247:
equipped with a four-wheel design, utilised an internal combustion engine (ICE) fuelled by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases. The hydrogen fuel was stored in a balloon, and ignition was achieved through an electrical starter known as a Volta starter. The combustion process propelled the piston within the cylinder, which, upon descending, activated a wheel through a ratchet mechanism. This invention could be viewed as an early embodiment of a system comprising hydrogen storage, conduits, valves, and a conversion device.
260:
228:(NaOH) at 25-40 wt% is used. These electrodes are separated by a diaphragm, separating the product gases and transporting the hydroxide ions (OH) from one electrode to the other. A recent comparison showed that state-of-the-art nickel based water electrolysers with alkaline electrolytes lead to competitive or even better efficiencies than acidic
299:. In cell tests the best performing electrodes thus far reported consisted of plasma vacuum sprayed Ni alloys on Ni meshes and hot dip galvanized Ni meshes. The latter approach might be interesting for large scale industrial manufacturing as it is cheap and easily scalable, but unfortunately, all the strategies show some degradation.
1064:
267:
The electrodes are typically separated by a thin porous foil, commonly referred to as diaphragm or separator. The diaphragm is non-conductive to electrons, thus avoiding electrical shorts between the electrodes while allowing small distances between the electrodes. The ionic conductivity is supplied
1608:
246:
Hydrogen-based technologies have evolved significantly since the initial discovery of hydrogen and its early application as a buoyant gas approximately 250 years ago. In 1804, the Swiss inventor
Francois Isaac de Rivaz secured a patent for the inaugural hydrogen-powered vehicle. This prototype,
250:
Approximately four decades after the military scientist Ritter developed the first electrolyser, the chemists
Schoenbein and Sir Grove independently identified and showcased the fuel cell concept. This technology operates in reverse to electrolysis around the year 1839. This discovery marked a
287:
Typically, Nickel based metals are used as the electrodes for alkaline water electrolysis. Considering pure metals, Ni is the least active non-noble metal. The high price of good noble metal electrocatalysts such as platinum group metals and their dissolution during the oxygen evolution is a
1673:
One disadvantage of alkaline water electrolysers is the low-performance profiles caused by the commonly-used thick diaphragms that increase ohmic resistance, the lower intrinsic conductivity of OH− compared to H+, and the higher gas crossover observed for highly porous diaphragms.
517:
1426:
312:
In alkaline media oxygen evolution reactions, multiple adsorbent species (O, OH, OOH, and OO) and multiple steps are involved. Steps 4 and 5 often occur in a single step, but there is evidence that suggests steps 4 and 5 occur separately at pH 11 and higher.
1207:
766:
636:
1932:
Chatenet, Marian; Pollet, Bruno G.; Dekel, Dario R.; Dionigi, Fabio; Deseure, Jonathan; Millet, Pierre; Braatz, Richard D.; Bazant, Martin Z.; Eikerling, Michael; Staffell, Iain; Balcombe, Paul; Shao-Horn, Yang; Schäfer, Helmut (2022).
919:
284:. The diaphragm further avoids the mixing of the produced hydrogen and oxygen at the cathode and anode, respectively. The thickness of asbestos diaphragms ranges from 2 to 5 mm, while Zirfon diaphragms range from 0.2 to 0.5 mm.
876:
1470:
381:
2374:
Cherevko, S; et al. (2016). "Oxygen and hydrogen evolution reactions on Ru, RuO2, Ir, and IrO2 thin film electrodes in acidic and alkaline electrolytes: A comparative study on activity and stability".
1291:
422:
1334:
1109:
The hydrogen evolution reaction in alkaline conditions starts with water adsorption and dissociation in the Volmer step and either hydrogen desorption in the Tafel step or
Heyrovsky step.
288:
drawback. Ni is considered as more stable during the oxygen evolution, but stainless steel has shown good stability and better catalytic activity than Ni at high temperatures during the
1118:
677:
2507:
Esfandiari, N; et al. (2024). "Metal-based cathodes for hydrogen production by alkaline water electrolysis: Review of materials, degradation mechanism, and durability tests".
