349:
Reactor-1. The purpose of the experiment was to experimentally verify the theoretically predicted nuclear properties of a PWAC reactor. The experiment was only run briefly; by the end of
February 1957 all data had been taken and disassembly had begun. The experiment was run at essentially zero nuclear power. The operating temperature was held constant at approximately 675 °C (1,247 °F), which corresponds closely to the design operating temperature of the PWAR-l moderator; this temperature was maintained by external heaters. Like the 2.5 MWt ARE, the PWAR-1 used NaF-ZrF4-UF4 as the primary fuel and coolant.
278:
27:
2149:
2139:
2119:
1247:
2129:
92:
317:
114:. An exchange takes place where the reactor is cooled, but it then heats up the same air and sends it to another plenum. The second plenum directs the air through a turbine (powering the compressor), then out the exhaust, providing thrust. The end result is that instead of using jet fuel, an aircraft could rely on the heat from nuclear reactions for power.
151:. This concept would have produced far less radioactive pollution. One or two loops of liquid metal would carry the heat from the reactor to the engine. This program involved a great deal of research and development of many light-weight systems suitable for use in aircraft, such as heat exchangers, liquid-metal
374:
entered into active service in
September 1959 which all but eliminated the need for a nuclear-powered aircraft as a strategic deterrent. Nevertheless, the results of the ARE program prompted scientists and engineers at ORNL to submit a preliminary design proposal to the Atomic Energy Commission for
361:), and continued strong support from the Air Force allowed the program to continue, despite divided leadership between the DOD and the AEC. Numerous test facilities were funded and constructed through the 1950s and 1960–61 in order to produce a flight-worthy nuclear power unit, including one at the
303:
Nuclear Test
Aircraft (NTA) was to study shielding requirements for an airborne reactor, to determine whether a nuclear aircraft was feasible. This was the only known airborne reactor experiment by the U.S. with an operational nuclear reactor on board. The NTA flew a total of 47 times testing the
369:
on March 26, 1961 citing the outrageous cost with no flight-worthy reactor having been produced up to that point – "15 years and about $ 1 billion have been devoted to the attempted development of a nuclear-powered aircraft; but the possibility of achieving a militarily useful aircraft in the
348:
On
February 5, 1957, another reactor was made critical at the Critical Experiments Facility of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) as part of the circulating-fuel reactor program of the Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Company (PWAC). This was called the PWAR-1, the Pratt and Whitney Aircraft
144:. The nuclear reactor core would heat up pressurized water or liquid metal and send it to the heat exchanger as well. That hot liquid would be cooled by the air; the air would be heated by the liquid, sent through a turbine (powering the compressor), then out the exhaust, providing thrust.
328:
were first operated on nuclear power using a reactor test assembly known as Heat
Transfer Reactor Experiment 1 (HTRE-1). HTRE-1, which used vertically-oriented control rods, was reconfigured with a removable core to become HTRE-2 for additional testing. HTRE-3 was built separately to test
197:
and high output temperature for use as an engine in a nuclear-powered bomber aircraft. The advantage of a nuclear-powered aircraft over a conventionally-powered aircraft is that it could remain airborne orders of magnitude longer and provide an effective nuclear
308:(ASTR), was operational but did not power the aircraft, rather the primary purpose of the flight program was shield testing. Based on the results of the NTA, the X-6 and the entire nuclear aircraft program was abandoned in 1961.
738:
Robertson, R.C. etc al. Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. (January 1965). MSRE Design and Operations Report Part I description of reactor design (pp. 3–6). ORNL-TM-728. Retrieved December 1, 2015, from
260:
were installed and it was found that the control rods did not determine the output power of the ARE; rather, the power demand did, which affected the outlet and inlet temperatures because of the negative
379:
experimental MSR to explore MSR as a civilian power station concept. The result of the proposal was direction from the Atomic Energy
Commission for ORNL to design, construct, and operate the
678:
1642:
725:
Alexander, L.G. et al. Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. (MAR 8, 1960). Experimental molten-salt-fueled 30-Mw power reactor. ORNL-2796. Retrieved January 16, 2016, from
1836:
881:
Aircraft
Nuclear Propulsion Program: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Research and Development of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (Report). July 23, 1959.
2152:
256:
gas coolant loop was circulated around the primary coolant to transfer heat to a water radiator where heat output was dumped to atmosphere. Reactivity
1283:
2183:
2198:
1947:
479:
2092:
689:
475:
786:
588:
449:
942:
66:(AEC)/USAF ANP. The USAF pursued two different systems for nuclear-powered jet engines, the Direct Air Cycle concept, which was developed by
915:
262:
1342:
771:
Comprehensive
Technical Report, General Electric Direct-Air-Cycle Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Program, Program Summary and References
1581:
132:
sections were used, with the compressed air run through the reactor to be heated by it before being exhausted through the turbine.
