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certainty). Given premises that A=B and B=C, then the conclusion follows necessarily that A=C. Deductive arguments are sometimes referred to as "truth-preserving" arguments. For example, consider the argument that because bats can fly (premise=true), and all flying creatures are birds (premise=false), therefore bats are birds (conclusion=false). If we assume the premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily, and it is a valid argument.
1375:(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 254. In addition, Foucault said of his own approach that "My role ... is to show people that they are much freer than they feel, that people accept as truth, as evidence, some themes which have been built up at a certain moment during history, and that this so-called evidence can be criticized and destroyed." He also wrote that he was engaged in "the process of putting historico-critical reflection to the
1101:(Harvard, 1995), 20â33. " arguments consist of a string of what one could call indispensability claims. They move from their starting points to their conclusions by showing that the condition stated in the conclusion is indispensable to the feature identified at the start ... Thus we could spell out Kant's transcendental deduction in the first edition in three stages: experience must have an object, that is, be
107:, by contrast, can have different degrees of logical strength: the stronger or more cogent the argument, the greater the probability that the conclusion is true, the weaker the argument, the lesser that probability. The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truthâfor example, the persuasiveness of so-called "indispensability claims" in
864:
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perspective, the argument is constitutively linked with the context, in particular with the time and place in which the argument is located. From this perspective, the argument is evaluated not just by two parties (as in a dialectical approach) but also by an audience. In both dialectic and rhetoric,
587:
may be thought of as argument from the particular to particular. An argument by analogy may use a particular truth in a premise to argue towards a similar particular truth in the conclusion. For example, if A. Plato was mortal, and B. Socrates was like Plato in other respects, then asserting that C.
528:
In order to represent and assess defeasible reasoning, it is necessary to combine the logical rules (governing the acceptance of a conclusion based on the acceptance of its premises) with rules of material inference, governing how a premise can support a given conclusion (whether it is reasonable or
443:
is the largest in the world (premise=true), then it is probable that it will remain so for the next 10 years (conclusion=true). Arguments that involve predictions are inductive since the future is uncertain. An inductive argument is said to be strong or weak. If the premises of an inductive argument
286:
Logic seeks to discover the forms that make arguments valid. A form of argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true under all interpretations of that argument in which the premises are true. Since the validity of an argument depends on its form, an argument can be shown invalid by showing
689:
Fred's cat is scratching itself. Arguments address problems of belief, explanations address problems of understanding. In the argument above, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is up for debate (i.e. is a claim), but in the explanation, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is assumed to be true
271:
In terms of validity, deductive arguments may be either valid or invalid. An argument is valid, if and only if (iff) it is impossible in all possible worlds for the premises to be true and the conclusion false; validity is about what is possible; it is concerned with how the premises and conclusion
256:
of the premises: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. It would be self-contradictory to assert the premises and deny the conclusion because the negation of the conclusion is contradictory to the truth of the premises. Based on the premises, the conclusion follows necessarily (with
539:
of defeasible arguments. Argumentation schemes are stereotypical patterns of inference, combining semantic-ontological relations with types of reasoning and logical axioms and representing the abstract structure of the most common types of natural arguments. A typical example is the argument from
524:
This argument is reasonable and the premises support the conclusion unless additional information indicating that the case is an exception comes in. If Tweety is a penguin, the inference is no longer justified by the premise. Defeasible arguments are based on generalizations that hold only in the
985:
This is called "argument-as-product", distinguished from "argument-as-process" and "argument-as-procedure." Wenzel, J. W. (1987). The rhetorical perspective on argument. In F. H. van
Eemeren, R. Grootendorst, J. A. Blair, & C. A. Willard (Eds.), Argumentation. Across the lines of discipline.
321:) and so the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, or follows of logical necessity. The conclusion of a valid argument is not necessarily true, it depends on whether the premises are true. If the conclusion, itself, is a necessary truth, it is without regard to the premises.
444:
are assumed true, is it probable the conclusion is also true? If yes, the argument is strong. If no, it is weak. A strong argument is said to be cogent if it has all true premises. Otherwise, the argument is uncogent. The military budget argument example is a strong, cogent argument.
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In modern argumentation theories, arguments are regarded as defeasible passages from premises to a conclusion. Defeasibility means that when additional information (new evidence or contrary arguments) is provided, the premises may be no longer lead to the conclusion
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is true, and an explanation attempts to provide understanding of the event. Note, that by subsuming the specific event (of Fred's cat scratching) as an instance of the general rule that "animals scratch themselves when they have fleas", Joe will no longer wonder
122:
In dialectics, and also in a more colloquial sense, an argument can be conceived as a social and verbal means of trying to resolve, or at least contend with, a conflict or difference of opinion that has arisen or exists between two or more parties. For the
574:
Each scheme may be associated with a set of critical questions, namely criteria for assessing dialectically the reasonableness and acceptability of an argument. The matching critical questions are the standard ways of casting the argument into doubt.
209:. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit. The rational structureâthe relationship of claims, premises, warrants, relations of implication, and conclusionâis not always spelled out and immediately visible and must be made explicit by analysis.
128:
arguments are used not through formal but through natural language. Since classical antiquity, philosophers and rhetoricians have developed lists of argument types in which premises and conclusions are connected in informal and defeasible ways.
679:
Both the above argument and explanation require knowing the generalities that a) fleas often cause itching, and b) that one often scratches to relieve itching. The difference is in the intent: an argument attempts to settle whether or not some
287:
that its form is invalid. This can be done by a counter example of the same form of argument with premises that are true under a given interpretation, but a conclusion that is false under that interpretation. In informal logic this is called a
1462:
Justin Scott
Giboney, Susan Brown, and Jay F. Nunamaker Jr. (2012). "User Acceptance of Knowledge-Based System Recommendations: Explanations, Arguments, and Fit" 45th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii, January
588:
Socrates was mortal is an example of argument by analogy because the reasoning employed in it proceeds from a particular truth in a premise (Plato was mortal) to a similar particular truth in the conclusion, namely that
Socrates was mortal.
