206:
479:
142:, can occasionally act on cellular mRNA. Transcripts are reverse transcribed to DNA and inserted into random place in the genome, creating retrogenes. Resulting sequence usually lack introns and often contain poly(A) sequences that are also integrated into the genome. Many retrogenes display changes in gene regulation in comparison to their parental gene sequences, which sometimes results in novel functions. Retrogenes can move between different chromosomes to shape chromosomal evolution.
107:
353:. Such detrimental mutations are likely to be lost from the population and will not be preserved or develop novel functions. However, many duplications are, in fact, not detrimental or beneficial, and these neutral sequences may be lost or may spread through the population through random fluctuations via
393:
if a homolog to a human gene can be found in the genome of that species, but only if the homolog is orthologous. If they are paralogs and resulted from a gene duplication event, their functions are likely to be too different. One or more copies of duplicated genes that constitute a gene family may be
196:
Polyploidy is also a well known source of speciation, as offspring, which have different numbers of chromosomes compared to parent species, are often unable to interbreed with non-polyploid organisms. Whole genome duplications are thought to be less detrimental than aneuploidy as the relative dosage
184:
After a whole genome duplication, there is a relatively short period of genome instability, extensive gene loss, elevated levels of nucleotide substitution and regulatory network rewiring. In addition, gene dosage effects play a significant role. Thus, most duplicates are lost within a short period,
126:
begins to copy the DNA. At some point during the replication process, the polymerase dissociates from the DNA and replication stalls. When the polymerase reattaches to the DNA strand, it aligns the replicating strand to an incorrect position and incidentally copies the same section more than once.
98:
that occurs during meiosis between misaligned homologous chromosomes. The chance of it happening is a function of the degree of sharing of repetitive elements between two chromosomes. The products of this recombination are a duplication at the site of the exchange and a reciprocal deletion. Ectopic
259:
of it have no deleterious effects to its host organism. If one copy of a gene experiences a mutation that affects its original function, the second copy can serve as a 'spare part' and continue to function correctly. Thus, duplicate genes accumulate mutations faster than a functional single-copy
232:
is on the order of 10 duplications/gene/generation, that is, in a population of 10 million worms, one will have a gene duplication per generation. This rate is two orders of magnitude greater than the spontaneous rate of point mutation per nucleotide site in this species. Older (indirect) studies
469:
Gene duplications can also be identified through the use of next-generation sequencing platforms. The simplest means to identify duplications in genomic resequencing data is through the use of paired-end sequencing reads. Tandem duplications are indicated by sequencing read pairs which map in
1007:
Whole-genome duplications are also frequent in cancers, detected in 30% to 36% of tumors from the most common cancer types. Their exact role in carcinogenesis is unclear, but they in some cases lead to loss of chromatin segregation leading to chromatin conformation changes that in turn lead to
192:
Rapid evolution and functional divergence have been observed at the level of the transcription of duplicated genes, usually by point mutations in short transcription factor binding motifs. Furthermore, rapid evolution of protein phosphorylation motifs, usually embedded within rapidly evolving
409:
Paralogs can be identified in single genomes through a sequence comparison of all annotated gene models to one another. Such a comparison can be performed on translated amino acid sequences (e.g. BLASTp, tBLASTx) to identify ancient duplications or on DNA nucleotide sequences (e.g. BLASTn,
336:
and performs two functions, often neither one of these two functions can be changed without affecting the other function. In this way, partitioning the ancestral functions into two separate genes can allow for adaptive specialization of subfunctions, thereby providing an adaptive benefit.
328:) or DDC (duplication-degeneration-complementation) model, in which the functionality of the original gene is distributed among the two copies. Neither gene can be lost, as both now perform important non-redundant functions, but ultimately neither is able to achieve novel functionality.
3096:
Quinton, Ryan J.; DiDomizio, Amanda; Vittoria, Marc A.; Kotýnková, Kristýna; Ticas, Carlos J.; Patel, Sheena; Koga, Yusuke; Vakhshoorzadeh, Jasmine; Hermance, Nicole; Kuroda, Taruho S.; Parulekar, Neha; Taylor, Alison M.; Manning, Amity L.; Campbell, Joshua D.; Ganem, Neil J. (2021).
153:
occurs when nondisjunction at a single chromosome results in an abnormal number of chromosomes. Aneuploidy is often harmful and in mammals regularly leads to spontaneous abortions (miscarriages). Some aneuploid individuals are viable, for example trisomy 21 in humans, which leads to
3038:
Bielski, Craig M.; Zehir, Ahmet; Penson, Alexander V.; Donoghue, Mark T. A.; Chatila, Walid; Armenia, Joshua; Chang, Matthew T.; Schram, Alison M.; Jonsson, Philip; Bandlamudi, Chaitanya; Razavi, Pedram; Iyer, Gopa; Robson, Mark E.; Stadler, Zsofia K.; Schultz, Nikolaus (2018).
603:. In such cases the genetic duplication occurs in a somatic cell and affects only the genome of the cancer cells themselves, not the entire organism, much less any subsequent offspring. Recent comprehensive patient-level classification and quantification of driver events in
193:
intrinsically disordered regions is another contributing factor for survival and rapid adaptation/neofunctionalization of duplicate genes. Thus, a link seems to exist between gene regulation (at least at the post-translational level) and genome evolution.
331:
Subfunctionalization can occur through neutral processes in which mutations accumulate with no detrimental or beneficial effects. However, in some cases subfunctionalization can occur with clear adaptive benefits. If an ancestral gene is
260:
gene, over generations of organisms, and it is possible for one of the two copies to develop a new and different function. Some examples of such neofunctionalization is the apparent mutation of a duplicated digestive gene in a family of
410:
megablast) to identify more recent duplications. Most studies to identify gene duplications require reciprocal-best-hits or fuzzy reciprocal-best-hits, where each paralog must be the other's single best match in a sequence comparison.
222:) in the genome of humans or fruit flies. However, it has been difficult to measure the rate at which such duplications occur. Recent studies yielded a first direct estimate of the genome-wide rate of gene duplication in
320:
Another possible fate for duplicate genes is that both copies are equally free to accumulate degenerative mutations, so long as any defects are complemented by the other copy. This leads to a neutral "
251:
Gene duplications are an essential source of genetic novelty that can lead to evolutionary innovation. Duplication creates genetic redundancy, where the second copy of the gene is often free from
185:
however, a considerable fraction of duplicates survive. Interestingly, genes involved in regulation are preferentially retained. Furthermore, retention of regulatory genes, most notably the
177:
during meiosis which results in additional copies of the entire genome. Polyploidy is common in plants, but it has also occurred in animals, with two rounds of whole genome duplication (
546:
Gene duplication does not necessarily constitute a lasting change in a species' genome. In fact, such changes often don't last past the initial host organism. From the perspective of
470:
abnormal orientations. Through a combination of increased sequence coverage and abnormal mapping orientation, it is possible to identify duplications in genomic sequencing data.