1638:
1456:
1320:
1236:
1094:
905:
795:
665:
546:
410:
558:
1059:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +{\frac {1}{2}}\mathrm {O} _{2}+2\mathrm {e} ^{-}\quad (E^{0}=+0.40\,\mathrm {V\;vs.\;SHE} )}
272:
diaphragms have been used for a long time due to their effective gas separation, low cost, and high chemical stability; however, their use is restricted by the
2148:
2445:
Schiller, G; Henne R; Mohr P; Peinecke V (1998). "High
Performance Electrodes for an Advanced Intermittently Operated 10-kW Alkaline Water Electrolyzer".
1603:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +2\mathrm {e} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}+2\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\quad (E^{0}=-0.83\,\mathrm {V\;vs.\;SHE} )}
807:
321:
295:
High surface area Ni catalysts can be achieved by dealloying of Nickel-Zinc or Nickel-Aluminium alloys in alkaline solution, commonly referred to as
2472:
Schalenbach, M; et al. (2018). "An alkaline water electrolyzer with nickel electrodes enables efficient high current density operation".
235:
The technology has a long history in the chemical industry. The first large-scale demand for hydrogen emerged in late 19th century for
229:
1249:
2093:
Zeng, Kai; Zhang, Dongke (June 2010). "Recent progress in alkaline water electrolysis for hydrogen production and applications".
1767:
David, Martín; Ocampo-Martínez, Carlos; Sánchez-Peña, Ricardo (June 2019). "Advances in alkaline water electrolyzers: A review".
251:
significant milestone in the field of hydrogen technology, demonstrating the potential for hydrogen as a source of clean energy.
2402:
Schiller, G; Henne R; Borock V (1995). "Vacuum Plasma
Spraying of High-Performance Electrodes for Alkaline Water Electrolysis".
2543:
2132:
2072:
1651:
512:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OH} ^{*}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {O} ^{*}+\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
17:
1421:{\displaystyle \mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +\mathrm {H} ^{*}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}}
263:
Scheme of alkaline water electrolyzers. The catalysts are added to the anode and cathode to reduce the overpotential.
2152:
2125:
Electrochemical Power
Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications: Hydrogen Production by Water Electrolysis
2216:
Haug, P; Koj M; Turek T (2017). "Influence of process conditions on gas purity in alkaline water electrolysis".
2176:"Hydrogen Diffusivity and Electrolyte Permeability of the Zirfon PERL Separator for Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
1202:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +2\mathrm {e} ^{-}\rightarrow 2\mathrm {H} ^{*}+2\mathrm {OH} ^{-}}
761:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OOH} ^{*}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {OO} ^{-*}+\mathrm {H} _{2}\mathrm {O} }
2561:"The importance of nickel oxyhydroxide deprotonation on its activity towards electrochemical water oxidation"
1935:"Water electrolysis: from textbook knowledge to the latest scientific strategies and industrial developments"
289:
2706:
1658:
Cheaper catalysts with respect to the platinum metal group based catalysts used for PEM water electrolysis.
2686:
2339:
Schalenbach, M; et al. (2018). "The electrochemical dissolution of noble metals in alkaline media".
1691:
Divisek, J.; Schmitz, H. (1 January 1982). "A bipolar cell for advanced alkaline water electrolysis".
2701:
2691:
1615:
1433:
1297:
1213:
1071:
882:
772:
642:
523:
387:
1839:
Carmo, M; Fritz D; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
631:{\displaystyle \mathrm {O} ^{*}+\mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {OOH} ^{*}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
1661:
Higher durability due to an exchangeable electrolyte and lower dissolution of anodic catalyst.