283:. The validity of an argument is not a guarantee of the truth of its conclusion. A valid argument may have false premises that render it inconclusive: the conclusion of a valid argument with one or more false premises may be true or false.
1179:
van
Eemeren, Frans H.; Garssen, Bart; Krabbe, Erik C. W.; Snoeck Henkemans, A. Francisca; Verheij, Bart; Wagemans, Jean H. M. (2021), van Eemeren, Frans H.; Garssen, Bart; Verheij, Bart; Krabbe, Erik C. W. (eds.),
1664:, Springer Verlag, 1977. A mathematical view of logic. This book is different from most books on mathematical logic in that it emphasizes the mathematics of logic, as opposed to the formal structure of logic.
225:
There are several kinds of arguments in logic, the best known of which are "deductive" and "inductive." An argument has one or more premises but only one conclusion. Each premise and the conclusion are
103:: in a valid argument, premises necessitate the conclusion, even if one or more of the premises is false and the conclusion is false; in a sound argument, true premises necessitate a true conclusion.
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Often an argument is invalid or weak because there is a missing premiseâthe supply of which would make it valid or strong. This is referred to as an elliptical or enthymematic argument (see also
822:
On the other hand, a seemingly valid argument may be found to lack a premiseâa "hidden assumption"âwhich, if highlighted, can show a fault in reasoning. Example: A witness reasoned:
814:). Speakers and writers will often leave out a necessary premise in their reasoning if it is widely accepted and the writer does not wish to state the blindingly obvious. Example:
1379: ... I continue to think that this task requires work on our limits, that is, a patient labor giving form to our impatience for liberty." (emphasis added) Hubert Dreyfus, "
754:
One type of fallacy occurs when a word frequently used to indicate a conclusion is used as a transition (conjunctive adverb) between independent clauses. In
English the words
725:
Likewise, "... arguments are essential to the process of justifying the validity of any explanation as there are often multiple explanations for any given phenomenon."
44:
Arguments are intended to determine or show the degree of truth or acceptability of another statement called a conclusion. The process of crafting or delivering arguments,
343:
Valid argument; the premises entail the conclusion. (This does not mean the conclusion has to be true; it is only true if the premises are true, which they may not be!)
395:
The forms of argument that render deductions valid are well-established, however some invalid arguments can also be persuasive depending on their construction (
364:
In the above second to last case (Some men are hawkers ...), the counter-example follows the same logical form as the previous argument, (Premise 1: "Some
279:
In formal logic, the validity of an argument depends not on the actual truth or falsity of its premises and conclusion, but on whether the argument has a valid
676:
the cat has fleas. However, if Joe asks Fred, "Why is your cat scratching itself?" the explanation, "... because it has fleas." provides understanding.
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Non-deductive logic is reasoning using arguments in which the premises support the conclusion but do not entail it. Forms of non-deductive logic include the
604:
are made up of a "chain of indispensability claims" that attempt to show why something is necessarily true based on its connection to our experience, while
1714:, Methuen and Co., 1948. An account of logic that covers the classic topics of logic and argument while carefully considering modern developments in logic.
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The hidden assumptions are: (1) the milkman was not the murderer and (2) the murderer has left (3) by a door and (4) not by e.g. a window or through
302:. A statement form which is logically true is also said to be a valid statement form. A statement form is a logical truth if it is true under all
230:
or "truth-candidates", each capable of being either true or false (but not both). These truth values bear on the terminology used with arguments.
41:
and one is the conclusion. The purpose of an argument is to give reasons for one's conclusion via justification, explanation, and/or persuasion.
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or cultural-linguistic understandingâa "world", in a specifically ontological senseâin order to clarify or transform the background of meaning (
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388:.") in order to demonstrate that whatever hawkers may be, they may or may not be rich, in consideration of the premises as such. (See also:
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that preserve truth from the premises to the conclusion. This logical perspective on argument is relevant for scientific fields such as
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The form of an argument can be shown by the use of symbols. For each argument form, there is a corresponding statement form, called a
1654:, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, No. 5, 1979. A classic article on the social process of acceptance of proofs in mathematics.
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or not Fred's cat has fleas, Joe may state: "Fred, your cat has fleas. Observe, the cat is scratching right now." Joe has made an
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1608:, Routledge, 1998. Particularly relevant is Chapter 6, which explores the relationship between knowledge, inference and argument.
950:. Cengage advantage books (9 ed.). Australia; Brazil; Mexico; Singapore; United Kingdom; United States: Cengage Learning.
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if and only if the truth of the argument's premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i.e., the argument is
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something; for this, it must be coherent; and to be coherent it must be shaped by the understanding through the categories."
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Other kinds of arguments may have different or additional standards of validity or justification. For example, philosopher
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An argument is sound when the argument is valid and argument's premise(s) is/are true, therefore the conclusion is true.
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Osborne, Jonathan F.; Patterson, Alexis (23 May 2011). "Scientific argument and explanation: A necessary distinction?".
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Fallacies are types of argument or expressions which are held to be of an invalid form or contain errors in reasoning.
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asserts that the truth of the conclusion is supported by the probability of the premises. For example, given that the
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455:, a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances. An inductive argument is said to be
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and the relationship between the main and subsidiary argument, or the main and counter-argument within discourse.
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While arguments attempt to show that something was, is, will be, or should be the case, explanations try to show
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World-disclosing arguments are a group of philosophical arguments that according to
Nikolas Kompridis employ a
612:" arguments: one based on truth claims, and the other based on the time-responsive disclosure of possibility (
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in arguments and the development of standards and criteria to evaluate arguments. Deductive arguments can be
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text with the aid of computer programs. Such argumentative structures include the premise, conclusions, the
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The goal of argument mining is the automatic extraction and identification of argumentative structures from
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Nobody came out the front door except the milkman; therefore the murderer must have left by the back door.
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737:. Certain argument types may fit better with personality traits to enhance acceptance by individuals.
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Invalid argument. This can be easier seen by giving a counter-example with the same argument form:
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Either we are all doomed or we are all saved; we are not all saved; therefore, we are all doomed.