389:
It is important (but often difficult) to differentiate between paralogs and orthologs in biological research. Experiments on human gene function can often be carried out on other
445:
hybridization (array CGH), are used to detect chromosomal abnormalities, such as microduplications, in a high throughput fashion from genomic DNA samples. In particular, DNA
3929:
3660:
3162:
Lambuta, Ruxandra A.; Nanni, Luca; Liu, Yuanlong; Diaz-Miyar, Juan; Iyer, Arvind; Tavernari, Daniele; Katanayeva, Natalya; Ciriello, Giovanni; Oricchio, Elisa (2023-03-15).
2004:
Emerson JJ, Cardoso-Moreira M, Borevitz JO, Long M (June 2008). "Natural selection shapes genome-wide patterns of copy-number polymorphism in
Drosophila melanogaster".
3239:
520:
3717:
3742:
3692:
530:, which includes band names, symbols and abbreviated terms used in the description of human chromosome and chromosome abnormalities. Abbreviations include
103:
elements offer one source of repetitive DNA that can facilitate recombination, and they are often found at duplication breakpoints in plants and mammals.
3752:
99:
recombination is typically mediated by sequence similarity at the duplicate breakpoints, which form direct repeats. Repetitive genetic elements such as
3874:
3792:
3922:
3782:
3697:
17:
2451:
Kellis M, Birren BW, Lander ES (April 2004). "Proof and evolutionary analysis of ancient genome duplication in the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae".
429:
regions of a chromosome. Many LCRs, due to their size (>1Kb), similarity, and orientation, are highly susceptible to duplications and deletions.
1912:
Sebat J, Lakshmi B, Troge J, Alexander J, Young J, Lundin P, et al. (July 2004). "Large-scale copy number polymorphism in the human genome".
218:
Comparisons of genomes demonstrate that gene duplications are common in most species investigated. This is indicated by variable copy numbers (
158:. Aneuploidy often alters gene dosage in ways that are detrimental to the organism; therefore, it is unlikely to spread through populations.
3702:
4757:
3915:
3268:
1039:
3428:
1139:
486:
with annotated bands and sub-bands as used for the nomenclature of chromosome abnormalities. It shows dark and white regions as seen on
3797:
3762:
3712:
3707:
264:
into an antifreeze gene and duplication leading to a novel snake venom gene and the synthesis of 1 beta-hydroxytestosterone in pigs.
3737:
3687:
453:
levels of thousands of genes across many treatments or experimental conditions, greatly facilitating the evolutionary studies of
3732:
3637:
4747:
3757:
3308:
2106:"Spontaneous tandem genetic duplications in Salmonella typhimurium arise by unequal recombination between rRNA (rrn) cistrons"
3022:
2435:
2406:
1845:
Amoutzias, Grigoris D.; He, Ying; Gordon, Jonathan; Mossialos, Dimitris; Oliver, Stephen G.; Van de Peer, Yves (2010-02-16).
1738:"Nonrandom divergence of gene expression following gene and genome duplications in the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana"
2612:
Des Marais DL, Rausher MD (August 2008). "Escape from adaptive conflict after duplication in an anthocyanin pathway gene".
61:
machinery as well as through fortuitous capture by selfish genetic elements. Common sources of gene duplications include
535:
3232:
3614:
3601:
3624:
3339:
607:
cohorts revealed that there are on average 12 driver events per tumor, of which 1.5 are amplifications of oncogenes.
127:
Replication slippage is also often facilitated by repetitive sequences, but requires only a few bases of similarity.
2763:
Mao R, Pevsner J (2005). "The use of genomic microarrays to study chromosomal abnormalities in mental retardation".
3261:
2398:
880:
844:
840:
350:
2165:"Molecular spectrum of spontaneous de novo mutations in male and female germline cells of Drosophila melanogaster"
3421:
1170:"Retrogene Duplication and Expression Patterns Shaped by the Evolution of Sex Chromosomes in Malaria Mosquitoes"
1168:
Miller, Duncan; Chen, Jianhai; Liang, Jiangtao; Betrán, Esther; Long, Manyuan; Sharakhov, Igor V. (2022-05-28).
4583:
4178:
325:
279:(1970). Ohno argued that gene duplication is the most important evolutionary force since the emergence of the
1642:"Gene-balanced duplications, like tetraploidy, provide predictable drive to increase morphological complexity"
579:, or it can occur naturally, as described above. If it's a natural duplication, it can still take place in a
228:, the first multicellular eukaryote for which such as estimate became available. The gene duplication rate in
4719:
3655:
3501:
3488:
1106:
382:
genes present in different species which are each originally derived from the same ancestral sequence. (See
122:
is an error in DNA replication that can produce duplications of short genetic sequences. During replication
3406:
2905:"Comprehensive patient-level classification and quantification of driver events in TCGA PanCanAtlas cohorts"
2857:
2312:
Conant GC, Wolfe KH (December 2008). "Turning a hobby into a job: how duplicated genes find new functions".
4762:
4367:
4048:
506:
181:) in the vertebrate lineage leading to humans. It has also occurred in the hemiascomycete yeasts ~100 mya.
4053:
4287:
4043:
3254:
2263:"Inventing an arsenal: adaptive evolution and neofunctionalization of snake venom phospholipase A2 genes"
383:
398:
that causes significant variation between them in their sequence and finally may become responsible for
4752:
3772:
3414:
3395:
4588:
1345:"Proof and evolutionary analysis of ancient genome duplication in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
563:
2573:
345:
Often the resulting genomic variation leads to gene dosage dependent neurological disorders such as
4435:
4336:
4253:
2903:
Vyatkin, Alexey D.; Otnyukov, Danila V.; Leonov, Sergey V.; Belikov, Aleksey V. (14 January 2022).
2882:
1049:
2355:
Taylor JS, Raes J (2004). "Duplication and divergence: the evolution of new genes and old ideas".
4462:
4238:
3466:
3441:
3390:
3334:
1079:
1064:
604:
2665:"Genomic rearrangements and gene copy-number alterations as a cause of nervous system disorders"
2214:"Germline rates of de novo meiotic deletions and duplications causing several genomic disorders"
559:
417:(LCRs), rather highly repetitive sequences like transposable elements. They are mostly found in
4690:
4006:
3896:
3824:
2568:
990:
224:
3012:
1147:
4450:
4423:
4038:
3313:
3298:
2212:
Turner DJ, Miretti M, Rajan D, Fiegler H, Carter NP, Blayney ML, et al. (January 2008).