2696:
2244:
2626:
2411:
1982:
1886:
1731:
273:
8:
221:
2630:
2415:
2245:"Recent Advances in Non-Precious Metal-Based Electrodes for Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
1890:
1735:
2657:
2614:
2587:
2560:
2489:
2427:
2356:
2316:
2291:
2272:
2198:
2064:
2030:
2009:"Acidic or Alkaline? Towards a New Perspective on the Efficiency of Water Electrolysis"
1959:
1934:
1909:
1874:
1794:
1749:
2615:"Comparative Analysis of Energy and Exergy Performance of Hydrogen Production Methods"
2458:
2662:
2644:
2592:
2539:
2493:
2431:
2360:
2321:
2276:
2264:
2175:
2128:
2068:
2052:
1964:
1914:
1798:
1753:
1704:
2202:
2034:
2008:
2652:
2634:
2582:
2572:
2516:
2485:
2481:
2454:
2419:
2384:
2348:
2311:
2303:
2256:
2229:
2225:
2190:
2102:
2060:
2020:
1954:
1946:
1904:
1894:
1852:
1848:
1784:
1776:
1739:
1700:
225:
2520:
871:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OO} ^{-*}\rightarrow \mathrm {O} _{2(g)}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
268:
by the aqueous alkaline solution, which penetrates in the pores of the diaphragm.
236:
2388:
240:
2106:
1744:
1719:
376:{\displaystyle \mathrm {OH} ^{-}\rightarrow \mathrm {OH} ^{*}+\mathrm {e} ^{-}}
2352:
1780:
1720:"An overview of water electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production"
259:
2680:
2648:
2268:
2666:
2596:
2325:
2260:
1968:
1918:
296:
213:
2194:
2025:
2007:
Schalenbach, M; Tjarks G; Carmo M; Lueke W; Mueller M; Stolten D (2016).
281:
2307:
1664:
Higher gas purity due to lower gas diffusivity in alkaline electrolytes.
2577:
2559:
Diaz-Morales, Oscar; Ferrus-Suspedra, David; Koper, Marc T. M. (2016).
2423:
1950:
1899:
1789:
217:
2639:
1101:
Where the * indicate species adsorbed to the surface of the catalyst.
276:. The state-of-the-art diaphragm is Zirfon, a composite material of
220:
operating in a liquid alkaline electrolyte. Commonly, a solution of
54:
NiO/Asbestos/polysulfone matrix and ZrO2 (Zirfon)/polyphenil sulfide
1875:"Non-Precious Electrodes for Practical Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
277:
269:
2289:
2006:
2558:
1766:
1645:
2444:
2613:
Martínez-Rodríguez, Angel; Abánades, Alberto (November 2020).
1838:
1654:, the advantages of alkaline water electrolysis are mainly:
1286:{\displaystyle 2\mathrm {H} ^{*}\rightarrow \mathrm {H} _{2}}
2292:"Volcano plots in hydrogen electrocatalysis–uses and abuses"
2173:
2612:
1931:
2401:
2332:
2167:
1618:
1473:
1436:
1337:
1300:
1252:
1216:
1121:
1074:
922:
885:
810:
775:
680:
645:
561:
526:
425:
390:
324:
2290:
Quaino, P; Juarez F; Santos E; Schmickler W (2014).
1632:
1602:
1450:
1420:
1314:
1285:
1230:
1201:
1088:
1058:
899:
870:
789:
760:
659:
630:
540:
511:
404:
375:
232:with platinum group metal based electrocatalysts.
2500:
2465:
2678:
2243:Zhou, Daojin; Li, Pengsong; et al. (2020).
2215:
2536:Electrochemical methods for hydrogen production
2118:
2116:
1718:Shiva Kumar, S.; Lim, Hankwon (November 2022).
230:polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis
2000:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1717:
1690:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1646:Advantages compared to PEM water electrolysis
243:in the 1930s, the technique was competitive.
2438:
2395:
2367:
2113:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
2471:
2338:
2174:Schalenbach, M; Lueke W; Stolten D (2016).