19:
This article is about the subject as it is studied in logic and philosophy. For other uses, see
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Proceedings of the conference on argumentation 1986 (pp. 101â109). Dordrecht-Providence: Foris.
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Some Greeks are logicians and some logicians are tiresome; therefore, some Greeks are tiresome.
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People often are not themselves clear on whether they are arguing for or explaining something.
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646:) and what Kompridis has called the "logical space" on which an argument implicitly depends.
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306:. A statement form can be shown to be a logical truth by either (a) showing that it is a
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Invalid argument, as it is possible that the premises be true and the conclusion false.
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The same types of words and phrases are used in presenting explanations and arguments.
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not to draw a specific conclusion from a specific description of a state of affairs).
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is not a form of inductive reasoning. The lack of deductive validity is known as the
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1785:. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall (1963). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 63â10528.
1585:
1193:
298:, and an argument form is valid if and only if its corresponding conditional is a
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The terms 'explain' or 'explanation,' et cetera are frequently used in arguments.
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All Greeks are human and all humans are mortal; therefore, all Greeks are mortal.
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is a series of sentences, statements, or propositions some of which are called
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the denial of the conclusion is incompatible with accepting all the premises.
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463:), and the argument's premises are, in fact, true. Cogency can be considered
331: : Valid argument; if the premises are true the conclusion must be true.
317:
The corresponding conditional of a valid argument is a necessary truth (true
299:
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198:
1674:, Notre Dame, 1970. This classic was originally published in French in 1958.
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Invalid argument: the tiresome logicians might all be Romans (for example).
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typically separate the premises from the conclusion of an argument. Thus:
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Explanations are often used within arguments and presented so as to serve
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Some men are hawkers. Some hawkers are rich. Therefore, some men are rich.
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is not an argument, despite its appearance. It is not being claimed that
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was a prominent advocate of this latter form of philosophical argument.
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1799:. New York: OUP (1972). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 74â166004.
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All metals expand when heated, therefore iron will expand when heated.
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expert opinion, shown below, which has two premises and a conclusion.
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Source E is an expert in subject domain S containing proposition A.
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have been developed to describe and assess the acceptability or the
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Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl; McMahon, Kenneth (9 September 2016).
996:
Wagemans, Jean H. M. (2 December 2021), Stalmaszczyk, Piotr (ed.),
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639:
609:
124:
57:
1877:
1561:"NLP Approaches to Computational Argumentation â ACL 2016, Berlin"
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Socrates is a man, all men are mortal therefore
Socrates is mortal
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1922:
1742:, ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 32, num. 4, pp. 337â383, 2000.
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38:
451:, which argues from generalizations true for the most part, and
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majority of cases, but are subject to exceptions and defaults.
92:
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and (5) there are no other doors than the front or back door.
668:
something is or will be. If Fred and Joe address the issue of
355:
Some herbivores are zebras. Therefore, some people are zebras.
3781:
3127:
2972:
729:
Explanations and arguments are often studied in the field of
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about claims. There are several reasons for this difficulty.
249:
212:
140:(to make bright, enlighten, make known, prove, etc.) is from
49:
16:
Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
1475:"Argumentation Mining: State of the Art and Emerging Trends"
1345:
Charles Taylor, "The
Validity of Transcendental Arguments",
1097:
Charles Taylor, "The
Validity of Transcendental Arguments",
1004:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 571â589,
4802:
4757:
1636:
Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in
Reflection and Expression
272:
relate and what is possible. An argument is formally valid
1115:
Kompridis, Nikolas (2006). "World Disclosing Arguments?".
948:
Understanding arguments: an introduction to informal logic
697:
Arguments and explanations largely resemble each other in
75:
of which one is claimed to follow from the others through
1764:
Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumentation. 1989.
1371:
Nikolas Kompridis, "Disclosure as (Intimate) Critique",
1331:
Walton, Douglas; Reed, Chris; Macagno, Fabrizio (2008).
945:
941:
939:
946:
Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter; Fogelin, Robert J. (2015).
805:
506:. For instance we consider the famous Tweety example:
1813:. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press (1980).
1792:. Ed. and trans. John Warrington. London: Dent (1964)
1727:
Walton, Douglas; Christopher Reed; Fabrizio Macagno,
1722:
Informal Logic: A Handbook for Critical Argumentation
936:
1651:
Social Processes and Proofs of Theorems and Programs
1335:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 310.
1002:
The Cambridge Handbook of the Philosophy of Language
973:
Manifest Rationality: A pragmatic theory of argument
859:
812:
Enthymeme § Syllogism with an unstated premise
48:, can be studied from three main perspectives: the
1188:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1â45,
63:In logic, an argument is usually expressed not in
1806:. New York: Van Nostran Reinholds Company (1964).
1769:Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge
1330:
4965:
1415:
1046:
778:follows from the preceding statements. However,
1358:Nikolas Kompridis, "Two Kinds of Fallibilism",
1302:"Classifying the patterns of natural arguments"
2031:Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise
1648:R. A. DeMillo, R. J. Lipton and A. J. Perlis,
1473:Lippi, Marco; Torroni, Paolo (20 April 2016).
740:
616:). Kompridis said that the French philosopher
560:E asserts that proposition A is true (false).
487:Defeasible arguments and argumentation schemes
119:of new possibilities for thinking and acting.
4701:
2943:
2036:Negative conclusion from affirmative premises
1906:
1731:, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
1702:Objective Knowledge; An Evolutionary Approach
1411:
1409:
1299:
701:use. This is the cause of much difficulty in
1472:
1246:11245.1/c4517884-2626-4ada-81d0-50655ec78786
1225:"Constructing a Periodic Table of Arguments"
976:(New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum, 2000), 46â49.
502:). This type of reasoning is referred to as
1920:
1825:(SparsnÀs, Sweden: Irene Publishing, 2014).
1300:Macagno, Fabrizio; Walton, Douglas (2015).
690:(unquestioned at this time) and just needs
608:has suggested that there are two types of "
4708:
4694:
3135:
2950:
2936:
1913:
1899:
1406:
1119:. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 116â124.
