun 1988)
3169:Guatemala (1983)
3164:Guatemala (1982)
3090:Argentina (1976)
3052:Chile (Sep 1973)
3047:Chile (Jun 1973)
2968:Argentina (1966)
2938:Guatemala (1963)
2928:Argentina (1962)
2877:Venezuela (1958)
2867:Guatemala (1957)
2842:Argentina (1955)
2837:Guatemala (1954)
2802:Argentina (1951)
2738:Venezuela (1948)
2728:Nicaragua (1947)
2708:Venezuela (1945)
2670:Argentina (1943)
2599:Nicaragua (1936)
2513:Argentina (1930)
2431:Haiti (Nov 1914)
2421:Haiti (Jan 1914)
2352:Venezuela (1908)
2291:
2284:
2277:
2268:
2267:
2253:
2252:
1782:Venezuela (2002)
1611:Lithuania (1993)
1586:Guatemala (1993)
1460:
1453:
1446:
1437:
1436:
1430:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1397:. Archived from
1387:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1350:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1323:haitiliberte.com
1315:
1309:
1308:
1296:
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1289:
1273:
1267:
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1248:
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1238:
1236:
1234:
1224:"Resolution 841"
1220:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1170:
1157:
1156:
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1127:
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1120:
1096:
1087:
1086:
1084:
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1068:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1043:
1030:
1029:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1010:
995:
986:
985:
983:
981:
971:
965:
964:
962:
960:
931:
922:
916:
915:
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889:
883:
882:
880:
878:
863:
857:
856:
817:
808:
802:
796:
795:
793:
791:
776:
770:
769:
767:
765:
751:
738:
737:
725:
719:
718:
692:
683:
682:
680:
678:
663:
654:
653:
651:
649:
635:
624:
623:
611:
605:
604:
592:
581:
580:
578:
576:
571:. 1 October 1991
561:
521:2004 coup d'état
478:Turks and Caicos
263:Lavalas movement
129:Military victory
101:
100:
98:
97:
96:
91:
87:
84:
83:
82:
79:
54:
52:
47:
33:
21:
20:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3365:successful coup
3357:
3336:
3332:Honduras (2009)
3302:Paraguay (2000)
3285:
3281:Paraguay (1996)
3230:Suriname (1990)
3213:
3209:Paraguay (1989)
3159:Dominica (1981)
3149:Suriname (1980)
3137:
3100:Honduras (1978)
3080:Honduras (1975)
3027:Honduras (1972)
2987:
2953:Honduras (1963)
2901:
2862:Colombia (1957)
2857:Honduras (1956)
2832:Paraguay (1954)
2827:Colombia (1953)
2785:
2771:Colombia (1949)
2748:Paraguay (1948)
2655:Paraguay (1940)
2643:
2624:Paraguay (1937)
2594:Paraguay (1936)
2491:
2450:
2378:Paraguay (1911)
2366:
2347:Paraguay (1908)
2342:Paraguay (1905)
2332:Paraguay (1904)
2322:Paraguay (1902)
2317:Colombia (1900)
2305:
2295:
2265:
2260:
2247:
2213:
2072:
2068:Ethiopia (2019)
2048:Zimbabwe (2017)
2018:Yemen (2014–15)
2008:Thailand (2014)
1916:
1912:Honduras (2009)
1872:Thailand (2006)
1747:Paraguay (2000)
1730:
1721:Pakistan (1999)
1696:Cambodia (1997)
1666:Paraguay (1996)
1641:Cambodia (1994)
1521:Thailand (1991)
1499:
1474:
1464:
1434:
1433:
1428:Wayback Machine
1418:
1414:
1404:
1402:
1389:
1388:
1384:
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1365:
1364:
1360:
1341:
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1160:
1148:
1146:
1137:
1136:
1128:
1124:
1097:
1090:
1080:
1078:
1076:www.amnesty.org
1070:
1069:
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1008:
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989:
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886:
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799:
789:
787:
777:
773:
763:
761:
753:
752:
741:
726:
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707:
699:. Pluto Press.