78:, but was canceled in 1961 before that aircraft was built. The total cost of the program from 1946 to 1961 was about $ 1 billion.
1792:
1632:
1571:
1712:
1537:
1276:
63:
652:
1588:
1110:
1505:
620:"Final Report: Decontamination and Decommissioning of Heat Transfer Reactor Experiment Test Assemblies HTRE-2 and HTRE-3"
397:
1787:
1013:
371:
121:, was pursued because of its advantages in simplicity, reliability, suitability and quick start ability. Conventional
2173:
1269:
853:
451:
Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chronology of Science and Technology in the Exploration of Space, 1915–1960
62:
initiated Project NEPA on May 28, 1946. NEPA operated until May 1951, when the project was transferred to the joint
2122:
2097:
1962:
908:
392:
813:
2188:
2040:
1874:
1476:
1354:
574:
Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion – Politics. (1997). Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion. Retrieved January 16, 2016, from
2030:
1879:
1337:
559:
380:
333:
31:
1804:
1637:
362:
96:
59:
2178:
1884:
1593:
1347:
2142:
1942:
1769:
1707:
1532:
1436:
1322:
1250:
901:
862:
740:
365:(ORNL). While the ARE successfully demonstrated operation of a MSR concept, the program was canceled by
179:
173:
1990:
1669:
726:
713:
1967:
1576:
1359:
1100:
987:
337:
332:
The decommissioned HTRE-2 and HTRE-3 reactors and test assemblies can be viewed by the public in the
102:
Direct cycle nuclear engines would resemble a conventional jet engine, except that there would be no
370:
foreseeable future is still very remote". Also contributing to the cancellation was that the first
2132:
2057:
1957:
1869:
1130:
1080:
982:
795:
140:
Indirect cycling involves thermal exchange outside of the core with compressor air being sent to a
55:
20:
596:
455:
2193:
2087:
2062:
1676:
1453:
977:
972:
967:
952:
296:
215:
186:
148:
2045:
1952:
992:
841:
19:
This article is about the U.S. Air Force program. For aircraft powered by nuclear energy, see
1982:
1937:
1399:
1327:
1070:
829:
222:
760:
Nuclear flight; the United States Air Force programs for atomic jets, missiles, and rockets.
758:
1932:
1917:
1227:
325:
277:
644:
Scott, D.; Alwang, G.W.; Demski, E.F.; Fader, W.J.; Sandin, E.V.; Malenfant, R.E. (1958).
8:
2067:
1852:
1446:
1314:
1293:
997:
868:
207:
1972:
1809:
1736:
1547:
1033:
924:
869:
COMPREHENSHIVE TECHNICAL REPORT GE DIRECT AIR CYCLE AIRCRAFT NUCLEAR PROPULSION PROGRAM
159:. The Indirect Cycle program never came anywhere near producing flight-ready hardware.
147:
The Indirect Air Cycle program was assigned to Pratt & Whitney, at a facility near
103:
71:
1304:
1192:
849:
774:
555:
469:
249:
245:
233:
199:
886:
1261:
1187:
1182:
1049:
1023:
882:
425:
67:
836:
with illustrations on the subject of using an atomic reactor to power an aircraft.
645:
619:
2050:
2010:
1464:
366:
357:
Technological competition with the Soviet Union (as represented by the launch of
237:
211:
190:
26:
1542:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1745:
1652:
1621:
1603:
1151:
947:
445:
300:
141:
125:
118:
107:
2025:
2167:
1481:
1217:
1212:
1161:
1028:
962:
575:
522:
419:
413:
194:
1756:
1232:
1222:
1105:
957:
646:
A zero power reflector-moderated reactor experiment at elevated temperature
229:
203:
111:
712:
Atlas. (n.d.). The History of Flight. Retrieved January 16, 2016, from
329:
horizontally-oriented control rods as appropriate for use in an airframe.