213:Standard logical account of argument types
2614:
1853:
1638:, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005,
1498:
1244:
1142:"What is Reasoning? What Is an Argument?"
1114:
197:. Informal logic emphasizes the study of
2767:
1693:Speech Acts in Argumentative Discussions
1222:
995:
638:approach, to reveal features of a wider
216:
71:, and it can be defined as any group of
4715:
1479:ACM Transactions on Internet Technology
1403:, Cambridge: MIT Press (2006), 118â121.
1381:Being and Power: Heidegger and Foucault
4966:
2957:
1531:"Argument Mining - IJCAI2016 Tutorial"
1362:(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 180â183.
1139:
424:
233:
154:
4689:
2931:
1894:
1395:Nikolas Kompridis, "World Disclosing
774:is an argument because the assertion
91:. Logic is the study of the forms of
1734:Carlos Chesñevar, Ana Maguitman and
1424:(4). Wiley Online Library: 627â638.
441:military budget of the United States
1883:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1868:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1849:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
1086:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1082:"Deductive and Inductive Arguments"
806:Elliptical or ethymematic arguments
780:I was thirsty and therefore I drank
733:to help explain user acceptance of
623:
518:Therefore, Tweety (probably) flies.
13:
1875:
1804:Introduction to Mathematical Logic
1775:
1267:
1140:Walton, Douglas N. (August 1990).
833:
181:. Formal arguments are studied in
14:
5000:
1829:
169:Informal arguments as studied in
4669:
2912:
2911:
1754:, 5th Edition, Wadsworth, 2005.
1704:, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
1617:, Oxford University Press, 1976.
1186:Handbook of Argumentation Theory
862:
1553:
1523:
1466:
1456:
1444:
1389:
1365:
1352:
1339:
1324:
1293:
1261:
1216:
1172:
649:
189:, more commonly referred to as
111:, the quality of hypotheses in
2409:Correlation implies causation
1712:A Modern Introduction to Logic
1662:A Course in Mathematical Logic
1133:
1108:
1091:
1075:
1040:
989:
979:
964:
591:
193:today) and are expressed in a
177:and are intended for everyday
1:
4630:History of mathematical logic
1811:The Foundations of Arithmetic
1790:Prior and Posterior Analytics
1583:
1577:
1194:10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1
578:
544:Argument from expert opinion
28:Disagreement (disambiguation)
4555:Primitive recursive function
1859:"Argument and Argumentation"
1584:Shaw, Warren Choate (1922).
1223:Wagemans, Jean H.M. (2016).
998:"The Philosophy of Argument"
410:
353:Some people are herbivores.
131:
99:, and the valid ones can be
7:
1695:, Foris Publications, 1984.
1614:How to Do Things With Words
1590:. Allyn and Bacon. p.
1278:Online Etymology Dictionary
855:
794:in this sentence indicates
741:Fallacies and non-arguments
399:, for example). (See also:
260:
10:
5005:
3619:SchröderâBernstein theorem
3346:Monadic predicate calculus
3005:Foundations of mathematics
2833:I'm entitled to my opinion
1751:Attacking Faulty Reasoning
1740:Logical Models of Argument
1684:, Dover Publications, 1952
1377:test of concrete practices
1318:10.5325/philrhet.48.1.0026
837:
744:
653:
627:
490:
428:
414:
264:
237:
201:; formal logic emphasizes
158:
25:
18:
4888:
4835:Parsimony (Occam's razor)
4723:
4665:
4652:Philosophy of mathematics
4601:Automated theorem proving
4583:
4478:
4310:
4203:
4055:
3772:
3748:
3726:Von NeumannâBernaysâGödel
3671:
3565:
3469:
3367:
3358:
3285:
3220:
3126:
3048:
2965:
2907:
2816:
2755:
2689:
2605:
2514:
2489:
2464:
2388:
2340:
2276:
2251:
2223:
2188:
2138:
2092:
2083:
2021:
1987:
1943:
1934:
1670:and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca,
1306:Philosophy & Rhetoric
1146:The Journal of Philosophy
1010:10.1017/9781108698283.032
786:is logically entailed by
296:corresponding conditional
21:Argument (disambiguation)
4979:Critical thinking skills
2859:Motte-and-bailey fallacy
1959:Affirming the consequent
1767:Charles Arthur Willard,
1385:"What is Enlightenment?"
930:
818:The missing premise is:
602:transcendental arguments
109:transcendental arguments
4302:Self-verifying theories
4123:Tarski's axiomatization
3074:Tarski's undefinability
3069:incompleteness theorems
2879:Two wrongs make a right
2210:Denying the correlative
1855:Dutilh Novaes, Catarina
1401:Critique and Disclosure
1383:" and Michel Foucault,
1373:Critique and Disclosure
1360:Critique and Disclosure
1349:(Harvard, 1995), 20â33.
1347:Philosophical Arguments
1229:SSRN Electronic Journal
1117:Critique and Disclosure
1099:Philosophical Arguments
735:knowledge-based systems
500:non-monotonic reasoning
252:of the conclusion is a
4676:Mathematics portal
4287:Proof of impossibility
3935:propositional variable
3245:Propositional calculus
2864:Psychologist's fallacy
2801:Argument to moderation
2791:Argument from anecdote
2741:Chronological snobbery
2365:Quoting out of context
2332:Overwhelming exception
2215:Suppressed correlative
2115:Quoting out of context
1990:quantificational logic
1964:Denying the antecedent
1822:The Controversy Manual
1687:Frans van Eemeren and
1682:Science and Hypothesis
1622:Logic and Conversation
477:mathematical induction
319:in all possible worlds
222:
4890:Theories of deduction
4545:Kolmogorov complexity
4498:Computably enumerable
4398:Model complete theory
4190:Principia Mathematica
3250:Propositional formula
3079:BanachâTarski paradox
2827:The Four Great Errors
2807:Argumentum ad populum
2796:Argument from silence
2500:Argumentum ad baculum
2278:Faulty generalization
1969:Argument from fallacy
1729:Argumentation Schemes
1333:Argumentation Schemes
1059:10.4324/9781315510897
1050:Introduction to Logic
909:Evidence-based policy
904:Cosmological argument
533:Argumentation schemes
475:". Despite its name,
449:statistical syllogism
380:." Conclusion: "Some
310:or (b) by means of a
220:
185:(historically called
159:Further information:
4493:ChurchâTuring thesis
4480:Computability theory
3689:continuum hypothesis
3207:Square of opposition
3065:Gödel's completeness
2845:Invincible ignorance
2651:Reductio ad Stalinum
2637:Reductio ad Hitlerum
2593:Wisdom of repugnance
2360:Moving the goalposts
2225:Illicit transference
2150:Begging the question
2071:Undistributed middle
1979:Mathematical fallacy
1954:Affirming a disjunct
1632:Vincent F. Hendricks
1626:The Logic of Grammar
1596:argument by analogy.