1859:
2506:
2283:
1586:
1576:
1042:
1032:
254:
2656:
2638:
2586:
2576:
2538:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
2527:
2315:
2095:Progress in Energy and Combustion Science
2092:
2024:
1958:
1925:
1908:
1898:
1805:
1788:
1743:
1571:
1027:
2474:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
2447:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
2373:
2218:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
2209:
2149:"AGFA Zirfon Perl Product Specification"
2122:
2086:
1988:. Energy Carriers and Conversion Systems
1693:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
258:
2057:Hydrogen Safety for Energy Applications
14:
2679:
2242:
2183:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
2050:
2013:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
2608:
2606:
2533:
1872:
1652:Proton exchange membrane electrolysis
2046:
2044:
216:that is characterized by having two
2404:Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
2296:Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology
1104:
302:
24:
2603:
2065:10.1016/b978-0-12-820492-4.00005-1
1593:
1590:
1587:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1538:
1535:
1517:
1502:
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1408:
1405:
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1375:
1360:
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1340:
1273:
1258:
1189:
1186:
1168:
1150:
1138:
1127:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1036:
1033:
1029:
994:
976:
957:
946:
931:
928:
858:
834:
816:
813:
754:
743:
725:
722:
707:
704:
689:
686:
683:
618:
603:
600:
597:
582:
579:
564:
499:
490:
479:
464:
449:
446:
431:
428:
363:
348:
345:
330:
327:
160:Specific energy consumption system
25:
2718:
2041:
1873:Colli, A.N.; et al. (2019).
307:
152:Specific energy consumption stack
99:State-of-the-art Operating Ranges
75:Catalyst material on the cathode
59:Bipolar/separator plate material
2552:
2236:
2141:
1668:
1633:{\displaystyle \left(10\right)}
1548:
1004:
290:Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER)
176:System hydrogen production rate
2486:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.04.219
2230:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.12.111
1975:
1853:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
1760:
1711:
1684:
1597:
1549:
1512:
1451:{\displaystyle \left(9\right)}
1385:
1315:{\displaystyle \left(8\right)}
1268:
1231:{\displaystyle \left(7\right)}
1160:
1089:{\displaystyle \left(6\right)}
1053:
1005:
941:
900:{\displaystyle \left(5\right)}
848:
842:
829:
790:{\displaystyle \left(4\right)}
717:
660:{\displaystyle \left(3\right)}
592:
541:{\displaystyle \left(2\right)}
459:
405:{\displaystyle \left(1\right)}
340:
67:Catalyst material on the anode
13:
1:
2521:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2024.101254
2509:Progress in Materials Science
2459:10.1016/S0360-3199(97)00122-5
2059:, Elsevier, pp. 25–115,
1983:"Alkaline Water Electrolysis"
1677:
2389:10.1016/j.cattod.2015.08.014
1705:10.1016/0360-3199(82)90018-0
7:
239:, and before the advent of
210:Alkaline water electrolysis
192:Acceptable degradation rate
51:Style of membrane/diaphragm
46:Alkaline Water Electrolysis
33:Alkaline water electrolysis
10:
2723:
2107:10.1016/j.pecs.2009.11.002
1841:Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1745:10.1016/j.egyr.2022.10.127
1467:Overall cathode reaction:
2353:10.1007/s12678-017-0438-y
1781:10.1016/j.est.2019.03.001
1769:Journal of Energy Storage
237:lighter-than-air aircraft
199:
191:
183:
175:
167:
159:
151:
143:
135:
127:
119:
111:
103:
98:
90:
82:
74:
66:
58:
50:
42:
37:
32:
1939:Chemical Society Reviews
916:Overall anode reaction:
2053:"Hydrogen technologies"
2051:Jordan, Thomas (2022),
255:Structure and materials
168:Cell voltage efficiency
2261:10.1002/cnma.202000010
2123:Smolinka, Tom (2021).
1634:
1604:
1452:
1422:
1316:
1287:
1232:
1203:
1090:
1060:
901:
872:
791:
762:
661:
632:
542:
513:
406:
377:
264:
2534:Scott, Keith (2020).