693:
686:
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657:
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612:
608:
593:
584:
574:
572:
563:
562:
551:
546:
513:
492:
486:
458:
430:
414:
409:
363:
357:
321:National Palace
309:
285:Roger Lafontant
267:Tonton Macoutes
255:
247:Michel François
243:Philippe Biamby
194:
193:
190:Michel François
187:
185:Philippe Biamby
182:
175:
95:18.533; -72.333
94:
92:
88:
85:
80:
77:
75:
73:
72:
71:
70:
50:
48:
45:
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3434:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3377:
3375:attempted coup
3371:
3366:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3353:Bolivia (2024)
3350:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3297:Ecuador (2000)
3293:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3266:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3221:
3219:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3179:Bolivia (1984)
3176:
3174:Grenada (1983)
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3154:Bolivia (1980)
3151:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3133:Bolivia (1979)
3130:
3125:
3123:Grenada (1979)
3120:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3102:
3097:
3095:Ecuador (1976)
3092:
3087:
3085:Ecuador (1975)
3082:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3059:
3057:Bolivia (1974)
3054:
3049:
3044:
3042:Uruguay (1973)
3039:
3034:
3032:Ecuador (1972)
3029:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3006:
3004:Bolivia (1970)
3001:
2995:
2993:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2983:Bolivia (1969)
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2958:Bolivia (1964)
2955:
2950:
2945:
2943:Ecuador (1963)
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2923:Ecuador (1961)
2920:
2915:
2909:
2907:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2887:Bolivia (1959)
2884:
2882:Bolivia (1958)
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2822:Bolivia (1952)
2819:
2814:
2812:Bolivia (1951)
2809:
2804:
2799:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2776:Bolivia (1949)
2773:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2723:Ecuador (1947)
2720:
2715:
2713:Bolivia (1946)
2710:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2677:
2675:Bolivia (1943)
2672:
2667:
2665:Uruguay (1942)
2662:
2657:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2614:Bolivia (1937)
2611:
2609:Ecuador (1936)
2606:
2604:Bolivia (1936)
2601:
2596:
2591:
2589:Ecuador (1935)
2586:
2584:Bolivia (1934)
2581:
2576:
2574:Uruguay (1933)
2571:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2503:Bolivia (1930)
2499:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2487:Ecuador (1925)
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2462:Bolivia (1920)
2458:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2306:
2294:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2271:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2235:
2227:
2225:or its attempt
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2209:Bolivia (2024)
2206:
2201:
2199:Nigeria (2024)
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2116:
2114:Tunisia (2021)
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2094:Myanmar (2021)
2091:
2086:
2080:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2023:Burundi (2015)
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1978:Eritrea (2013)
1975:
1970:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1767:Burundi (2001)
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1742:Ecuador (2000)
1738:
1736:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1676:Burundi (1996)
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1636:Liberia (1994)
1633:
1631:Lesotho (1994)
1628:
1623:
1618:
1616:Nigeria (1993)
1613:
1608:
1606:Burundi (1993)
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1576:Algeria (1992)
1573:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1516:Lesotho (1991)
1513:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1479:
1476:
1475:
1463:
1462:
1455:
1448:
1440:
1432:
1431:
1412:
1382:
1358:
1335:
1310:
1291:
1268:
1240:
1215:
1190:
1158:
1149:|journal=
1122:
1088:
1063:
1031:
1016:
987:
966:
940:(3): 900–916.
917:
884:
858:
809:
797:
771:
739:
720:
705:
684:
655:
625:
606:
603:(2): 303–332 .
582:
548:
547:
545:
542:
512:
511:After the coup
509:
485:
484:US involvement
482:
457:
454:
429:
426:
413:
410:
408:
405:
396:nonrefoulement
380:Radio Antilles
376:Radio Caraibes
356:
353:
337:United Nations
308:
305:
254:
251:
217:
216:
213:
209:
208:
205:
201:
200:
196:
195:
176:
168:
167:
164:
163:
159:
158:
157:
156:
147:
141:Joseph Nérette
137:
130:
125:
121:
120:
115:
111:
110:
107:
103:
102:
68:Port-au-Prince
62:
60:
56:
55:
42:
38:
37:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3433:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3406:1991 in Haiti
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3376:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3204:Panama (1989)
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2973:Panama (1968)
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2963:Brazil (1964)
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2892:Brazil (1959)
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2852:Brazil (1956)
2850:
2848:
2847:Brazil (1955)
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2807:Panama (1951)
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2703:Brazil (1945)
2701:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2660:Panama (1941)
2658:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2629:Brazil (1938)
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2619:Brazil (1937)
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2523:Panama (1931)
2521:
2519:
2518:Brazil (1930)
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2472:Brazil (1922)
2470:
2468:
2467:Mexico (1920)
2465:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2416:Mexico (1913)
2414:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2388:Mexico (1911)
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2337:Brazil (1904)
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2287:
2285:
2280:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2269:
2257:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2219:
2216:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2164:Gambia (2022)
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2118:Sudan (2021)
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2109:Guinea (2021)
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2033:Turkey (2016)
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2013:Gambia (2014)
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1902:Guinea (2008)
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1706:Zambia (1997)
1704:
1702:
1701:Turkey (1997)
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1661:Guinea (1996)
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1626:Gambia (1994)
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1596:Russia (1993)
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1449:
1447:
1442:
1441:
1438:
1429:
1425:
1422:
1416:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1339:
1324:
1320:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1272:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1245:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1204:
1200:
1194:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1154:
1141:
1133:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1093:
1077:
1073:
1067:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1027:
1020:
1005:
1001:
994:
992:
976:
970:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
928:
921:
912:
907:
904:(1): 89–107.