1237:10.2139/ssrn.2769833
600:said that so-called
515:Birds generally fly.
504:defeasible reasoning
493:Argumentation scheme
481:problem of induction
372:." Premise 2: "Some
221:Argument terminology
26:For other uses, see
4984:Logical consequence
4717:Philosophical logic
4647:Mathematical object
4538:P versus NP problem
4503:Computable function
4297:Reverse mathematics
4223:Logical consequence
4100:primitive recursive
4095:elementary function
3868:Free/bound variable
3721:TarskiâGrothendieck
3240:Logical connectives
3170:Logical equivalence
3020:Logical consequence
2578:Parade of horribles
2554:In-group favoritism
2380:Syntactic ambiguity
2023:Syllogistic fallacy
1946:propositional logic
1802:Mendelson, Elliot.
1430:2011SciEd..95..627O
919:Practical arguments
879:Abductive reasoning
731:information systems
703:thinking critically
568:A is true (false).
545:
431:Inductive reasoning
425:Inductive arguments
397:inductive arguments
254:logical consequence
234:Deductive arguments
173:, are presented in
155:Formal and informal
151:(to shine; white).
147:, suffixed form of
142:Proto-Indo-European
105:Inductive arguments
4781:Unity of opposites
4445:Transfer principle
4408:Semantics of logic
4393:Categorical theory
4369:Non-standard model
3883:Logical connective
3010:Information theory
2959:Mathematical logic
2664:Poisoning the well
2481:Proof by assertion
2456:Texas sharpshooter
2390:Questionable cause
2327:Slothful induction
2286:Anecdotal evidence
2146:Circular reasoning
2041:Exclusive premises
2003:Illicit conversion
1781:Salmon, Wesley C.
1724:, Cambridge, 1998.
1628:, Dickenson, 1975.
1453:, Parker and Moore
970:Ralph H. Johnson,
828:an 'ole in 't roof
776:Socrates is mortal
543:
437:inductive argument
390:Existential import
246:deductive argument
240:Deductive argument
223:
191:mathematical logic
67:but in a symbolic
4961:
4960:
4813:List of fallacies
4798:Explanatory power
4725:Critical thinking
4683:
4682:
4615:Abstract category
4418:Theories of truth
4228:Rule of inference
4218:Natural deduction
4199:
4198:
3744:
3743:
3449:Cartesian product
3354:
3353:
3260:Many-valued logic
3235:Boolean functions
3118:Russell's paradox
3093:diagonal argument
2990:First-order logic
2925:
2924:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2839:Ignoratio elenchi
2751:
2750:
2601:
2600:
2563:Not invented here
2268:Converse accident
2190:Correlative-based
2167:Compound question
2110:False attribution
2105:False equivalence
2079:
2078:
1876:McKeon, Matthew.
1718:Douglas N. Walton
1587:The Art of Debate
1451:Critical Thinking
1438:10.1002/sce.20438
1418:Science Education
1203:978-94-007-6883-3
1019:978-1-108-69828-3
957:978-1-285-19736-4
924:Semantic argument
914:Logical reasoning
870:Philosophy portal
606:Nikolas Kompridis
572:
571:
512:Tweety is a bird.
248:asserts that the
175:ordinary language
4996:
4943:Platonic realism
4710:
4703:
4696:
4687:
4686:
4674:
4673:
4625:History of logic
4620:Category of sets
4513:Decision problem
4292:Ordinal analysis
4233:Sequent calculus
4131:Boolean algebras
4071:
4070:
4045:
4016:logical/constant
3770:
3769:
3756:
3679:ZermeloâFraenkel
3430:Set operations:
3365:
3364:
3302:
3133:
3132:
3113:LöwenheimâSkolem
3000:Formal semantics
2952:
2945:
2938:
2929:
2928:
2915:
2914:
2886:Special pleading
2765:
2764:
2626:Appeal to motive
2612:
2611:
2588:Stirring symbols
2568:Island mentality
2506:Wishful thinking
2487:
2486:
2203:Perfect solution
2180:No true Scotsman
2175:Complex question
2160:Leading question
2139:Question-begging
2125:No true Scotsman
2090:
2089:
2013:Quantifier shift
2008:Proof by example
1941:
1940:
1915:
1908:
1901:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1872:
1863:Zalta, Edward N.
1809:Frege, Gottlob.
1797:Elementary Logic
1689:Rob Grootendorst
1672:The New Rhetoric
1598:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1541:on 18 April 2021
1537:. Archived from
1535:www.i3s.unice.fr
1527:
1521:
1520:
1502:
1470:
1464:
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1454:
1448:
1442:
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1387:
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1297:
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1290:
1288:
1286:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1248:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1182:"Informal Logic"
1176:
1170:
1169:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1112:
1106:
1095:
1089:
1079:
1073:
1072:
1044:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1034:
993:
987:
983:
977:
968:
962:
961:
943:
872:
867:
866:
865:
846:natural language
820:Iron is a metal.