1963:
Iafrate AJ, Feuk L, Rivera MN, Listewnik ML, Donahoe PK, Qi Y, et al. (September 2004).
1084:
900:
495:
395:
219:
95:
62:
4026:
4394:
4389:
4265:
3869:
3583:
3445:
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3175:
3110:
2811:
2621:
2560:
2460:
2368:
2117:
2055:
Lipinski KJ, Farslow JC, Fitzpatrick KA, Lynch M, Katju V, Bergthorsson U (February 2011).
2013:
1921:
1858:
1736:
Casneuf, Tineke; De Bodt, Stefanie; Raes, Jeroen; Maere, Steven; Van de Peer, Yves (2006).
1598:
1535:
1356:
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1018:
865:
478:
321:
315:
246:
119:
78:
205:
8:
4630:
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between the homologs of gene duplicates due to less or no similarity in their sequences.
399:
252:
42:
3206:
3179:
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3114:
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2017:
1925:
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379:
371:
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3819:
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3139:
3098:
3073:
3040:
2931:
2904:
2800:"Rapid evolution of expression and regulatory divergences after yeast gene duplication"
2740:
2713:
2694:
2645:
2594:
2528:
2503:
2484:
2424:
2337:
2289:
2262:
2238:
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2081:
2056:
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1945:
1889:
1846:
1772:
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1445:
1388:
1325:
1255:
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1204:
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1029:
551:
547:
426:
418:
271:; this stance has been held by members of the scientific community for over 100 years.
3907:
2834:
2799:
2140:
2105:
1125:
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1986:
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1622:
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2916:
2829:
2819:
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2735:
2725:
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2578:
2551:
Stoltzfus A (August 1999). "On the possibility of constructive neutral evolution".
2523:
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1181:
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524:
414:
2649:
2519:
1610:
1465:"Functional partitioning of yeast co-expression networks after genome duplication"
4668:
4362:
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3592:
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135:
66:
54:
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2804:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2110:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1851:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1424:
1407:
1034:
930:
795:
502:
280:
261:
174:
123:
3099:"Whole-genome doubling confers unique genetic vulnerabilities on tumour cells"
3056:
2072:
1812:
1706:
41:) is a major mechanism through which new genetic material is generated during
4741:
4698:
4663:
4506:
4496:
4467:
4100:
4093:
3829:
3569:
3492:
3483:
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2502:
Force A, Lynch M, Pickett FB, Amores A, Yan YL, Postlethwait J (April 1999).
1880:
1820:
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1990:
1941:
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1722:
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1508:
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1384:
1344:
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1213:
1054:
835:
580:
527:
422:
100:
2504:"Preservation of duplicate genes by complementary, degenerative mutations"
2279:
2149:
1321:
1280:"Molecular evidence for an ancient duplication of the entire yeast genome"
1186:
534:
for duplications of parts of a chromosome. For example, dup(17p12) causes
110:
Schematic of a region of a chromosome before and after a duplication event
4709:
4575:
4523:
4518:
4031:
3836:
3747:
3609:
3349:
2390:
1691:"Do disparate mechanisms of duplication add similar genes to the genome?"
1044:
501:
chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two
438:
275:
was one of the most famous developers of this theory in his classic book
272:
53:. Gene duplications can arise as products of several types of errors in
3041:"Genome doubling shapes the evolution and prognosis of advanced cancers"
2633:
2472:
1547:
1368:
562:. Genetic amplification can occur artificially, as with the use of the
4617:
4612:
4565:
4558:
4553:
4538:
4533:
4374:
4309:
4058:
4000:
3848:
3665:
2776:
2582:
2229:
1658:
1641:
1074:
1059:
750:
491:
458:
446:
333:
284:
166:
150:
74:
70:
58:
3246:
3164:"Whole-genome doubling drives oncogenic loss of chromatin segregation"
4622:
4607:
4594:
4346:
4134:
3965:
3767:
3458:
2057:"High spontaneous rate of gene duplication in Caenorhabditis elegans"
669:
596:
512:
498:
487:
483:
303:
268:
2325:
1229:"Two rounds of whole genome duplication in the ancestral vertebrate"
4653:
4599:
4501:
4445:
4440:
4331:
4292:
4248:
4150:
3955:
3891:
3777:
3541:
3437:
2162:
1981:
1964:
1847:"Posttranslational regulation impacts the fate of duplicated genes"
804:
800:
587:
cell (which would be necessary for a lasting evolutionary change).
584:
571:
370:
The two genes that exist after a gene duplication event are called
256:
186:
106:
2765:
Mental
Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews
2003:
1304:
1279:
4635:
4513:
4297:
4282:
3985:
3960:
3787:
3095:
1343:
Kellis, Manolis; Birren, Bruce W.; Lander, Eric S. (2004-04-08).
965:
576:
442:
390:
375:
3241:
A brief overview of mutation, gene duplication and translocation
2163:
Watanabe Y, Takahashi A, Itoh M, Takano-Shimizu T (March 2009).
1524:"Dosage sensitivity and the evolution of gene families in yeast"
360:
4726:
4704:
4401:
4324:
4319:
4084:
3975:
3970:
3886:
2054:
600:
291:
4208:
4200:
4018:
3980:
3632:
1023:
945:
905:
870:
825:
775:
715:
690:
680:
665:
650:
299:
295:
288:
139:
2902:
4714:
4406:
3947:
2887:
2883:"HARCOT-MARIE-TOOTH DISEASE, DEMYELINATING, TYPE 1A; CMT1A"
1587:"The evolutionary fate and consequences of duplicate genes"
1522:
Papp, Balázs; Pál, Csaba; Hurst, Laurence D. (2003-07-10).
980:
970:
955:
920:
855:
815:
785:
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730:
654:
555:
287:
events can be quite common. It is believed that the entire
50:
3037:
1962:
1911:
1844:
432:
3161:
2211:
1008:
oncogenic epigenetic and transcriptional modifications.
995:
935:
890:
765:
705:
640:
567:
46:
1965:"Detection of large-scale variation in the human genome"
378:
with a similar function and/or structure. By contrast,
298:
are the most prolific genome duplicators. For example,
3937:
2501:
1735:
521:
International System for Human
Cytogenomic Nomenclature
233:
reported locus-specific duplication rates in bacteria,
45:. It can be defined as any duplication of a region of
1795:
Li, Wen-Hsiung; Yang, Jing; Gu, Xun (November 2005).
