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certainty). Given premises that A=B and B=C, then the conclusion follows necessarily that A=C. Deductive arguments are sometimes referred to as "truth-preserving" arguments. For example, consider the argument that because bats can fly (premise=true), and all flying creatures are birds (premise=false), therefore bats are birds (conclusion=false). If we assume the premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily, and it is a valid argument.
1386:(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 254. In addition, Foucault said of his own approach that "My role ... is to show people that they are much freer than they feel, that people accept as truth, as evidence, some themes which have been built up at a certain moment during history, and that this so-called evidence can be criticized and destroyed." He also wrote that he was engaged in "the process of putting historico-critical reflection to the
1112:(Harvard, 1995), 20â33. " arguments consist of a string of what one could call indispensability claims. They move from their starting points to their conclusions by showing that the condition stated in the conclusion is indispensable to the feature identified at the start ... Thus we could spell out Kant's transcendental deduction in the first edition in three stages: experience must have an object, that is, be
118:, by contrast, can have different degrees of logical strength: the stronger or more cogent the argument, the greater the probability that the conclusion is true, the weaker the argument, the lesser that probability. The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truthâfor example, the persuasiveness of so-called "indispensability claims" in
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perspective, the argument is constitutively linked with the context, in particular with the time and place in which the argument is located. From this perspective, the argument is evaluated not just by two parties (as in a dialectical approach) but also by an audience. In both dialectic and rhetoric,
598:
may be thought of as argument from the particular to particular. An argument by analogy may use a particular truth in a premise to argue towards a similar particular truth in the conclusion. For example, if A. Plato was mortal, and B. Socrates was like Plato in other respects, then asserting that C.
539:
In order to represent and assess defeasible reasoning, it is necessary to combine the logical rules (governing the acceptance of a conclusion based on the acceptance of its premises) with rules of material inference, governing how a premise can support a given conclusion (whether it is reasonable or
454:
is the largest in the world (premise=true), then it is probable that it will remain so for the next 10 years (conclusion=true). Arguments that involve predictions are inductive since the future is uncertain. An inductive argument is said to be strong or weak. If the premises of an inductive argument
297:
Logic seeks to discover the forms that make arguments valid. A form of argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true under all interpretations of that argument in which the premises are true. Since the validity of an argument depends on its form, an argument can be shown invalid by showing
700:
Fred's cat is scratching itself. Arguments address problems of belief, explanations address problems of understanding. In the argument above, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is up for debate (i.e. is a claim), but in the explanation, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is assumed to be true
282:
In terms of validity, deductive arguments may be either valid or invalid. An argument is valid, if and only if (iff) it is impossible in all possible worlds for the premises to be true and the conclusion false; validity is about what is possible; it is concerned with how the premises and conclusion
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of the premises: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. It would be self-contradictory to assert the premises and deny the conclusion because the negation of the conclusion is contradictory to the truth of the premises. Based on the premises, the conclusion follows necessarily (with
550:
of defeasible arguments. Argumentation schemes are stereotypical patterns of inference, combining semantic-ontological relations with types of reasoning and logical axioms and representing the abstract structure of the most common types of natural arguments. A typical example is the argument from
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This argument is reasonable and the premises support the conclusion unless additional information indicating that the case is an exception comes in. If Tweety is a penguin, the inference is no longer justified by the premise. Defeasible arguments are based on generalizations that hold only in the
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This is called "argument-as-product", distinguished from "argument-as-process" and "argument-as-procedure." Wenzel, J. W. (1987). The rhetorical perspective on argument. In F. H. van
Eemeren, R. Grootendorst, J. A. Blair, & C. A. Willard (Eds.), Argumentation. Across the lines of discipline.
332:) and so the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, or follows of logical necessity. The conclusion of a valid argument is not necessarily true, it depends on whether the premises are true. If the conclusion, itself, is a necessary truth, it is without regard to the premises.
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are assumed true, is it probable the conclusion is also true? If yes, the argument is strong. If no, it is weak. A strong argument is said to be cogent if it has all true premises. Otherwise, the argument is uncogent. The military budget argument example is a strong, cogent argument.