630:World disclosure
624:World-disclosing
614:world disclosure
546:
542:
405:Informal fallacy
289:counter argument
267:Validity (logic)
89:computer science
65:natural language
5004:
5003:
4999:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4964:
4963:
4962:
4957:
4928:Logical atomism
4884:
4777:Socratic method
4728:
4719:
4714:
4684:
4679:
4668:
4661:
4606:Category theory
4596:Algebraic logic
4579:
4550:Lambda calculus
4488:Church encoding
4474:
4450:Truth predicate
4306:
4272:Complete theory
4195:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4043:
3763: and
3759:
3754:
3740:
3716:New Foundations
3684:axiom of choice
3667:
3629:Gödel numbering
3569: and
3561:
3465:
3350:
3300:
3281:
3230:Boolean algebra
3216:
3180:Equiconsistency
3145:Classical logic
3122:
3103:Halting problem
3091: and
3067: and
3055: and
3054:
3049:Theorems (
3044:
2961:
2956:
2926:
2921:
2895:
2869:Rationalization
2812:
2759:
2747:
2685:
2607:Genetic fallacy
2597:
2510:
2485:
2460:
2384:
2375:Sorites paradox
2355:False precision
2336:
2317:Double counting
2272:
2247:
2219:
2184:
2171:Loaded question
2155:Loaded language
2134:
2075:
2017:
1983:
1930:
1919:
1832:
1795:Mates, Benson.
1778:
1776:Further reading
1746:T. Edward Damer
1580:
1575:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1491:10.1145/2850417
1471:
1467:
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1414:
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1370:
1366:
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1340:
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1325:
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1294:
1284:
1282:
1269:Harper, Douglas
1266:
1262:
1221:
1217:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1177:
1173:
1158:10.2307/2026735
1138:
1134:
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1113:
1109:
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1092:
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1076:
1069:
1045:
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994:
990:
984:
980:
969:
965:
958:
944:
937:
933:
928:
868:
863:
861:
858:
850:argument scheme
842:
840:Argument mining
836:
834:Argument mining
808:
800:it follows that
796:for that reason
749:
743:
658:
652:
644:tacit knowledge
632:
626:
618:Michel Foucault
594:
581:
495:
489:
469:deductive logic
467:'s analogue to
465:inductive logic
433:
427:
419:
413:
324:Some examples:
312:proof procedure
304:interpretations
269:
263:
242:
236:
215:
195:formal language
167:
157:
136:The Latin root
134:
69:formal language
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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4905:
4900:
4898:Constructivism
4894:
4892:
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4857:
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4785:
4784:
4783:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4734:
4732:
4730:informal logic
4721:
4720:
4713:
4712:
4705:
4698:
4690:
4681:
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4666:
4663:
4662:
4660:
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4644:
4639:
4638:
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4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4591:Abstract logic
4587:
4585:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4570:Turing machine
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4535:
4530:
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4520:
4510:
4508:Computable set
4505:
4500:
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4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4436:
4435:
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4425:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4403:Satisfiability
4400:
4395:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4320:Interpretation
4316:
4314:
4308:
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4304:
4299:
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4284:
4274:
4269:
4268:
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4185:
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4183:
4182:
4177:
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4175:
4170:
4165:
4145:
4144:
4143:
4141:minimal axioms
4138:
4127:
4126:
4125:
4114:
4113:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4074:
4072:
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4049:
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4035:
4030:
4029:
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4018:
4013:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
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3875:
3870:
3865:
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3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3838:
3833:
3831:Formation rule
3828:
3823:
3822:
3821:
3816:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3750:Formal systems
3746:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3692:
3691:
3686:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3646:
3639:Large cardinal
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3575:
3573:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3411:
3406:
3404:Extensionality
3401:
3399:Ordinal number
3396:
3386:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3368:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3317:
3316:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3291:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3226:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3141:
3139:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3083:Cantor's
3081:
3076:
3071:
3061:
3059:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2962:
2955:
2954:
2947:
2940:
2932:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2847:
2842:
2835:
2830:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2773:
2771:
2762:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2708:
2701:
2699:Accomplishment
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2628:
2622:
2620:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2495:
2493:
2484:
2483:
2474:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2451:Slippery slope
2448:
2443:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2417:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2394:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2370:Slippery slope
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2346:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2296:Cherry picking
2288:
2282:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2229:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2194:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2152:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2027:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1994:
1992:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1950:
1948:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1918:
1917:
1910:
1903:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1873:
1851:
1842:
1831:
1830:External links
1828:
1827:
1826:
1814:
1807:
1800:
1793:
1786:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1765:
1762:
1743:
1732:
1725:
1715:
1708:L. S. Stebbing
1705:
1696:
1685:
1678:Henri Poincaré
1675:
1665:
1655:
1646:
1629:
1618:
1609:
1599:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1552:
1522:
1465:
1455:
1443:
1405:
1388:
1364:
1351:
1338:
1323:
1292:
1260:
1215:
1202:
1171:
1152:(8): 399â419.