1167:
267:
Gene duplication is believed to play a major role in
2714:"Gene family evolution across 12 Drosophila genomes"
294:underwent duplication about 100 million years ago.
237:, and humans ranging from 10 to 10/gene/generation.
1689:Davis, Jerel C.; Petrov, Dmitri A. (October 2005).
402:. This may also render the chances and the rate of
365:
3006:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2990:
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2986:
2984:
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2976:
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2450:
2423:
1463:Conant, Gavin C.; Wolfe, Kenneth H. (April 2006).
1342:
3010:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2611:
1640:Freeling, Michael; Thomas, Brian C. (July 2006).
306:), meaning that it has six copies of its genome.
4739:
2880:
2348:
611:Common oncogene amplifications in human cancers
1797:"Expression divergence between duplicate genes"
1220:
2947:
2544:
1639:
27:Duplication of a gene sequence within a genome
3923:
3422:
3262:
3234:A bibliography on gene and genome duplication
1408:"The evolutionary consequences of polyploidy"
464:
361:Identifying duplications in sequenced genomes
2797:
2103:
1521:
1277:
1040:Gene amplification in Paramecium tetraurelia
84:
2444:
2311:
1688:
1584:
1462:
1278:Wolfe, K. H.; Shields, D. C. (1997-06-12).
213:
200:
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3429:
3415:
3269:
3255:
2762:
2711:
2495:
2354:
1226:
1107:"Evolution by gene duplication: an update"
449:technology can simultaneously monitor the
3205:
3187:
3138:
3072:
2930:
2920:
2833:
2823:
2739:
2729:
2712:Hahn MW, Han MV, Han SG (November 2007).
2680:
2662:
2605:
2572:
2550:
2527:
2415:
2383:
2288:
2278:
2237:
2188:
2139:
2129:
2080:
1980:
1888:
1870:
1771:
1753:
1657:
1498:
1480:
1423:
1303:
1254:
1244:
1203:
1185:
1146:. MedicineNet. 2012-03-19. Archived from
1098:
1794:
523:(ISCN) is an international standard for
477:
204:
197:of individual genes should be the same.
105:
94:Duplications arise from an event termed
89:
3276:
2798:Gu X, Zhang Z, Huang W (January 2005).
1585:Lynch, M.; Conery, J. S. (2000-11-10).
1104:
433:Genomic microarrays detect duplications
309:
240:
114:
14:
4740:
2862:Coriell Institute for Medical Research
2369:10.1146/annurev.genet.38.072902.092831
2305:
2254:
566:technique to amplify short strands of
3911:
3410:
3250:
2260:
1840:
1838:
130:
2858:"ISCN Symbols and Abbreviated Terms"
2705:
2426:Sex Chromosomes and Sex-linked Genes
2421:
2389:
1405:
599:are a common cause of many types of
490:. Each row is vertically aligned at
209:Evolutionary fate of duplicate genes
4758:Modification of genetic information
541:
24:
3498:Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite
2663:Lee JA, Lupski JR (October 2006).
1835:
1227:Dehal P, Boore JL (October 2005).
189:, has led to adaptive innovation.
25:
4779:
3340:Models of nucleotide substitution
3226:
3014:The genetic basis of human cancer
3011:Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B (2002).
1114:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
590:
384:Homology of sequences in genetics
18:Amplification (molecular biology)
1140:"Definition of Gene duplication"
441:, also called array comparative
413:Most gene duplications exist as
366:Criteria and single genome scans
3155:
3089:
3031:
2896:
2874:
2850:
2791:
2756:
2656:
2205:
2156:
2104:Anderson P, Roth J (May 1981).
2097:
2048:
1997:
1956:
1905:
1788:
1729:
1682:
1633:
1578:
554:is one of many ways in which a
473:
4584:Last universal common ancestor
4179:Defective interfering particle
3502:Trinucleotide repeat disorders
2553:Journal of Molecular Evolution
1515:
1456:
1399:
1336:
1271:
1161:
1132:
326:constructive neutral evolution
13:
1:
4748:Evolutionary biology concepts
4720:Clonally transmissible cancer
4156:Satellite-like nucleic acids
3489:Variable number tandem repeat
2395:Evolution by gene duplication
1611:10.1126/science.290.5494.1151
1406:Otto, Sarah P. (2007-11-02).
1126:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00033-8
1091:
437:Technologies such as genomic
277:Evolution by gene duplication
161:
145:
3017:. McGraw-Hill. p. 116.
2922:10.1371/journal.pgen.1009996
2731:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030197
2682:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.09.027
1482:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040109
1246:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030314
351:Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease
7:
2520:10.1093/genetics/151.4.1531
2181:10.1534/genetics.108.093385
1144:medterms medical dictionary
1011:
536:Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease
10:
4784:
4276:Class II or DNA transposon
4271:Class I or retrotransposon
3396:Nonsynonymous substitution
3189:10.1038/s41586-023-05794-2
3123:10.1038/s41586-020-03133-3
1425:10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.022
510:
465:Next generation sequencing
457:after gene duplication or
313:
244:
4646:
4589:Earliest known life forms
4574:
4487:
4463:Repeated sequences in DNA
4355:
4237:
4226:
4199:
4171:
4121:
4110:
4083:
4072:
4017:
3946:
3857:
3810:
3678:
3646:
3623:
3600:
3591:
3582:
3557:
3517:
3474:
3465:
3456:
3368:
3327:
3284:
3057:10.1038/s41588-018-0165-1
2357:Annual Review of Genetics
2261:Lynch VJ (January 2007).
2073:10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.026
1813:10.1016/j.tig.2005.08.006
1707:10.1016/j.tig.2005.07.008
964:
929:
864:
834:
794:
759:
724:
699:
634:
564:polymerase chain reaction
394:affected by insertion of
281:universal common ancestor
85:Mechanisms of duplication
4436:Endogenous viral element
4254:Horizontal gene transfer
2893:Updated : 4/23/2014
2314:Nature Reviews. Genetics
2267:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1050:Horizontal gene transfer
302:is hexaploid (a kind of
214:Rate of gene duplication
201:As an evolutionary event
171:whole genome duplication
4133:dsDNA satellite virus (
3391:Synonymous substitution
3335:Models of DNA evolution
2825:10.1073/pnas.0409186102
2026:10.1126/science.1158078
1934:10.1126/science.1098918
1872:10.1073/pnas.0911603107
1755:10.1186/gb-2006-7-2-r13
1080:Tandem exon duplication
1065:Mobile genetic elements
340:
35:chromosomal duplication
4691:Helper dependent virus
4007:Biological dark matter
3897:Protein tandem repeats
3825:Tandemly arrayed genes
2881:Cassandra L. Kniffin.