1635:
1605:
1453:
1423:
1317:
1288:
1233:
1204:
1091:
1061:
902:
873:
792:
763:
662:
633:
543:
514:
407:
378:
262:
43:Type of Electrolysis:
18:Alkaline electrolysis
2195:10.1149/2.1251613jes
2026:10.1149/2.0271611jes
1616:
1471:
1434:
1335:
1298:
1250:
1214:
1119:
1072:
920:
883:
808:
773:
678:
643:
559:
524:
423:
388:
322:
274:Rotterdam Convention
94:Stainless steel mesh
91:Cathode PTL material
27:Type of electrolyzer
2707:Hydrogen production
2631:2020Entrp..22.1286M
2480:(27): 11932–11938.
2416:1995JTST....4..185S
2308:10.3762/bjnano.5.96
2189:(14): F1480–F1488.
1891:2019Mate...12.1336C
1736:2022EnRep...813793S
222:potassium hydroxide
2687:Chemical processes
2578:10.1039/C5SC04486C
2424:10.1007/BF02646111
1951:10.1039/d0cs01079k
1900:10.3390/ma12081336
1630:
1600:
1448:
1418:
1312:
1283:
1228:
1199:
1086:
1056:
897:
868:
787:
758:
657:
628:
538:
509:
402:
373:
265:
83:Anode PTL material
2640:10.3390/e22111286
2545:978-1-78801-378-9
2224:(15): 9406–9418.
2134:978-0-12-819424-9
2074:978-0-12-820492-4
1945:(11): 4583–4762.
1650:In comparison to
1643:
1642:
1461:
1460:
1325:
1324:
1241:
1240:
1099:
1098:
972:
910:
909:
800:
799:
670:
669:
551:
550:
415:
414:
207:
206:
38:Typical Materials
16:(Redirected from
2714:
2702:Industrial gases
2692:Electrochemistry
2671:
2670:
2660:
2642:
2610:
2601:
2600:
2590:
2580:
2571:(4): 2639–2645.
2565:Chemical Science
2556:
2550:
2549:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2341:Electrocatalysis
2336:
2330:
2329:
2319:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2180:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2151:. Archived from
2145:
2139:
2138:
2120:
2111:
2110:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2048:
2039:
2038:
2028:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1987:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1912:
1902:
1870:
1857:
1856:
1836:
1803:
1802:
1792:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1747:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1688:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1629:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1561:
1560:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1511:
1510:
1505:
1493:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1447:
1427:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1417:
1416:
1411:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1369:
1368:
1363:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1331:Heyrovsky step:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1311:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1276:
1267:
1266:
1261:
1243:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1177:
1176:
1171:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1141:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1112:
1111:
1105:Cathode reaction
1095:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1085:
1065:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1017:
1016:
1003:
1002:
997:
985:
984:
979:
973:
965:
960:
955:
954:
949:
940:
939:
934:
912:
911:
906:
904:
903:
898:
896:
877:
875:
874:
869:
867:
866:
861:
852:
851:
837:
828:
827:
819:
802:
801:
796:
794:
793:
788:
786:
767:
765:
764:
759:
757:
752:
751:
746:
737:
736:
728:
716:
715:
710:
698:
697:
692:
672:
671:
666:
664:
663:
658:
656:
637:
635:
634:
629:
627:
626:
621:
612:
611:
606:
591:
590:
585:
573:
572:
567:
553:
552:
547:
545:
544:
539:
537:
518:
516:
515:
510:
508:
507:
502:
493:
488:
487:
482:
473:
472:
467:
458:
457:
452:
440:
439:
434:
417:
416:
411:
409:
408:
403:
401:
382:
380:
379:
374:
372:
371:
366:
357:
356:
351:
339:
338:
333:
316:
315:
303:Electrochemistry
226:sodium hydroxide
104:Cell temperature
30:
29:
21:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2611:
2604:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2532:
2528:
2505:
2501:
2470:
2466:
2443:
2439:
2400:
2396:
2377:Catalysis Today
2372:
2368:
2337:
2333:
2288:
2284:
2241:
2237:
2214:
2210:
2178:
2172:
2168:
2158:
2156:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2121:
2114:
2091:
2087:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2049:
2042:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1930:
1926:
1871:
1860:
1837:
1806:
1765:
1761:
1730:: 13793–13813.