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In modern argumentation theories, arguments are regarded as defeasible passages from premises to a conclusion. Defeasibility means that when additional information (new evidence or contrary arguments) is provided, the premises may be no longer lead to the conclusion
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is true, and an explanation attempts to provide understanding of the event. Note, that by subsuming the specific event (of Fred's cat scratching) as an instance of the general rule that "animals scratch themselves when they have fleas", Joe will no longer wonder
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In dialectics, and also in a more colloquial sense, an argument can be conceived as a social and verbal means of trying to resolve, or at least contend with, a conflict or difference of opinion that has arisen or exists between two or more parties. For the
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Each scheme may be associated with a set of critical questions, namely criteria for assessing dialectically the reasonableness and acceptability of an argument. The matching critical questions are the standard ways of casting the argument into doubt.
220:. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit. The rational structureâthe relationship of claims, premises, warrants, relations of implication, and conclusionâis not always spelled out and immediately visible and must be made explicit by analysis.
139:
arguments are used not through formal but through natural language. Since classical antiquity, philosophers and rhetoricians have developed lists of argument types in which premises and conclusions are connected in informal and defeasible ways.
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Both the above argument and explanation require knowing the generalities that a) fleas often cause itching, and b) that one often scratches to relieve itching. The difference is in the intent: an argument attempts to settle whether or not some
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that its form is invalid. This can be done by a counter example of the same form of argument with premises that are true under a given interpretation, but a conclusion that is false under that interpretation. In informal logic this is called a
1473:
Justin Scott
Giboney, Susan Brown, and Jay F. Nunamaker Jr. (2012). "User Acceptance of Knowledge-Based System Recommendations: Explanations, Arguments, and Fit" 45th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii, January
599:
Socrates was mortal is an example of argument by analogy because the reasoning employed in it proceeds from a particular truth in a premise (Plato was mortal) to a similar particular truth in the conclusion, namely that
Socrates was mortal.
294:. The validity of an argument is not a guarantee of the truth of its conclusion. A valid argument may have false premises that render it inconclusive: the conclusion of a valid argument with one or more false premises may be true or false.
1190:
van
Eemeren, Frans H.; Garssen, Bart; Krabbe, Erik C. W.; Snoeck Henkemans, A. Francisca; Verheij, Bart; Wagemans, Jean H. M. (2021), van Eemeren, Frans H.; Garssen, Bart; Verheij, Bart; Krabbe, Erik C. W. (eds.),
1675:, Springer Verlag, 1977. A mathematical view of logic. This book is different from most books on mathematical logic in that it emphasizes the mathematics of logic, as opposed to the formal structure of logic.
236:
There are several kinds of arguments in logic, the best known of which are "deductive" and "inductive." An argument has one or more premises but only one conclusion. Each premise and the conclusion are
114:: in a valid argument, premises necessitate the conclusion, even if one or more of the premises is false and the conclusion is false; in a sound argument, true premises necessitate a true conclusion.
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Often an argument is invalid or weak because there is a missing premiseâthe supply of which would make it valid or strong. This is referred to as an elliptical or enthymematic argument (see also
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On the other hand, a seemingly valid argument may be found to lack a premiseâa "hidden assumption"âwhich, if highlighted, can show a fault in reasoning. Example: A witness reasoned:
825:). Speakers and writers will often leave out a necessary premise in their reasoning if it is widely accepted and the writer does not wish to state the blindingly obvious. Example:
1390: ... I continue to think that this task requires work on our limits, that is, a patient labor giving form to our impatience for liberty." (emphasis added) Hubert Dreyfus, "
765:
One type of fallacy occurs when a word frequently used to indicate a conclusion is used as a transition (conjunctive adverb) between independent clauses. In
English the words
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Likewise, "... arguments are essential to the process of justifying the validity of any explanation as there are often multiple explanations for any given phenomenon."
55:
Arguments are intended to determine or show the degree of truth or acceptability of another statement called a conclusion. The process of crafting or delivering arguments,
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Valid argument; the premises entail the conclusion. (This does not mean the conclusion has to be true; it is only true if the premises are true, which they may not be!)