2131:10.1073/pnas.78.5.3113
991:Small cell lung cancer
516:
210:
111:
4451:Endogenous retrovirus
4424:Origin of replication
4140:ssDNA satellite virus
4130:ssRNA satellite virus
3314:Stabilizing selection
3299:Directional selection
2280:10.1186/1471-2148-7-2
1187:10.3390/genes13060968
1085:Unequal crossing over
901:Hepatocellular cancer
511:Further information:
481:
396:transposable elements
374:and usually code for
220:copy number variation
208:
109:
96:unequal crossing-over
90:Ectopic recombination
63:ectopic recombination
4395:Secondary chromosome
4390:Extrachromosomal DNA
4266:Transposable element
3870:Pathogenicity island
3304:Disruptive selection
1019:Comparative genomics
866:Head and neck cancer
507:mitochondrial genome
322:subfunctionalization
316:Subfunctionalization
310:Subfunctionalization
247:Neofunctionalization
241:Neofunctionalization
120:Replication slippage
115:Replication slippage
79:replication slippage
4763:Molecular evolution
4631:Model lipid bilayer
4473:Interspersed repeat
3369:Molecular processes
3294:Balancing selection
3278:Molecular evolution
3180:2023Natur.615..925L
3115:2021Natur.590..492Q
2816:2005PNAS..102..707G
2634:10.1038/nature07092
2626:2008Natur.454..762D
2565:1999JMolE..49..169S
2473:10.1038/nature02424
2465:2004Natur.428..617K
2430:. Springer-Verlag.
2122:1981PNAS...78.3113A
2018:2008Sci...320.1629E
1926:2004Sci...305..525S
1863:2010PNAS..107.2967A
1603:2000Sci...290.1151L
1597:(5494): 1151–1155.
1548:10.1038/nature01771
1540:2003Natur.424..194P
1369:10.1038/nature02424
1361:2004Natur.428..617K
1296:1997Natur.387..708W
1070:Molecular evolution
612:
494:level. It shows 22
400:divergent evolution
43:molecular evolution
3941:organic structures
3820:Gene amplification
3309:Negative selection
2777:10.1002/mrdd.20082
2583:10.1007/PL00006540
2230:10.1038/ng.2007.40
1801:Trends in Genetics
1695:Trends in Genetics
1659:10.1101/gr.3681406
1030:De novo gene birth
610:
552:gene amplification
548:molecular genetics
517:
509:(at bottom left).
347:Rett-like syndrome
285:genome duplication
253:selective pressure
211:
131:Retrotransposition
112:
67:retrotransposition
39:gene amplification
4753:Genetics concepts
4735:
4734:
4676:Non-cellular life
4483:
4482:
4222:
4221:
4195:
4194:
4149:ssRNA satellite (
3905:
3904:
3806:
3805:
3674:
3673:
3578:
3577:
3467:Repeated sequence
3442:repeated sequence
3404:
3403:
3286:Natural selection
3174:(7954): 925–933.
3109:(7846): 492–497.
3024:978-0-07-137050-9
2437:978-91-554-5776-1
2422:Ohno, S. (1967).
2408:978-0-04-575015-3
2012:(5883): 1629–31.
1534:(6945): 194–197.
1355:(6983): 617–624.
1290:(6634): 708–713.
1004:
1003:
761:Esophageal cancer
726:Colorectal cancer
505:, as well as the
16:(Redirected from
4775:
4412:Gene duplication
4235:
4234:
4231:self-replication
4119:
4118:
4081:
4080:
3939:Self-replicating
3932:
3925:
3918:
3909:
3908:
3882:Low copy repeats
3875:Symbiosis island
3812:Gene duplication
3598:
3597:
3589:
3588:
3472:
3471:
3450:gene duplication
3431:
3424:
3417:
3408:
3407:
3381:Gene duplication
3345:Allele frequency
3271:
3264:
3257:
3248:
3247:
3220:
3219:
3209:
3191:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3142:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3076:
3051:(8): 1189–1195.
3035:
3029:
3028:
3008:
2945:
2944:
2934:
2924:
2900:
2894:
2892:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2837:
2827:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2743:
2733:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2684:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2576:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2459:(6983): 617–24.
2448:
2442:
2441:
2429:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2292:
2282:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2241:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2192:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2143:
2133:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2084:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1984:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1892:
1874:
1857:(7): 2967–2971.
1842:
1833:
1832:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1775:
1757:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1661:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1502:
1484:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1427:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1307:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1258:
1248:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1207:
1189:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1155:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1111:
1105:Zhang J (2003).
1102:
613:
609:
595:Duplications of
583:, rather than a
542:As amplification
525:human chromosome
415:low copy repeats
324:" (a process of
173:is a product of
136:Retrotransposons
49:that contains a
31:Gene duplication
21:
4783:
4782:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4773:
4772:
4738:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4681:Synthetic virus
4669:Artificial cell
4642:
4570:
4479:
4368:RNA replication
4363:DNA replication
4351:
4342:Group II intron
4240:
4230:
4218:
4209:Mammalian prion
4191:
4167:
4146:dsRNA satellite
4143:ssDNA satellite
4113:
4106:
4075:
4068:
4013:
3942:
3936:
3906:
3901:
3853:
3802:
3670:
3642:
3619:
3593:Retrotransposon
3574:
3565:Inverted repeat
3553:
3538:DNA transposon
3534:Retrotransposon
3529:Gene conversion
3520:
3513:
3510:
3461:
3452:
3435:
3405:
3400:
3386:Silent mutation
3376:Gene conversion
3364:
3323:
3319:Selective sweep
3280:
3275:
3229:
3224:
3223:
3160:
3156:
3094:
3090:
3045:Nature Genetics
3036:
3032:
3025:
3009:
2948:
2915:(1): e1009996.
2901:
2897:
2879:
2875:
2866:
2864:
2856:
2855:
2851:
2796:
2792:
2761:
2757:
2710:
2706:
2661:
2657:
2620:(7205): 762–5.
2610:
2606:
2574:10.1.1.466.5042
2549:
2545:
2500:
2496:
2449:
2445:
2438:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2399:Springer-Verlag
2388:
2384:
2353:
2349:
2326:10.1038/nrg2482
2310:
2306:
2259:
2255:
2218:Nature Genetics
2210:
2206:
2161:
2157:
2102:
2098:
2061:Current Biology
2053:
2049:
2002:
1998:
1969:Nature Genetics
1961:
1957:
1920:(5683): 525–8.
1910:
1906:
1843:
1836:
1807:(11): 602–607.
1793:
1789:
1734:
1730:
1701:(10): 548–551.