1814:
1404:
1156:
282:
257:
75:
874:
304:
reactor over West Texas and Southern New Mexico. The reactor, named the
1520:
819:
122:
778:
741:
http://moltensalt.org/references/static/downloads/pdf/ORNL-TM-0728.pdf
240:(BeO), and had a peak temperature of 860 °C. A redundant liquid
1525:
1515:
893:
358:
265:. The ARE was operated at power for 221 hours up to a peak of 2.5 MW
152:
2020:
416:
to develop nuclear powered ramjet engines for use in cruise missiles
1894:
1889:
1829:
1498:
1426:
1409:
1394:
1369:
727:
http://moltensalt.org/references/static/downloads/pdf/ORNL-2796.pdf
714:
http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Atlas.htm
156:
552:
The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer
210:(MSR) to be built and operated. It used the molten fluoride salt
2035:
2015:
1414:
1389:
1065:
292:
129:
106:. The air gained from the compressor section would be sent to a
1824:
1819:
1799:
1779:
1764:
1647:
1384:
1364:
1332:
1166:
497:
402:
253:
241:
91:
1861:
1717:
1510:
1374:
1018:
408:
1722:
1611:
1421:
1379:
1695:
1559:
1075:
316:
295:
a contract to fly a nuclear reactor on board a modified
679:"The Future Role of Nuclear Propulsion in the Military"
343:
863:
SOVÄ°ET TOP SECRET NUCLEAR AIRPLANE M-60 Akademi Portal
643:
523:"Review of Manned Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Program"
324:
As part of the AEC/USAF ANP program, in 1956 modified
162:
1291:
788:
Dreams of Nuclear Flight — The NEPA and ANP programs
651:(Report). Oak Ridge National Laboratory. ORNL-2536.
311:
74:. The program was intended to develop and test the
30:HTRE-2, left, and HTRE-3, right, on display at the
405:, 1955 USAF requirement for nuclear powered bomber
299:under the MX-1589 project of the ANP program. The
589:"Aeronautics and Astronautics Chronology 1950–54"
117:The General Electric program, which was based at
2165:
502:The Decay of the Atomic Powered Aircraft Program
454:, Washington, DC, pp. 49–63, archived from
70:, and Indirect Air Cycle, which was assigned to
167:
1948:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
1277:
943:Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion
909:
831:A Scientist Preview The First Atomic Airplane
554:Springer Science & Business Media, 1994,
48:Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft
848:, St. Martin's Publishing, pp. 109–12,
478:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
281:The NB-36H in a test flight, shadowed by a
2128:
1284:
1270:
916:
902:
576:http://www.megazone.org/ANP/politics.shtml
474:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
875:“Flyable” Reactors & Neutron Coupling
686:NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence
676:
2184:1946 establishments in the United States
1860:
530:Comptroller General of the United States
315:
276:
95:Aircraft Reactor Experiment building at
90:
25:
2199:Projects of the United States Air Force
865:by Akademi Portal web site (in English)
768:
504:. Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 1993
492:
490:
291:On September 5, 1951, the USAF awarded
2166:
1875:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
923:
839:
815:The Bureau of Atomic Tourism, archived
110:that directs the air into the nuclear
56:nuclear propulsion system for aircraft
1880:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
1265:
897:
827:
773:, US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC),
756:
263:temperature coefficient of reactivity
193:experiment designed to attain a high
135:
1111:Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System
670:
658:from the original on 24 January 2022
617:
570:
568:
487:
444:
344:Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Reactor-1
244:coolant system was used to cool the
1885:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1147:Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program
763:, New York, Duell, Sloan and Pearce
586:
422:to develop a nuclear thermal rocket
398:Georgia Nuclear Aircraft Laboratory
372:intercontinental ballistic missiles
86:
13:
1694:
272:
206:adversary. The ARE was the first
163:Experimental Reactors and Projects
14:
2210:
750:
565:
312:Heat Transfer Reactor Experiments
2148:
2147:
2138:
2137:
2127:
2118:
2117:
1968:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
1246:
1245:
393:List of nuclear-powered aircraft
732:
719:
706:
352:
1958:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
840:Martin, Richard (2012-05-08),
637:
611:
580:
544:
515:
438:
381:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
334:Experimental Breeder Reactor I
54:) project worked to develop a
32:Experimental Breeder Reactor I
1:
431:
363:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
236:by a hexagonal-configuration
97:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
60:United States Army Air Forces
1758:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
306:Aircraft Shield Test Reactor
46:) program and the preceding
7:
2105:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
386:
180:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
174:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
168:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
40:Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion
10:
2215:
1943:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
171:
18:
2113:
2080:
2068:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
1981:
1963:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
1928:
1911:
1851:
1778:
1770:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
1744:
1735:
1687:
1667:
1620:
1602:
1558:
1463:
1445:
1313:
1300:
1241:
1205:
1183:Tupolev Tu-95LAL / Tu-119
1175:
1139:
1126:
1119:
1101:Nuclear marine propulsion
1093:
1058:
1042:
1006:
988:Nuclear salt-water rocket
938:
931:
769:Thorton, G (1962-06-28),
338:Idaho National Laboratory
2174:Nuclear-powered aircraft
2133:List of nuclear reactors
1973:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
1589:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
1131:Nuclear-powered aircraft
983:Nuclear pulse propulsion
887:2027/uiug.30112065524198
252:materials. A secondary
81:
64:Atomic Energy Commission
21:Nuclear-powered aircraft
2123:Nuclear fusion reactors
2088:Organic nuclear reactor
1294:nuclear fission reactor
978:Nuclear photonic rocket
973:Nuclear electric rocket
968:Gas core reactor rocket
953:Fission-fragment rocket
757:Gantz, Kenneth (1960),
297:Convair B-36 Peacemaker
228:(53-41-6 mol%) as
149:Middletown, Connecticut
2189:1961 disestablishments
993:Nuclear thermal rocket
828:Wendt, Gerald (1951),
794:, Wisc, archived from
677:TrakimaviÄŤius, Lukas.