1716:
1712:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1671:
1648:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1572:
1556:
1552:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1521:
1516:
1515:
1506:
1501:
1500:
1489:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1412:
1404:
1403:
1394:
1389:
1388:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1364:
1359:
1358:
1350:
1344:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1277:
1272:
1271:
1262:
1257:
1256:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1193:
1185:
1184:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1154:
1149:
1148:
1137:
1131:
1126:
1125:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1107:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1028:
1012:
1008:
998:
993:
992:
980:
975:
974:
964:
956:
950:
945:
944:
935:
927:
926:
921:
918:
917:
886:
884:
881:
880:
862:
857:
856:
838:
833:
832:
820:
812:
811:
809:
806:
805:
776:
774:
771:
770:
753:
747:
742:
741:
729:
721:
720:
711:
703:
702:
693:
682:
681:
679:
676:
675:
646:
644:
641:
640:
622:
617:
616:
607:
596:
595:
586:
578:
577:
568:
563:
562:
560:
557:
556:
527:
525:
522:
521:
503:
498:
497:
489:
483:
478:
477:
468:
463:
462:
453:
445:
444:
435:
427:
426:
424:
421:
420:
391:
389:
386:
385:
367:
362:
361:
352:
344:
343:
334:
326:
325:
323:
320:
319:
310:
305:
257:
241:steam reforming
200:System lifetime
144:Part-load range
120:Current density
86:Ti/Ni/zirconium
62:Stainless steel
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2720:
2710:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2673:
2672:
2602:
2551:
2544:
2526:
2499:
2464:
2453:(9): 761–765.
2437:
2394:
2366:
2347:(2): 153–161.
2331:
2282:
2255:(3): 336–355.
2235:
2208:
2166:
2140:
2133:
2112:
2101:(3): 307–326.
2085:
2073:
2040:
1999:
1974:
1924:
1858:
1804:
1759:
1724:Energy Reports
1710:
1699:(9): 703–710.
1682:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1611:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1540:
1537:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1459:
1458:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1429:
1415:
1410:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1342:
1323:
1322:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1293:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1239:
1238:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1209:
1196:
1191:
1188:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1106:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1067:
1055:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1001:
996:
991:
988:
983:
978:
971:
968:
963:
959:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
930:
925:
908:
907:
895:
892:
889:
878:
865:
860:
855:
850:
847:
844:
841:
836:
831:
826:
823:
818:
815:
798:
797:
785:
782:
779:
768:
756:
750:
745:
740:
735:
732:
727:
724:
719:
714:
709:
706:
701:
696:
691:
688:
685:
668:
667:
655:
652:
649:
638:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
602:
599:
594:
589:
584:
581:
576:
571:
566:
549:
548:
536:
533:
530:
519:
506:
501:
496:
492:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
448:
443:
438:
433:
430:
413:
412:
400:
397:
394:
383:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
347:
342:
337:
332:
329:
309:
308:Anode reaction
306:
304:
301:
256:
253:
205:
204:
201:
197:
196:
193:
189:
188:
185:
184:Lifetime stack
181:
180:
177:
173:
172:
169:
165:
164:
163:4.5-7.0 kWh/Nm
161:
157:
156:
155:4.2-5.9 kWh/Nm
153:
149:
148:
145:
141:
140:
137:
133:
132:
129:
125:
124:
121:
117:
116:
113:
112:Stack pressure
109:
108:
105:
101:
100:
96:
95:
92:
88:
87:
84:
80:
79:
76:
72:
71:
68:
64:
63:
60:
56:
55:
52:
48:
47:
44:
40:
39:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2719:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2609:
2607:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2547:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2335:
2327:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2286:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2170:
2155:on 2018-04-23
2154:
2150:
2144:
2136:
2130:
2126:
2119:
2117:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2076:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2045:
2036:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2019:(11): F3197.