1687:
1683:
1646:Genome Research
1638:
1634:
1583:
1579:
1520:
1516:
1461:
1457:
1404:
1400:
1341:
1337:
1276:
1272:
1225:
1221:
1166:
1162:
1153:
1151:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1109:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1014:
1006:
701:Cervical cancer
629:
627:
625:
620:
619:Associated gene
593:
544:
515:
503:sex chromosomes
476:
467:
455:gene regulation
435:
419:pericentronomic
404:gene conversion
368:
363:
343:
318:
312:
249:
243:
216:
203:
164:
148:
133:
117:
92:
87:
55:DNA replication
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4781:
4771:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4733:
4732:
4730:
4729:
4724:
4723:
4722:
4717:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4693:
4688:
4678:
4673:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4656:
4650:
4648:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4633:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4591:
4586:
4580:
4578:
4572:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4556:
4548:
4546:Kappa organism
4543:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4511:
4510:
4509:
4504:
4493:
4491:
4485:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4477:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4460:
4459:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4433:
4432:
4431:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4417:Non-coding DNA
4414:
4409:
4399:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4359:
4357:
4353:
4352:
4350:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4337:Group I intron
4334:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4312:
4303:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4273:
4263:
4262:
4261:
4259:Genomic island
4256:
4245:
4243:
4239:Mobile genetic
4232:
4224:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4216:
4211:
4205:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4188:
4187:
4184:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4163:
4160:
4154:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4138:
4131:
4127:
4125:
4116:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4097:
4089:
4087:
4078:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4064:dsDNA-RT virus
4061:
4059:ssRNA-RT virus
4056:
4054:(−)ssRNA virus
4051:
4049:(+)ssRNA virus
4046:
4041:
4036:
4035:
4034:
4023:
4021:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3994:Incertae sedis
3990:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3963:
3958:
3952:
3950:
3944:
3943:
3935:
3934:
3927:
3920:
3912:
3903:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3872:
3865:Genomic island
3861:
3859:
3855:
3854:
3852:
3851:
3846:
3845:
3844:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3822:
3816:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3684:
3682:
3680:DNA transposon
3676:
3675:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3652:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3635:
3629:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3606:
3604:
3595:
3586:
3580:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3544:
3536:
3531:
3525:
3523:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3511:
3508:Macrosatellite
3505:
3495:
3486:
3480:
3478:
3476:Tandem repeats
3469:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3434:
3433:
3426:
3419:
3411:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3362:
3360:Fay and Wu's H
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3331:
3329:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3290:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3274:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3237:
3228:
3227:External links
3225:
3222:
3221:
3154:
3088:
3030:
3023:
2946:
2895:
2873:
2849:
2790:
2755:
2704:
2655:
2604:
2543:
2514:(4): 1531–45.
2494:
2443:
2436:
2414:
2407:
2382:
2347:
2320:(12): 938–50.
2304:
2253:
2204:
2175:(3): 1035–43.
2155:
2096:
2047:
1996:
1982:10.1038/ng1416
1955:
1904:
1834:
1787:
1742:Genome Biology
1728:
1681:
1652:(7): 805–814.
1632:
1577:
1514:
1455:
1418:(3): 452–462.
1398:
1335:
1270:
1219:
1160:
1131:
1096:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1035:Exon shuffling
1032:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1002:
1001:
998:
993:
987:
986:
983:
977:
976:
973:
968:
962:
961:
958:
952:
951:
948:
942:
941:
938:
933:
931:Ovarian cancer
927:
926:
923:
918:
912:
911:
908:
903:
897:
896:
893:
887:
886:
883:
877:
876:
873:
868:
862:
861:
858:
852:
851:
848:
838:
832:
831:
828:
822:
821:
818:
812:
811:
808:
798:
796:Gastric cancer
792:
791:
788:
782:
781:
778:
772:
771:
768:
763:
757:
756:
753:
747:
746:
743:
737:
736:
733:
728:
722:
721:
718:
712:
711:
708:
703:
697:
696:
693:
687:
686:
683:
677:
676:
673:
662:
661:
658:
647:
646:
643:
638:
632:
631:
628:in cancer type
626:amplification
624:Prevalence of
622:
621:amplifications
617:
592:
591:Role in cancer
589:
543:
540:
475:
472:
466:
463:
434:
431:
367:
364:
362:
359:
342:
339:
314:Main article:
311:
308:
245:Main article:
242:
239:
215:
212:
202:
199:
175:nondisjunction
163:
160:
147:
144:
132:
129:
124:DNA polymerase
116:
113:
91:
88:
86:
83:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4780:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4712:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4702:
4700:
4699:Nanobacterium
4696:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4664:Cell division
4662:
4661:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4649:
4645:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4573:
4567:
4564:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4515:
4512:
4508:
4507:Hydrogenosome
4505:
4503:
4500:
4499:
4498:
4497:Mitochondrion
4495:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4489:Endosymbiosis
4486:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4468:Tandem repeat
4466:
4465:
4464:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4437:
4434:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4356:Other aspects
4354:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4318:
4313:
4311:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4251:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4242:
4236:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4170:
4161:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4148:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4136:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4109:
4103:
4102:
4101:Avsunviroidae
4098:
4096:
4095:
4094:Pospiviroidae
4091:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4071:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4033:
4030:
4029:
4028:
4025:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4016:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4002:
3998:
3997:
3996:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3948:Cellular life
3945:
3940:
3933:
3928:
3926:
3921:
3919:
3914:
3913:
3910:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3867:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3856:
3850:
3847:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3835:
3831:
3830:Ribosomal DNA
3828:
3827:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3571:
3570:Direct repeat
3568:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3556:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3516:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3493:Minisatellite
3490:
3487:
3485:
3484:Satellite DNA
3482:
3481:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3420:
3418:
3413:
3412:
3409:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3367:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3267:
3265:
3260:
3258:
3253:
3252:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3092:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3034:
3026:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3007:
3005:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2909:PLOS Genetics
2906:
2899:
2890:
2889:
2884:
2877:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2845:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2810:(3): 707–12.
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2771:(4): 279–85.
2770:
2766:
2759:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2718:PLOS Genetics
2715:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2675:(1): 103–21.
2674:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2608:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2559:(2): 169–81.
2558:
2554:
2547:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2447:
2439:
2433:
2428:
2427:
2418:
2410:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2116:(5): 3113–7.
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2067:(4): 306–10.
2066:
2062:
2058:
2051:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1975:(9): 949–51.