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The forms of argument that render deductions valid are well-established, however some invalid arguments can also be persuasive depending on their construction (
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In the above second to last case (Some men are hawkers ...), the counter-example follows the same logical form as the previous argument, (Premise 1: "Some
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In formal logic, the validity of an argument depends not on the actual truth or falsity of its premises and conclusion, but on whether the argument has a valid
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the cat has fleas. However, if Joe asks Fred, "Why is your cat scratching itself?" the explanation, "... because it has fleas." provides understanding.
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Non-deductive logic is reasoning using arguments in which the premises support the conclusion but do not entail it. Forms of non-deductive logic include the
615:
are made up of a "chain of indispensability claims" that attempt to show why something is necessarily true based on its connection to our experience, while
1725:, Methuen and Co., 1948. An account of logic that covers the classic topics of logic and argument while carefully considering modern developments in logic.
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The hidden assumptions are: (1) the milkman was not the murderer and (2) the murderer has left (3) by a door and (4) not by e.g. a window or through
313:. A statement form which is logically true is also said to be a valid statement form. A statement form is a logical truth if it is true under all
241:
or "truth-candidates", each capable of being either true or false (but not both). These truth values bear on the terminology used with arguments.
52:
and one is the conclusion. The purpose of an argument is to give reasons for one's conclusion via justification, explanation, and/or persuasion.
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or cultural-linguistic understandingâa "world", in a specifically ontological senseâin order to clarify or transform the background of meaning (
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399:.") in order to demonstrate that whatever hawkers may be, they may or may not be rich, in consideration of the premises as such. (See also:
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that preserve truth from the premises to the conclusion. This logical perspective on argument is relevant for scientific fields such as
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The form of an argument can be shown by the use of symbols. For each argument form, there is a corresponding statement form, called a
1665:, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, No. 5, 1979. A classic article on the social process of acceptance of proofs in mathematics.
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or not Fred's cat has fleas, Joe may state: "Fred, your cat has fleas. Observe, the cat is scratching right now." Joe has made an
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1619:, Routledge, 1998. Particularly relevant is Chapter 6, which explores the relationship between knowledge, inference and argument.
961:. Cengage advantage books (9 ed.). Australia; Brazil; Mexico; Singapore; United Kingdom; United States: Cengage Learning.
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if and only if the truth of the argument's premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i.e., the argument is
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something; for this, it must be coherent; and to be coherent it must be shaped by the understanding through the categories."
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Other kinds of arguments may have different or additional standards of validity or justification. For example, philosopher
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An argument is sound when the argument is valid and argument's premise(s) is/are true, therefore the conclusion is true.
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Osborne, Jonathan F.; Patterson, Alexis (23 May 2011). "Scientific argument and explanation: A necessary distinction?".
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Fallacies are types of argument or expressions which are held to be of an invalid form or contain errors in reasoning.
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asserts that the truth of the conclusion is supported by the probability of the premises. For example, given that the
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466:, a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances. An inductive argument is said to be
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and the relationship between the main and subsidiary argument, or the main and counter-argument within discourse.
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While arguments attempt to show that something was, is, will be, or should be the case, explanations try to show
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World-disclosing arguments are a group of philosophical arguments that according to
Nikolas Kompridis employ a
623:" arguments: one based on truth claims, and the other based on the time-responsive disclosure of possibility (
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in arguments and the development of standards and criteria to evaluate arguments. Deductive arguments can be
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text with the aid of computer programs. Such argumentative structures include the premise, conclusions, the
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The goal of argument mining is the automatic extraction and identification of argumentative structures from
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Nobody came out the front door except the milkman; therefore the murderer must have left by the back door.
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748:. Certain argument types may fit better with personality traits to enhance acceptance by individuals.
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Invalid argument. This can be easier seen by giving a counter-example with the same argument form:
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Either we are all doomed or we are all saved; we are not all saved; therefore, we are all doomed.
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This article is about the subject as it is studied in logic and philosophy. For other uses, see
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Proceedings of the conference on argumentation 1986 (pp. 101â109). Dordrecht-Providence: Foris.
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Some Greeks are logicians and some logicians are tiresome; therefore, some Greeks are tiresome.
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People often are not themselves clear on whether they are arguing for or explaining something.