1132:
1125:
1107:
1090:
1074:
1067:
1039:
1018:
988:
978:
963:
956:
934:
932:
929:
927:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
889:Bayes' theorem
886:
881:
875:
874:
873:
857:
854:
838:Main article:
835:
832:
807:
804:
745:Main article:
742:
739:
727:
726:
723:
716:
713:
710:
654:Main article:
651:
648:
628:Main article:
625:
622:
598:Charles Taylor
593:
590:
580:
577:
570:
569:
566:
562:
561:
558:
557:Minor Premise:
554:
553:
550:
549:Major Premise:
537:fallaciousness
522:
521:
520:
519:
516:
513:
491:Main article:
488:
485:
429:Main article:
426:
423:
415:Main article:
412:
409:
401:Formal fallacy
362:
361:
360:
359:
344:
338:
332:
274:if and only if
265:Main article:
262:
259:
238:Main article:
235:
232:
214:
211:
187:symbolic logic
171:informal logic
161:Informal logic
156:
153:
133:
130:
115:, or even the
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5001:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4887:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4814:
4811:
4810:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4771:
4770:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4711:
4706:
4704:
4699:
4697:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4678:
4677:
4672:
4664:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4636:
4633:
4632:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4588:
4586:
4582:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4565:Recursive set
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4382:
4379:
4375:
4374:of arithmetic
4372:
4371:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4309:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4281:from ZFC
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4264:
4261:
4260:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4206:
4202:
4192:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4180:non-Euclidean
4178:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4159:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4121:
4120:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4068:
4062:
4057:Example
4054:
4046:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3972:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3918:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3814:by definition
3812:
3811:
3810:
3807:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3751:
3747:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3701:KripkeâPlatek
3699:
3697:
3694:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3545:constructible
3543:
3542:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3468:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3284:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3222:Propositional
3219:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3150:Logical truth
3148:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3052:
3047:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2953:
2948:
2946:
2941:
2939:
2934:
2933:
2930:
2918:
2910:
2909:
2906:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2754:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2559:Invented here
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2322:False analogy
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2291:Sampling bias
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2254:Secundum quid
2250:
2244:
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2230:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2198:False dilemma
2196:
2195:
2193:
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2187:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2168:
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2161:
2158:
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2066:Illicit minor
2064:
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2061:Illicit major
2059:
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1817:Martin, Brian
1815:
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1760:0-534-60516-8
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1644:87-991013-7-8
1641:
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1620:H. P. Grice,
1619:
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1615:
1611:J. L. Austin
1610:
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1296:
1281:. MaoningTech
1280:
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1128:
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1068:9781315510880
1064:
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940:
935:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
899:Boolean logic
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
876:
871:
860:
853:
851:
847:
841:
831:
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821:
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813:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
788:I was thirsty
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
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752:
748:
738:
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732:
724:
721:
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714:
711:
708:
707:
706:
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700:
695:
693:
688:
683:
677:
675:
674:argument that
671:
667:
663:
657:
647:
645:
641:
637:
631:
621:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
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589:
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567:
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559:
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494:
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342:
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320:
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313:
309:
305:
301:
300:logical truth
297:
292:
290:
284:
282:
277:
275:
268:
258:
255:
251:
247:
241:
231:
229:
228:truth bearers
219:
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199:argumentation
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90:
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82:
78:
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70:
66:
61:
60:perspective.
59:
55:
51:
47:
46:argumentation
42:
40:
36:
29:
22:
4923:Intuitionism
4908:Fictionalism
4747:
4667:
4465:Ultraproduct
4312:Model theory
4277:Independence
4213:Formal proof
4205:Proof theory
4188:
4161:
4118:real numbers
4090:second-order
4001:Substitution
3878:Metalanguage
3819:conservative
3792:Axiom schema
3736:Constructive
3706:MorseâKelley
3672:Set theories
3651:Aleph number
3644:inaccessible
3550:Grothendieck
3434:intersection
3321:Higher-order
3309:Second-order
3255:Truth tables
3212:Venn diagram
3186:
2995:Formal proof
2854:Naturalistic
2837:
2825:
2805:
2776:
2768:
2760:of relevance
2703:
2681:Whataboutism
2673:
2649:
2643:Godwin's law
2635:
2615:
2498:
2491:Consequences
2472:Law/Legality
2446:Single cause
2419:
2412:
2252:
2120:Loki's Wager
2100:Equivocation
2093:Equivocation
1881:
1866:
1820:
1810:
1803:
1796:
1789:
1782:
1749:
1739:
1728:
1721:
1711:
1701:
1699:K. R. Popper
1692:
1681:
1671:
1668:Ch. Perelman
1661:
1649:
1635:
1625:
1621:
1612:
1606:Epistemology
1605:
1595:
1586:
1564:. Retrieved
1555:
1543:. Retrieved
1539:the original
1534:
1525:
1500:11585/523460
1482:
1478:
1468:
1458:
1450:
1446:
1421:
1417:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1359:
1354:
1346:
1341:
1332:
1326:
1312:(1): 26â53.
1309:
1305:
1295:
1283:. Retrieved
1276:
1263:
1228:
1218:
1207:, retrieved
1185:
1174:
1149:
1145:
1135:
1116:
1110:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1077:
1049:
1042:
1031:, retrieved
1001:
991:
981:
971:
966:
947:
884:Argument map
843:
827:
823:
819:
815:
809:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
753:
750:
728:
720:as arguments
719:
696:
691:
686:
678:
673:
669:
665:
661:
659:
650:Explanations
633:
595:
583:Argument by
582:
573:
531:
527:
523:
496:
460:
456:
446:
434:
420:
394:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
363:
356:
352:
346:
340:
334:
328:
323:
318:
316:
293:
285:
281:logical form
278:
270:
245:
243:
224:
190:
186:
183:formal logic
182:
170:
168:
165:Formal logic
148:
144:
137:
135:
121:
113:retroduction
73:propositions
62:
45:
43:
34:
32:
4903:Dialetheism
4793:Explanation
4763:Credibility
4575:Type theory
4523:undecidable
4455:Truth value
4342:equivalence
4021:non-logical
3634:Enumeration
3624:Isomorphism
3571:cardinality
3555:Von Neumann
3520:Ultrafilter
3485:Uncountable
3419:equivalence
3336:Quantifiers
3326:Fixed-point
3295:First-order
3175:Consistency
3160:Proposition
3137:Traditional
3108:Lindström's
3098:Compactness
3040:Type theory
2985:Cardinality
2874:Red herring
2631:Association
2312:Conjunction
2233:Composition
2130:Reification
2046:Existential
1998:Existential
1788:Aristotle,
1736:Ronald Loui
1602:Robert Audi
1485:(2): 1â25.