1974:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1839:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1305:10.1038/42711
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1150:on 2014-03-06
1149:
1145:
1141:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1101:
1097:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1009:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
988:
984:
982:
979:
978:
974:
972:
969:
967:
963:
959:
957:
954:
953:
949:
947:
944:
943:
939:
937:
934:
932:
928:
924:
922:
919:
917:
916:Neuroblastoma
914:
913:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
898:
894:
892:
889:
888:
884:
882:
879:
878:
874:
872:
869:
867:
863:
859:
857:
854:
853:
849:
846:
842:
839:
837:
833:
829:
827:
824:
823:
819:
817:
814:
813:
809:
806:
802:
799:
797:
793:
789:
787:
784:
783:
779:
777:
774:
773:
769:
767:
764:
762:
758:
754:
752:
749:
748:
744:
742:
739:
738:
734:
732:
729:
727:
723:
719:
717:
714:
713:
709:
707:
704:
702:
698:
694:
692:
689:
688:
684:
682:
679:
678:
674:
671:
667:
664:
663:
659:
656:
652:
649:
648:
644:
642:
639:
637:
636:Breast cancer
633:
623:
618:
615:
614:
608:
606:
602:
598:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
573:
569:
565:
561:
560:overexpressed
557:
553:
549:
539:
537:
533:
529:
526:
522:
514:
508:
504:
500:
497:
493:
489:
485:
480:
471:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
407:
405:
401:
397:
392:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
358:
356:
355:genetic drift
352:
348:
338:
335:
329:
327:
323:
317:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
265:
263:
258:
254:
248:
238:
236:
231:
227:
226:
221:
207:
198:
194:
190:
188:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
159:
157:
156:Down syndrome
152:
143:
141:
137:
128:
125:
121:
108:
104:
102:
97:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
4686:Viral vector
4529:Gerontoplast
4456:Transpoviron
4411:
4228:Nucleic acid
4214:Fungal prion
4112:Helper-virus
4099:
4092:
3999:
3992:
3842:Gene cluster
3811:
3610:Alu sequence
3519:Interspersed
3449:
3380:
3240:
3233:
3171:
3167:
3157:
3106:
3102:
3091:
3048:
3044:
3033:
3013:
2912:
2908:
2898:
2886:
2876:
2865:. Retrieved
2861:
2852:
2807:
2803:
2793:
2768:
2764:
2758:
2724:(11): e197.
2721:
2717:
2707:
2672:
2668:
2658:
2617:
2613:
2607:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2511:
2507:
2497:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2425:
2417:
2394:
2385:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2270:
2266:
2256:
2221:
2217:
2207:
2172:
2168:
2158:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2064:
2060:
2050:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1972:
1968:
1958:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1854:
1850:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1745:
1741:
1731:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1649:
1645:
1635:
1594:
1590:
1580:
1531:
1527:
1517:
1472:
1469:PLOS Biology
1468:
1458:
1415:
1411:
1401:
1352:
1348:
1338:
1287:
1283:
1273:
1239:(10): e314.
1236:
1233:PLOS Biology
1232:
1222:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1152:. Retrieved
1148:the original
1143:
1134:
1120:(6): 292–8.
1117:
1113:
1100:
1055:Human genome
1005:
836:Glioblastoma
594:
581:somatic cell
570:
545:
531:
528:nomenclature
518:
474:Nomenclature
468:
436:
427:interstitial
423:subtelomeric
412:
408:
388:
369:
344:
330:
319:
276:
266:
250:
234:
229:
223:
217:
195:
191:
183:
170:
165:
149:
134:
118:
101:transposable
93:
38:
34:
30:
29:
4710:Cancer cell
4576:Abiogenesis
4524:Chromoplast
4519:Chloroplast
4302:Degradative
4044:dsRNA virus
4039:ssDNA virus
4032:Giant virus
4027:dsDNA virus
3837:Gene family
3748:Tc1/mariner
3703:EnSpm/CACTA
3350:Ka/Ks ratio
2224:(1): 90–5.
1475:(4): e109.
1045:Gene fusion
616:Cancer type
439:microarrays
380:orthologous
334:pleiotropic
273:Susumu Ohno
4742:Categories
4618:Proteinoid
4613:Coacervate
4566:Nitroplast
4559:Trophosome
4554:Bacteriome
4539:Apicoplast
4534:Leucoplast
4375:Chromosome
4293:Resistance
4001:Parakaryon
3849:Pseudogene
3666:retroposon
3584:Transposon
3446:transposon
3355:Tajima's D
2867:2022-10-27
2363:: 615–43.
1748:(2): R13.
1180:(6): 968.
1154:2008-12-01
1092:References
1075:Pseudogene
1060:Inparanoid
630:(percent)
496:homologous
492:centromere
459:speciation
451:expression
447:microarray
255:—that is,
235:Drosophila
230:C. elegans
225:C. elegans
167:Polyploidy
162:Polyploidy
151:Aneuploidy
146:Aneuploidy
75:polyploidy
71:aneuploidy
4627:Research
4608:Protocell
4347:Retrozyme
4306:Virulence
4288:Fertility
4135:Virophage
4123:Satellite
4114:dependent
3966:Eukaryota
3768:P element
3718:Harbinger
3459:Repeatome
3198:1476-4687
3131:1476-4687
3065:1546-1718
2569:CiteSeerX
2042:206512885
1881:1091-6490
1821:0168-9525
1764:1474-760X
1715:0168-9525
1668:1088-9051
1619:0036-8075
1556:1476-4687
1491:1545-7885
1434:0092-8674
1377:1476-4687
1314:0028-0836
1196:2073-4425
670:Cyclin D1
597:oncogenes
538:type 1A.
513:Karyotype
499:autosomal
488:G banding
484:karyotype
304:polyploid
269:evolution
257:mutations
187:Hox genes
138:, mainly
4768:Mutation
4654:Organism
4647:See also
4623:Sulphobe
4600:Ribozyme
4595:RNA life
4502:Mitosome
4446:Prophage
4441:Provirus
4429:Replicon
4385:Circular
4332:Phagemid
4249:Mobilome
4241:elements
4151:Virusoid
4074:Subviral
3986:Protista
3971:Animalia
3956:Bacteria
3892:Telomere
3858:See also
3798:Zisupton
3778:Polinton
3773:PiggyBac
3728:Helitron
3547:Helitron
3542:Polinton
3438:Genetics
3216:36922594
3207:10060163
3149:33505027
3083:30013179
2941:35030162
2844:15647348
2785:16240409
2750:17997610
2699:22412305
2691:17015230
2642:18594508
2591:10441669
2538:10101175
2508:Genetics
2481:15004568
2393:(1970).
2391:Ohno, S.