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317:. A statement form can be shown to be a logical truth by either (a) showing that it is a
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Invalid argument, as it is possible that the premises be true and the conclusion false.
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The same types of words and phrases are used in presenting explanations and arguments.
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not to draw a specific conclusion from a specific description of a state of affairs).
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is not a form of inductive reasoning. The lack of deductive validity is known as the
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1796:. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall (1963). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 63â10528.
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309:, and an argument form is valid if and only if its corresponding conditional is a
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The terms 'explain' or 'explanation,' et cetera are frequently used in arguments.
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All Greeks are human and all humans are mortal; therefore, all Greeks are mortal.
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is a series of sentences, statements, or propositions some of which are called
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the denial of the conclusion is incompatible with accepting all the premises.
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474:), and the argument's premises are, in fact, true. Cogency can be considered
342: : Valid argument; if the premises are true the conclusion must be true.
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The corresponding conditional of a valid argument is a necessary truth (true
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1685:, Notre Dame, 1970. This classic was originally published in French in 1958.
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Invalid argument: the tiresome logicians might all be Romans (for example).
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typically separate the premises from the conclusion of an argument. Thus:
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Explanations are often used within arguments and presented so as to serve
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Some men are hawkers. Some hawkers are rich. Therefore, some men are rich.
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is not an argument, despite its appearance. It is not being claimed that
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was a prominent advocate of this latter form of philosophical argument.
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1810:. New York: OUP (1972). Library of Congress Catalog Card no. 74â166004.
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All metals expand when heated, therefore iron will expand when heated.
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expert opinion, shown below, which has two premises and a conclusion.
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Source E is an expert in subject domain S containing proposition A.
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have been developed to describe and assess the acceptability or the
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Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl; McMahon, Kenneth (9 September 2016).
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Wagemans, Jean H. M. (2 December 2021), Stalmaszczyk, Piotr (ed.),
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1572:"NLP Approaches to Computational Argumentation â ACL 2016, Berlin"
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Socrates is a man, all men are mortal therefore
Socrates is mortal
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1753:, ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 32, num. 4, pp. 337â383, 2000.
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462:, which argues from generalizations true for the most part, and
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majority of cases, but are subject to exceptions and defaults.
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and (5) there are no other doors than the front or back door.
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something is or will be. If Fred and Joe address the issue of
366:
Some herbivores are zebras. Therefore, some people are zebras.
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Explanations and arguments are often studied in the field of
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about claims. There are several reasons for this difficulty.
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151:(to make bright, enlighten, make known, prove, etc.) is from
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27:
Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
1486:"Argumentation Mining: State of the Art and Emerging Trends"
1356:
Charles Taylor, "The
Validity of Transcendental Arguments",
1108:
Charles Taylor, "The
Validity of Transcendental Arguments",
1015:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 571â589,
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1647:
Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in
Reflection and Expression
283:
relate and what is possible. An argument is formally valid
1126:
Kompridis, Nikolas (2006). "World Disclosing Arguments?".
959:
Understanding arguments: an introduction to informal logic
708:
Arguments and explanations largely resemble each other in
86:
of which one is claimed to follow from the others through
1775:
Charles Arthur Willard, A Theory of Argumentation. 1989.
1382:
Nikolas Kompridis, "Disclosure as (Intimate) Critique",
1342:
Walton, Douglas; Reed, Chris; Macagno, Fabrizio (2008).
956:
952:
950:
957:
Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter; Fogelin, Robert J. (2015).
816:
517:. For instance we consider the famous Tweety example:
1824:. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press (1980).
1803:. Ed. and trans. John Warrington. London: Dent (1964)
1738:
Walton, Douglas; Christopher Reed; Fabrizio Macagno,
1733:
Informal Logic: A Handbook for Critical Argumentation
947:
1662:
Social Processes and Proofs of Theorems and Programs
1346:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 310.
1013:
The Cambridge Handbook of the Philosophy of Language
984:
Manifest Rationality: A pragmatic theory of argument
870:
823:
Enthymeme § Syllogism with an unstated premise
59:, can be studied from three main perspectives: the
1199:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1â45,
74:In logic, an argument is usually expressed not in
1817:. New York: Van Nostran Reinholds Company (1964).