903:
899:
895:
888:
872:
868:
862:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
816:
814:
807:, p. 220
806:
801:
786:
782:
775:
760:
756:
750:
748:
746:
744:
735:
731:
724:
716:
712:
708:
706:9780745332574
702:
698:
691:
689:
672:
668:
662:
660:
644:
640:
634:
632:
630:
621:
617:
610:
602:
598:
591:
589:
587:
570:
566:
560:
558:
556:
554:
549:
541:
538:
532:
529:
524:
522:
518:
508:
505:
501:
496:
491:
481:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
453:
451:
447:
443:
438:
436:
425:
421:
419:
404:
401:
397:
393:
388:
383:
381:
377:
371:
367:
362:
352:
349:
345:
344:Silvio Claude
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
304:
300:
298:
293:
290:
286:
281:
279:
275:
270:
268:
264:
260:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
192:
191:
186:
181:
178:Army General
174:
173:
165:
160:
155:
151:
148:
146:
143:installed as
142:
138:
135:
131:
128:
127:
126:
122:
119:
118:Military coup
116:
112:
108:
104:
99:
69:
65:
61:
57:
43:
39:
35:Map of Haiti.
32:
27:
22:
19:
3374:
3373:no sign for
3322:Haiti (2004)
3312:Haiti (2001)
3235:Haiti (1991)
3234:
3199:Haiti (1989)
2999:Haiti (1970)
2872:Haiti (1958)
2797:Haiti (1950)
2718:Haiti (1946)
2639:Chile (1939)
2634:Chile (1938)
2482:Chile (1925)
2477:Chile (1924)
2436:Haiti (1915)
2383:Haiti (1911)
2357:Haiti (1908)
2327:Haiti (1902)
2237:
2229:
2221:
2179:Gabon (2023)
2174:Niger (2023)
2169:Sudan (2023)
2099:Niger (2021)
2063:Sudan (2019)
2058:Gabon (2019)
2053:Yemen (2018)
2043:Libya (2016)
2003:Libya (2014)
1998:Libya (2013)
1993:Egypt (2013)
1973:Sudan (2012)
1952:Mali (2012)
1938:Niger (2011)
1928:Niger (2010)
1892:Sudan (2008)
1852:Nepal (2005)
1832:Haiti (2004)
1827:Sudan (2004)
1772:Haiti (2001)
1716:Niger (1999)
1686:Qatar (1996)
1681:Niger (1996)
1651:Qatar (1995)
1601:Libya (1993)
1581:Sudan (1992)
1555:Peru (1992)
1531:Haiti (1991)
1530:
1415:
1403:. Retrieved
1399:the original
1394:
1385:
1373:. Retrieved
1369:
1361:
1346:
1338:
1326:. Retrieved
1322:
1313:
1304:
1300:
1294:
1277:
1271:
1259:. Retrieved
1255:
1231:. Retrieved
1227:
1218:
1206:. Retrieved
1202:
1193:
1181:. Retrieved
1177:
1140:cite journal
1125:
1108:
1104:
1079:. Retrieved
1075:
1066:
1054:. Retrieved
1051:ufdc.ufl.edu
1050:
1025:
1019:
1007:. Retrieved
1003:
980:25 September
978:. Retrieved
969:
959:24 September
957:. Retrieved
937:
933:
920:
901:
897:
887:
875:. Retrieved
870:
861:
831:(1): 41–51.