2377:15568988
2334:19015656
2299:17233905
2248:18059269
2199:19114461
2169:Genetics
2091:21295484
2034:18535209
1991:15286789
1950:20357402
1942:15273396
1899:20080574
1829:16140417
1782:16507168
1723:16098632
1676:16818725
1627:11073452
1564:12853957
1509:16555924
1450:10054182
1442:17981114
1385:15004568
1265:16128622
1214:35741730
1012:See also
805:Cyclin E
585:germline
572:in vitro
376:proteins
372:paralogs
283:. Major
262:ice fish
179:2R event
4636:Jeewanu
4550:Organs
4514:Plastid
4314:Cryptic
4283:Plasmid
3981:Plantae
3961:Archaea
3788:Transib
3763:Novosib
3743:Kolobok
3713:Ginger2
3708:Ginger1
3693:Crypton
3176:Bibcode
3140:7889737
3111:Bibcode
3074:6072608
2932:8759692
2812:Bibcode
2741:2065885
2622:Bibcode
2599:1743092
2561:Bibcode
2529:1460548
2489:4422074
2461:Bibcode
2342:1240225
2290:1783844
2239:2669897
2190:2651040
2150:6789329
2118:Bibcode
2082:3056611
2014:Bibcode
2006:Science
1922:Bibcode
1914:Science
1890:2840353
1859:Bibcode
1773:1431724
1599:Bibcode
1591:Science
1572:4382441
1536:Bibcode
1500:1420641
1393:4422074
1357:Bibcode
1330:4307263
1322:9192896
1292:Bibcode
1256:1197285
1205:9222922
1000:15–20%
975:10–30%
966:Sarcoma
950:15–30%
940:20–30%
925:20–25%
850:33–50%
755:15–20%
710:25–50%
675:15–20%
577:enzymes
558:can be
443:genomic
391:species
69:event,
4727:Virome
4705:Nanobe
4402:Genome
4380:Linear
4325:Fosmid
4320:Cosmid
4085:Viroid
4076:agents
3887:CRISPR
3753:Merlin
3738:ISL2EU
3688:Academ
3521:repeat
3328:Models
3214:
3204:
3196:
3168:Nature
3147:
3137:
3129:
3103:Nature
3081:
3071:
3063:
3021:
2939:
2929:
2842:
2835:545572
2832:
2783:
2748:
2738:
2697:
2689:
2669:Neuron
2650:418964
2648:
2640:
2614:Nature
2597:
2589:
2571:
2536:
2526:
2487:
2479:
2453:Nature
2434:
2405:
2375:
2340:
2332:
2297:
2287:
2246:
2236:
2197:
2187:
2148:
2141:319510
2138:
2089:
2079:
2040:
2032:
1989:
1948:
1940:
1897:
1887:
1879:
1827:
1819:
1780:
1770:
1762:
1721:
1713:
1674:
1666:
1625:
1617:
1570:
1562:
1554:
1528:Nature
1507:
1497:
1489:
1448:
1440:
1432:
1391:
1383:
1375:
1349:Nature
1328:
1320:
1312:
1284:Nature
1263:
1253:
1212:
1202:
1194:
1026:(2010)
895:7–10%
601:cancer
575:using
482:Human
296:Plants
292:genome
77:, and
59:repair
4201:Prion
4172:Other
4019:Virus
3976:Fungi
3793:Zator
3733:IS3EU
3638:LINE2
3633:LINE1
3625:LINEs
3602:SINEs
3558:Other
2695:S2CID
2646:S2CID
2595:S2CID
2485:S2CID
2338:S2CID
2273:: 2.
2038:S2CID
1946:S2CID
1568:S2CID
1446:S2CID
1389:S2CID
1326:S2CID
1174:Genes
1110:(PDF)
1024:DbDNV
946:ERBB2
906:CCND1
881:ERBB1
871:CCND1
841:ERBB1
776:CCND1
716:ERBB2
691:FGFR2
681:FGFR1
666:CCND1
651:ERBB2
300:wheat
289:yeast
169:, or
4715:HeLa
4659:Cell
4407:Gene
3783:Sola
3758:MuDR
3698:Dada
3661:MER4
3656:HERV
3648:LTRs
3212:PMID
3194:ISSN
3145:PMID
3127:ISSN
3079:PMID
3061:ISSN
3019:ISBN
2937:PMID
2888:OMIM
2840:PMID
2781:PMID
2746:PMID
2687:PMID
2638:PMID
2587:PMID
2534:PMID
2477:PMID
2432:ISBN
2403:ISBN
2373:PMID
2330:PMID
2295:PMID
2244:PMID
2195:PMID
2146:PMID
2087:PMID
2030:PMID
1987:PMID
1938:PMID
1895:PMID
1877:ISSN
1825:PMID
1817:ISSN
1778:PMID
1760:ISSN
1719:PMID
1711:ISSN
1672:PMID
1664:ISSN
1623:PMID
1615:ISSN
1560:PMID
1552:ISSN
1505:PMID
1487:ISSN
1438:PMID
1430:ISSN
1412:Cell
1381:PMID
1373:ISSN
1318:PMID
1310:ISSN
1261:PMID
1210:PMID
1192:ISSN
985:10%
981:CDK4
971:MDM2
960:12%
956:AKT2
921:MYCN
910:13%
885:10%
875:50%
860:15%
856:CDK4
845:EGFR
830:10%
820:10%
816:KRAS
810:15%
801:CCNE
790:13%
786:MDM2
780:25%
770:40%
745:20%
741:KRAS
735:30%
731:HRAS
720:20%
695:12%
685:12%
660:20%
655:HER2
645:20%
605:TCGA
556:gene
519:The
425:and
349:and
341:Loss
57:and
51:gene
33:(or
4298:Col
4186:DNA
4183:RNA
4162:DNA
4159:RNA
3723:hAT
3615:MIR
3202:PMC
3184:doi
3172:615
3135:PMC
3119:doi
3107:590
3069:PMC
3053:doi
2927:PMC
2917:doi
2830:PMC
2820:doi
2808:102
2773:doi
2736:PMC
2726:doi
2677:doi
2630:doi
2618:454
2579:doi
2524:PMC
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2512:151
2469:doi
2457:428
2365:doi
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2177:doi
2173:181
2136:PMC
2126:doi
2077:PMC
2069:doi
2022:doi
2010:320
1977:doi
1930:doi
1918:305
1885:PMC
1867:doi
1855:107
1809:doi
1768:PMC
1750:doi
1703:doi
1654:doi
1607:doi
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1544:doi
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1420:doi
1416:131
1365:doi
1353:428
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1288:387
1251:PMC
1241:doi
1200:PMC
1182:doi
1122:doi
996:MYC
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