1780:Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge
1341:
4976:
1426:
1057:
789:follows from the preceding statements. However,
1369:Nikolas Kompridis, "Two Kinds of Fallibilism",
1313:"Classifying the patterns of natural arguments"
2042:Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise
1659:R. A. DeMillo, R. J. Lipton and A. J. Perlis,
1484:Lippi, Marco; Torroni, Paolo (20 April 2016).
751:
627:). Kompridis said that the French philosopher
571:E asserts that proposition A is true (false).
498:Defeasible arguments and argumentation schemes
130:of new possibilities for thinking and acting.
4712:
2954:
2047:Negative conclusion from affirmative premises
1917:
1742:, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
1713:Objective Knowledge; An Evolutionary Approach
1422:
1420:
1310:
712:use. This is the cause of much difficulty in
1483:
1257:11245.1/c4517884-2626-4ada-81d0-50655ec78786
1236:"Constructing a Periodic Table of Arguments"
987:(New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum, 2000), 46â49.
513:). This type of reasoning is referred to as
1931:
1836:(SparsnÀs, Sweden: Irene Publishing, 2014).
1311:Macagno, Fabrizio; Walton, Douglas (2015).
701:(unquestioned at this time) and just needs
619:has suggested that there are two types of "
4719:
4705:
3146:
2961:
2947:
1924:
1910:
1417:
1130:. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 116â124.
224:Standard logical account of argument types
2625:
1864:
1649:, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005,
1509:
1255:
1153:"What is Reasoning? What Is an Argument?"
1125:
208:. Informal logic emphasizes the study of
2778:
1704:Speech Acts in Argumentative Discussions
1233:
1006:
649:approach, to reveal features of a wider
227:
82:, and it can be defined as any group of
4726:
1490:ACM Transactions on Internet Technology
1414:, Cambridge: MIT Press (2006), 118â121.
1392:Being and Power: Heidegger and Foucault
14:
4977:
2968:
1542:"Argument Mining - IJCAI2016 Tutorial"
1373:(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 180â183.
1150:
435:
244:
165:
4700:
2942:
1905:
1406:Nikolas Kompridis, "World Disclosing
785:is an argument because the assertion
102:. Logic is the study of the forms of
1745:Carlos Chesñevar, Ana Maguitman and
1435:(4). Wiley Online Library: 627â638.
452:military budget of the United States
1894:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1879:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1860:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
1097:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1093:"Deductive and Inductive Arguments"
817:Elliptical or ethymematic arguments
791:I was thirsty and therefore I drank
744:to help explain user acceptance of
634:
529:Therefore, Tweety (probably) flies.
24:
1886:
1815:Introduction to Mathematical Logic
1786:
1278:
1151:Walton, Douglas N. (August 1990).
844:
192:. Formal arguments are studied in
25:
5011:
1840:
180:Informal arguments as studied in
4680:
2923:
2922:
1765:, 5th Edition, Wadsworth, 2005.
1715:, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
1628:, Oxford University Press, 1976.
1197:Handbook of Argumentation Theory
873:
1564:
1534:
1477:
1467:
1455:
1400:
1376:
1363:
1350:
1335:
1304:
1272:
1227:
1183:
660:
200:, more commonly referred to as
122:, the quality of hypotheses in
2420:Correlation implies causation
1723:A Modern Introduction to Logic
1673:A Course in Mathematical Logic
1144:
1119:
1102:
1086:
1051:
1000:
990:
975:
602:
204:today) and are expressed in a
188:and are intended for everyday
13:
1:
4641:History of mathematical logic
1822:The Foundations of Arithmetic
1801:Prior and Posterior Analytics
1594:
1588:
1205:10.1007/978-94-007-6883-3_7-1
589:
555:Argument from expert opinion
39:Disagreement (disambiguation)
4566:Primitive recursive function
1870:"Argument and Argumentation"
1595:Shaw, Warren Choate (1922).
1234:Wagemans, Jean H.M. (2016).
1009:"The Philosophy of Argument"
421:
364:Some people are herbivores.
142:
110:, and the valid ones can be
7:
1706:, Foris Publications, 1984.
1625:How to Do Things With Words
1601:. Allyn and Bacon. p.