532:. B-146759. 1963-02-28
321:
288:
99:
35:
16:U.S. project 1946–1961
1071:TOPAZ nuclear reactor
326:General Electric J47s
319:
280:
94:
29:
1953:Traveling-wave (TWR)
1437:Supercritical (SCWR)
1228:Ford Seattle-ite XXI
625:. Idaho National Lab
446:Emme, Eugene M, comp
2179:Science experiments
1323:Aqueous homogeneous
998:Radioisotope rocket
550:Alvin M. Weinberg,
208:molten salt reactor
202:to a nuclear-armed
200:strategic deterrent
104:combustion chambers
72:Pratt & Whitney
2143:Nuclear technology
1034:Project Prometheus
925:Nuclear propulsion
618:McCusker, Thomas.
587:Launius, Roger D.
322:
289:
182:(ARE) was a 2.5 MW
178:The United States
136:Indirect Air Cycle
100:
36:
2161:
2160:
2153:Nuclear accidents
2076:
2075:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1847:
1846:
1731:
1730:
1663:
1662:
1259:
1258:
1201:
1200:
1193:9M730 Burevestnik
1089:
1088:
367:President Kennedy
2206:
2151:
2150:
2141:
2140:
2131:
2130:
2121:
2120:
2063:Helium gas (GFR)
1926:
1925:
1921:
1858:
1857:
1742:
1741:
1692:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1456:
1286:
1279:
1272:
1263:
1262:
1249:
1248:
1188:Myasishchev M-60
1124:
1123:
1050:Project Daedalus
1024:Project Longshot
936:
935:
918:
911:
904:
895:
894:
890:
858:
835:
823:
818:, archived from
808:
807:
806:
800:
793:
781:
764:
744:
736:
730:
723:
717:
710:
704:
703:
701:
700:
694:
688:. Archived from
683:
674:
668:
667:
665:
663:
657:
650:
641:
635:
634:
632:
630:
624:
615:
609:
608:
606:
604:
595:. Archived from
584:
578:
572:
563:
548:
542:
541:
539:
537:
527:
519:
513:
512:
510:
509:
494:
485:
483:
473:
465:
464:
463:
442:
426:Tupolev Tu-95LAL
87:Direct Air Cycle
68:General Electric
2214:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2109:
2072:
1977:
1922:
1915:
1914:
1899:
1843:
1774:
1749:
1727:
1699:
1681:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1659:
1625:
1616:
1598:
1563:
1554:
1468:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1441:
1355:Natural fission
1309:
1308:
1296:
1290:
1260:
1255:
1237:
1197:
1171:
1135:
1115:
1085:
1054:
1038:
1002:
927:
922:
880:
856:
812:
804:
802:
798:
791:
785:
753:
748:
747:
737:
733:
724:
720:
711:
707:
698:
696:
692:
681:
675:
671:
661:
659:
655:
648:
642:
638:
628:
626:
622:
616:
612:
602:
600:
599:on 14 July 2019
593:www.hq.nasa.gov
585:
581:
573:
566:
549:
545:
535:
533:
525:
521:
520:
516:
507:
505:
496:
495:
488:
467:
466:
461:
459:
443:
439:
434:
389:
378:
355:
346:
336:parking lot at
314:
275:
273:MX-1589 project
268:
238:beryllium oxide
226:
219:
191:nuclear reactor
185:
176:
170:
165:
138:
89:
84:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2212:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2194:Atomic tourism
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2135:
2125:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
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2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1987:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1938:Integral (IFR)
1935:
1929:
1923:
1912:
1909:
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1905:
1904:
1901:
1900:
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1866:
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1841:
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1834:
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1827:
1822:
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1802:
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1501:
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1225:
1220:
1215:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1152:Convair NB-36H