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1984:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1928:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1763:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1714:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1683:
1675:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1612:
1610:
1583:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1543:
1530:
1527:
1522:
1507:
1497:
1494:
1484:
1474:
1465:
1464:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1430:
1428:
1413:
1400:
1395:
1380:
1370:
1365:
1355:
1345:
1329:
1328:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1294:
1278:
1263:
1253:
1245:
1244:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1210:
1194:
1181:
1178:
1173:
1163:
1155:
1145:
1142:
1132:
1122:
1115:Volmer step:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1102:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1068:
1066:
1039:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1009:
999:
989:
986:
981:
969:
966:
961:
951:
936:
923:
914:
913:
893:
890:
887:
879:
863:
853:
845:
839:
824:
821:
804:
803:
783:
780:
777:
769:
748:
738:
733:
730:
712:
699:
694:
674:
673:
653:
650:
647:
639:
623:
613:
608:
587:
574:
569:
555:
554:
534:
531:
528:
520:
504:
494:
484:
474:
469:
454:
441:
436:
419:
418:
398:
395:
392:
384:
368:
358:
353:
335:
318:
317:
314:
300:
298:
293:
291:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
261:
252:
248:
244:
242:
238:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
212:is a type of
211:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
136:Power density
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
107:60-80 °C
106:
102:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
36:
31:
19:
2697:Electrolysis
2625:(11): 1286.
2622:
2618:
2568:
2564:
2554:
2535:
2529:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2344:
2340:
2334:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2186:
2182:
2169:
2157:. Retrieved
2153:the original
2143:
2127:. Elsevier.
2124:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2078:, retrieved
2056:
2016:
2012:
2002:
1990:. Retrieved
1977:
1942:
1938:
1927:
1882:
1878:
1847:(12): 4901.
1844:
1840:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1672:
1669:Disadvantage
1649:
1466:
1330:
1246:Tafel step:
1108:
1100:
915:
311:
297:Raney nickel
294:
286:
266:
249:
245:
234:
214:electrolyser
209:
208:
187:<90,000 h
179:<760 Nm/h
171:62–82% (HHV)
128:Cell voltage
123:0.2-0.4 A/cm
2383:: 170–180.
2302:: 846–854.
2249:ChemNanoMat
1885:(8): 1336.
1790:2117/178519
1775:: 392–403.
282:Polysulfone
203:20-30 years
139:to 1.0 W/cm
2681:Categories
2515:: 101254.
2410:(2): 185.
2159:29 January
2080:2024-04-27
1992:19 October
1678:References
218:electrodes
195:<3 μV/h
131:1.8-2.40 V
115:<30 bar
2649:1099-4300
2494:103477803
2432:137144045
2361:104106046
2277:213442277
2269:2199-692X
1879:Materials
1799:140072936
1754:253141292
1566:−
1544:−
1513:→
1508:−
1414:−
1386:→
1381:−
1366:∗
1269:→
1264:∗
1195:−
1174:∗
1161:→
1156:−
1000:−
942:→
937:−
864:−
830:→
825:∗
822:−
734:∗
731:−
718:→
713:−
695:∗
624:−
609:∗
593:→
588:−
570:∗
505:−
470:∗
460:→
455:−
437:∗
369:−
354:∗
341:→
336:−
224:(KOH) or
2667:33287054
2597:28660036
2326:24991521
2203:55017229
2035:35846371
1969:35575644
1919:31022944
278:zirconia
270:Asbestos
70:Ni/Co/Fe
2658:7712718
2627:Bibcode
2619:Entropy
2588:5477031
2412:Bibcode
2317:4077405
1960:9332215
1910:6515460
1887:Bibcode
1732:Bibcode
78:Ni/C-Pt
2665:
2655:
2647:
2595:
2585:
2542:
2492:
2430:
2359:
2324:
2314:
2275:
2267:
2201:
2131:
2071:
2033:
1967:
1957:
1917:
1907:
1797:
1752:
147:20-40%
2490:S2CID
2428:S2CID
2357:S2CID
2273:S2CID
2199:S2CID
2179:(PDF)
2031:S2CID
1986:(PDF)
1795:S2CID
1750:S2CID
2663:PMID
2645:ISSN
2593:PMID
2540:ISBN
2322:PMID
2265:ISSN
2161:2019
2129:ISBN
2069:ISBN
1994:2014
1965:PMID
1915:PMID
1569:0.83
1025:0.40
280:and
2653:PMC
2635:doi
2583:PMC
2573:doi
2517:doi
2513:143
2482:doi
2455:doi
2420:doi
2385:doi
2381:262
2349:doi
2312:PMC
2304:doi
2257:doi
2226:doi
2191:doi
2187:163
2103:doi
2061:doi
2021:doi
2017:163
1955:PMC
1947:doi
1905:PMC
1895:doi
1849:doi
1785:hdl
1777:doi
1740:doi
1701:doi
2683::
2661:.