894:Belief bias
656:Explanation
640:ontological
592:Other kinds
565:Conclusion:
203:implication
85:mathematics
77:deductively
54:dialectical
4968:Categories
4948:Pragmatism
4938:Nominalism
4845:Propaganda
4820:Hypothesis
4773:Antithesis
4386:elementary
4079:arithmetic
3947:Quantifier
3925:functional
3797:Expression
3515:Transitive
3459:identities
3444:complement
3377:hereditary
3360:Set theory
2850:Moralistic
2784:Sealioning
2778:Ad nauseam
2705:Ipse dixit
2617:Ad hominem
2441:Regression
2243:Ecological
2056:Four terms
1974:Masked man
1878:"Argument"
1840:PhilPapers
1578:References
1126:0262277425
699:rhetorical
692:explaining
636:disclosive
579:By analogy
125:rhetorical
117:disclosure
81:inferences
58:rhetorical
4989:Reasoning
4974:Arguments
4918:Formalism
4880:Vagueness
4860:Relevance
4855:Reasoning
4768:Dialectic
4743:Ambiguity
4657:Supertask
4560:Recursion
4518:decidable
4352:saturated
4330:of models
4253:deductive
4248:axiomatic
4168:Hilbert's
4155:Euclidean
4136:canonical
4059:axiomatic
3991:Signature
3920:Predicate
3809:Extension
3731:Ackermann
3656:Operation
3535:Universal
3525:Recursive
3500:Singleton
3495:Inhabited
3480:Countable
3470:Types of
3454:power set
3424:partition
3341:Predicate
3287:Predicate
3202:Syllogism
3192:Soundness
3165:Inference
3155:Tautology
3057:paradoxes
2891:Straw man
2769:Arguments
2758:fallacies
2732:Tradition
2722:Etymology
2694:Authority
2675:Tu quoque
2659:Bulverism
2429:Gambler's
2398:Animistic
2342:Ambiguity
2308:Base rate
2051:Necessity
1923:fallacies
1658:Yu. Manin
1509:1533-5399
1397:Arguments
1255:1556-5068
1028:244088211
792:therefore
756:therefore
473:soundness
453:induction
417:Soundness
411:Soundness
308:tautology
207:inference
179:discourse
132:Etymology
93:reasoning
4933:Logicism
4913:Finitism
4865:Rhetoric
4850:Prudence
4788:Evidence
4748:Argument
4738:Analysis
4642:Logicism
4635:timeline
4611:Concrete
4470:Validity
4440:T-schema
4433:Kripke's
4428:Tarski's
4423:semantic
4413:Strength
4362:submodel
4357:spectrum
4325:function
4173:Tarski's
4162:Elements
4149:geometry
4105:Robinson
4026:variable
4011:function
3984:spectrum
3974:Sentence
3930:variable
3873:Language
3826:Relation
3787:Automata
3777:Alphabet
3761:language
3615:-jection
3593:codomain
3579:Function
3540:Universe
3510:Infinite
3414:Relation
3197:Validity
3187:Argument
3085:theorem,
2917:Category
2549:Ridicule
2534:Flattery
2524:Children
2421:Post hoc
2301:McNamara
2263:Accident
2238:Division
2085:Informal
1845:Argument
1836:Argument
856:See also
610:fallible
261:Validity
145:argu-yo-
56:and the
39:premises
35:argument
4953:Realism
4840:Premise
4830:Opinion
4825:Inquiry
4808:Fallacy
4584:Related
4381:Diagram
4279: (
4258:Hilbert
4243:Systems
4238:Theorem
4116:of the
4061:systems
3841:Formula
3836:Grammar
3752: (
3696:General
3409:Forcing
3394:Element
3314:Monadic
3089:paradox
3030:Theorem
2966:General
2736:Novelty
2711:Poverty
2573:Loyalty
2539:Novelty
2516:Emotion
2465:Appeals
2434:Inverse
2414:Cum hoc
2403:Furtive
1921:Common
1865:(ed.).
1847:at the
1771:. 1982.
1566:9 March
1545:9 March
1517:9561587
1426:Bibcode
1285:15 June
1273:"Argue"
1166:2026735
784:I drank
764:because
747:Fallacy
670:whether
585:analogy
138:arguere
50:logical
4875:Theory
4753:Belief
4347:finite
4110:Skolem
4063:
4038:Theory
4006:Symbol
3996:String
3979:atomic
3856:ground
3851:closed
3846:atomic
3802:ground
3765:syntax
3661:binary
3588:domain
3505:Finite
3270:finite
3128:Logics
3087:
3035:Theory
2821:Cliché
2756:Other
2727:Nature
2715:Wealth
2350:Accent
1936:Formal
1758:
1642:
1515:
1507:
1399:?" in
1253:
1200:
1164:
1123:
1065:
1026:
1016:
954:
790:. The
461:strong
457:cogent
79:valid
52:, the
4870:Rigor
4337:Model
4085:Peano
3942:Proof
3782:Arity
3711:Naive
3598:image
3530:Fuzzy
3490:Empty
3439:union
3384:Class
3025:Model
3015:Lemma
2973:Axiom
2583:Spite
2477:Stone
1861:. In
1783:Logic
1513:S2CID
1209:2 May
1162:JSTOR
1033:2 May
1024:S2CID
931:Notes
768:hence
682:claim
250:truth
101:sound
97:valid
4803:Fact
4758:Bias
4460:Type
4263:list
4067:list
4044:list
4033:Term
3967:rank
3861:open
3755:list
3567:Maps
3472:sets
3331:Free
3301:list
3051:list
2978:list
2669:Tone
2544:Pity
2529:Fear
1927:list
1756:ISBN
1640:ISBN
1568:2021
1547:2021
1505:ISSN
1463:5â8.
1287:2018
1251:ISSN
1211:2022
1198:ISBN
1121:ISBN
1063:ISBN
1035:2022
1014:ISBN
952:ISBN
798:not
766:and
471:'s "
403:and
384:are
376:are
368:are
205:and
163:and
149:arg-
87:and
4727:and
4147:of
4129:of
4077:of
3609:Sur
3583:Map
3390:Ur-
3372:Set
1988:In
1944:In
1838:at
1624:in
1495:hdl
1487:doi
1434:doi
1314:doi
1241:hdl
1233:doi
1190:doi
1154:doi
1055:doi
1006:doi
687:why
666:how
664:or
662:why
435:An
407:).
392:).
33:An
4970::
4779:,
4775:,
4533:NP
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3758:),
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3605:In
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2479:/
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1594:.
1592:74
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760:so
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