1149:
1143:
1141:
1137:
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1918:fast-neutron
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1233:Simca Fulgur
1223:Ford Nucleon
1146:
1106:Nuclear navy
958:Fission sail
877:(in English)
871:(in English)
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820:the original
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796:the original
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356:
353:Cancellation
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331:
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305:
290:
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258:control rods
177:
146:
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116:
112:reactor core
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51:
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43:
39:
37:
2026:Superphénix
1853:Molten-salt
1805:VHTR (HTGR)
1582:HW BLWR 250
1548:R4 Marviken
1477:Pressurized
1447:Heavy water
1431:many others
1360:Pressurized
1315:Light water
1176:USSR/Russia
1157:Convair X-6
1094:Sea vessels
1059:USSR/Russia
536:20 February
283:Boeing B-50
76:Convair X-6
2168:Categories
1810:PBR (PBMR)
932:Spacecraft
805:2009-08-12
699:2021-10-15
662:28 October
560:1563963582
508:2008-11-05
498:"Megazone"
462:2008-11-05
432:References
189:-spectrum
153:turbopumps
126:compressor
123:jet engine
1862:Fluorides
1526:IPHWR-700
1521:IPHWR-540
1516:IPHWR-220
1305:Moderator
1292:Types of
846:SuperFuel
834:(article)
359:Sputnik 1
250:reflector
246:moderator
234:moderated
157:radiators
1895:TMSR-LF1
1890:TMSR-500
1870:Fuji MSR
1830:THTR-300
1670:Graphite
1533:PHWR KWU
1499:ACR-1000
1427:IPWR-900
1410:ACPR1000
1405:HPR-1000
1395:CPR-1000
1370:APR-1400
1251:Category
1120:Aircraft
653:Archived
603:12 April
470:citation
448:(1961),
387:See also
383:(MSRE).
34:facility
2036:FBR-600
2016:CFR-600
2011:BN-1200
1677:coolant
1604:Organic
1489:CANDU 9
1486:CANDU 6
1454:coolant
1415:ACP1000
1390:CAP1400
1328:Boiling
1066:RD-0410
779:1048124
375:a 30 MW
320:HTRE-3.
293:Convair
187:thermal
130:turbine
2081:Others
2021:Phénix
2006:BN-800
2001:BN-600
1996:BN-350
1825:HTR-PM
1820:HTR-10
1800:UHTREX
1765:Magnox
1760:(UNGG)
1653:Lucens
1648:KS 150
1385:ATMEA1
1365:AP1000
1348:Kerena
1206:Ground
1167:WS-125
852:
777:
629:6 July
558:
403:WS-125
301:NB-36H
254:helium
242:sodium
232:, was
204:Soviet
108:plenum
58:. The
2098:Piqua
2093:Arbus
2051:PRISM
1793:MHR-T
1788:GTMHR
1718:EGP-6
1713:AMB-X
1688:Water
1633:HWGCR
1572:HWLWR
1511:IPHWR
1482:CANDU
1343:ESBWR
1019:NERVA
842:"ANP"
799:(PDF)
792:(PDF)
693:(PDF)
682:(PDF)
656:(PDF)
649:(PDF)
623:(PDF)
562:p.106
526:(PDF)
409:NERVA
82:Types
2058:Lead
2041:CEFR
2031:PFBR
1913:None
1723:RBMK
1708:AM-1
1638:EL-4
1612:WR-1
1594:AHWR
1538:MZFR
1506:CVTR
1495:AFCR
1422:VVER
1380:APWR
1375:APR+
1338:ABWR
850:ISBN
775:OSTI
664:2020
631:2019
605:2018
556:ISBN
538:2020
480:link
476:link
248:and
230:fuel
155:and
128:and
52:NEPA
38:The
2046:PFR
1837:PMR
1815:AVR
1737:Gas
1675:by
1643:KKN
1577:ATR
1492:EC6
1452:by
1400:EPR
1333:BWR
1081:TEM
1076:TMK
883:hdl
216:ZrF
212:NaF
44:ANP
2170::
1780:He
1746:CO
1622:CO
1543:R3
1140:US
1043:UK
1007:US
844:,
684:.
591:.
567:^
528:.
500:.
489:^
472:}}
468:{{
377:th
340:.
269:.
267:th
223:UF
184:th
1920:)
1916:(
1748:2
1700:O
1698:2
1696:H
1624:2
1564:O
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1469:O
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1465:D
1285:e
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225:4
221:-
218:4
214:-
50:(
42:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