2651:.
2643:.
2633:.
2623:22
2621:.
2617:.
2605:^
2591:.
2581:.
2567:.
2563:.
2511:.
2488:.
2478:43
2476:.
2451:23
2449:.
2426:.
2418:.
2406:.
2379:.
2355:.
2343:.
2320:.
2310:.
2300:42
2298:.
2294:.
2271:.
2263:.
2251:.
2247:.
2222:42
2220:.
2197:.
2185:.
2181:.
2115:^
2099:36
2097:.
2067:,
2055:,
2043:^
2029:.
2015:.
2011:.
1963:.
1953:.
1943:51
1941:.
1937:.
1913:.
1903:.
1893:.
1883:12
1881:.
1877:.
1861:^
1845:38
1843:.
1807:^
1793:.
1783:.
1773:23
1771:.
1748:.
1738:.
1726:.
1722:.
1695:.
1624:10
292:.
2669:.
2637::
2629::
2599:.
2575::
2569:7
2548:.
2523:.
2519::
2496:.
2484::
2461:.
2457::
2434:.
2422::
2414::
2408:4
2391:.
2387::
2363:.
2351::
2345:9
2328:.
2306::
2279:.
2259::
2253:6
2232:.
2228::
2205:.
2193::
2163:.
2137:.
2109:.
2105::
2063::
2037:.
2023::
1996:.
1971:.
1949::
1921:.
1897::
1889::
1855:.
1851::
1801:.
1787::
1779::
1756:.
1742::
1734::
1728:8
1707:.
1703::
1697:7
1627:)
1621:(
1598:)
1594:E
1591:H
1588:S
1584:.
1581:s
1578:v
1574:V
1563:=
1558:0
1554:E
1550:(
1539:H
1536:O
1531:2
1528:+
1523:2
1518:H
1503:e
1498:2
1495:+
1491:O
1485:2
1480:H
1475:2
1445:)
1442:9
1439:(
1409:H
1406:O
1401:+
1396:2
1391:H
1376:e
1371:+
1361:H
1356:+
1352:O
1346:2
1341:H
1309:)
1306:8
1303:(
1279:2
1274:H
1259:H
1254:2
1225:)
1222:7
1219:(
1190:H
1187:O
1182:2
1179:+
1169:H
1164:2
1151:e
1146:2
1143:+
1139:O
1133:2
1128:H
1123:2
1083:)
1080:6
1077:(
1054:)
1050:E
1047:H
1044:S
1040:.
1037:s
1034:v
1030:V
1022:+
1019:=
1014:0
1010:E
1006:(
995:e
990:2
987:+
982:2
977:O
970:2
967:1
962:+
958:O
952:2
947:H
932:H
929:O
924:2
894:)
891:5
888:(
859:e
854:+
849:)
846:g
843:(
840:2
835:O
817:O
814:O
784:)
781:4
778:(
755:O
749:2
744:H
739:+
726:O
723:O
708:H
705:O
700:+
690:H
687:O
684:O
654:)
651:3
648:(
619:e
614:+
604:H
601:O
598:O
583:H
580:O
575:+
565:O
535:)
532:2
529:(
500:e
495:+
491:O
485:2
480:H
475:+
465:O
450:H
447:O
442:+
432:H
429:O
399:)
396:1
393:(
364:e
359:+
349:H
346:O
331:H
328:O
20:)
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