828:
824:
800:
788:. Retrieved
784:
774:
762:. Retrieved
758:
733:
728:Pike, John.
723:
715:j.ctt183p5m7
696:
677:24 September
675:. Retrieved
670:
646:. Retrieved
642:
619:
615:
609:
600:
596:
573:. Retrieved
568:
533:
525:
514:
497:
493:
459:
442:Bill Clinton
439:
431:
422:
415:
384:
372:
368:
364:
341:
310:
301:
294:
282:
271:
256:
239:Raoul Cédras
222:
220:
180:Raoul Cédras
177:
169:
162:Lead figures
134:Raoul Cédras
66:, primarily
18:
3348:Peru (2022)
3327:Peru (2005)
3307:Peru (2000)
2978:Peru (1968)
2933:Peru (1962)
2897:Cuba (1959)
2817:Cuba (1952)
2733:Peru (1948)
2680:El Salvador
2579:Cuba (1933)
2508:Peru (1930)
2446:Peru (1919)
2426:Peru (1914)
2362:Peru (1909)
2238:Successful
2159:Peru (2022)
2104:Mali (2021)
2084:Mali (2020)
1988:Chad (2013)
1882:Fiji (2006)
1867:Chad (2006)
1857:Togo (2005)
1847:Peru (2005)
1822:Chad (2004)
1752:Fiji (2000)
1671:Iraq (1996)
1511:Mali (1991)
1405:14 November
1375:14 November
1261:14 November
1178:www.oas.org
764:14 November
648:14 November
537:US Congress
466:The Bahamas
307:Coup d'état
124:Resulted in
93: /
3390:Categories
2302:self-coups
2248:See also:
1493:since 2010
1488:by country
1471:self-coups
1233:17 October
1208:17 October
1203:www.un.org
1183:17 October
1081:17 October
1072:"Document"
1056:17 October
1009:17 October
544:References
488:See also:
325:Venezuelan
297:necklacing
253:Background
199:Casualties
170:President
51:1991-09-29
3369:self-coup
3240:Venezuela
2567:September
2544:September
2244:self-coup
2223:Self-coup
2142:September
2122:September
1228:unscr.com
1117:0046-578X
1026:Rezistans
853:154636755
845:1086-3214
474:Venezuela
355:Aftermath
3269:November
3251:November
3246:February
3116:November
3068:February
2764:February
2753:Paraguay
2549:December
2404:February
2393:Paraguay
1564:November
1549:November
1544:February
1424:Archived
1307:(1): 79.
1004:Refworld
954:17007409
317:mutinied
212:Injuries
204:Death(s)
152:becomes
59:Location
3260:(1992)
3242:(1992)
3107:(1978)
3105:Bolivia
3064:(1975)
3015:January
3011:(1971)
3009:Bolivia
2759:January
2755:(1949)
2696:October
2682:(1944)
2558:(1932)
2535:(1931)
2399:January
2395:(1912)
2233:attempt
2137:January
2127:October
1370:NPR.org
1328:23 July
877:18 July
470:Jamaica
114:Methods
81:72°20′W
78:18°32′N
49: (
3073:August
3020:August
2254:
1284:
1115:
952:
851:
843:
790:1 June
785:Medium
713:
703:
622:(2): .
575:4 June
329:French
313:France
3341:2020s
3290:2000s
3264:April
3218:1990s
3142:1980s
2992:1970s
2906:1960s
2790:1950s
2686:April
2648:1940s
2556:Chile
2533:Chile
2496:1930s
2455:1920s
2409:March
2371:1910s
2310:1900s
2298:Coups
2077:2020s
1961:April
1956:March
1921:2010s
1735:2000s
1559:April
1504:1990s
1467:Coups
1282:JSTOR
1111:(2).
950:S2CID
930:(PDF)
849:S2CID
711:JSTOR
333:exile
106:Goals
64:Haiti
3258:Peru
3111:July
3062:Peru
2562:June
2539:July
2240:coup
2231:Coup
1407:2018
1377:2018
1330:2023
1263:2018
1235:2018
1210:2018
1185:2018
1153:help
1113:ISSN
1083:2018
1058:2018
1011:2018
982:2018
961:2021
879:2019
841:ISSN
792:2023
766:2018
701:ISBN
679:2021
650:2018
577:2017
221:The
41:Date
2691:May
2242:or
942:doi
938:115
906:doi
833:doi
504:CIA
3392::
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