1289:Online Etymology Dictionary
866:
805:in this sentence indicates
752:Fallacies and non-arguments
410:, for example). (See also:
271:
10:
5016:
3630:SchröderâBernstein theorem
3357:Monadic predicate calculus
3016:Foundations of mathematics
2844:I'm entitled to my opinion
1762:Attacking Faulty Reasoning
1751:Logical Models of Argument
1695:, Dover Publications, 1952
1388:test of concrete practices
1329:10.5325/philrhet.48.1.0026
848:
755:
664:
638:
501:
439:
425:
275:
248:
212:; formal logic emphasizes
169:
36:
29:
4899:
4846:Parsimony (Occam's razor)
4734:
4676:
4663:Philosophy of mathematics
4612:Automated theorem proving
4594:
4489:
4321:
4214:
4066:
3783:
3759:
3737:Von NeumannâBernaysâGödel
3682:
3576:
3480:
3378:
3369:
3296:
3231:
3137:
3059:
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2199:
2149:
2103:
2094:
2032:
1998:
1954:
1945:
1681:and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca,
1317:Philosophy & Rhetoric
1157:The Journal of Philosophy
1021:10.1017/9781108698283.032
797:is logically entailed by
307:corresponding conditional
32:Argument (disambiguation)
4990:Critical thinking skills
2870:Motte-and-bailey fallacy
1970:Affirming the consequent
1778:Charles Arthur Willard,
1396:"What is Enlightenment?"
941:
829:The missing premise is:
613:transcendental arguments
120:transcendental arguments
4313:Self-verifying theories
4134:Tarski's axiomatization
3085:Tarski's undefinability
3080:incompleteness theorems
2890:Two wrongs make a right
2221:Denying the correlative
1866:Dutilh Novaes, Catarina
1412:Critique and Disclosure
1394:" and Michel Foucault,
1384:Critique and Disclosure
1371:Critique and Disclosure
1360:(Harvard, 1995), 20â33.
1358:Philosophical Arguments
1240:SSRN Electronic Journal
1128:Critique and Disclosure
1110:Philosophical Arguments
746:knowledge-based systems
511:non-monotonic reasoning
263:of the conclusion is a
4687:Mathematics portal
4298:Proof of impossibility
3946:propositional variable
3256:Propositional calculus
2875:Psychologist's fallacy
2812:Argument to moderation
2802:Argument from anecdote
2752:Chronological snobbery
2376:Quoting out of context
2343:Overwhelming exception
2226:Suppressed correlative
2126:Quoting out of context
2001:quantificational logic
1975:Denying the antecedent
1833:The Controversy Manual
1698:Frans van Eemeren and
1693:Science and Hypothesis
1633:Logic and Conversation
488:mathematical induction
330:in all possible worlds
233:
4901:Theories of deduction
4556:Kolmogorov complexity
4509:Computably enumerable
4409:Model complete theory
4201:Principia Mathematica
3261:Propositional formula
3090:BanachâTarski paradox
2838:The Four Great Errors
2818:Argumentum ad populum
2807:Argument from silence
2511:Argumentum ad baculum
2289:Faulty generalization
1980:Argument from fallacy
1740:Argumentation Schemes
1344:Argumentation Schemes
1070:10.4324/9781315510897
1061:Introduction to Logic
920:Evidence-based policy
915:Cosmological argument
544:Argumentation schemes
486:". Despite its name,
460:statistical syllogism
391:." Conclusion: "Some
321:or (b) by means of a
231:
196:(historically called
170:Further information:
4504:ChurchâTuring thesis
4491:Computability theory
3700:continuum hypothesis
3218:Square of opposition
3076:Gödel's completeness
2856:Invincible ignorance
2662:Reductio ad Stalinum
2648:Reductio ad Hitlerum
2604:Wisdom of repugnance
2371:Moving the goalposts
2236:Illicit transference
2161:Begging the question
2082:Undistributed middle
1990:Mathematical fallacy
1965:Affirming a disjunct
1643:Vincent F. Hendricks
1637:The Logic of Grammar
1607:argument by analogy.
1248:10.2139/ssrn.2769833
611:said that so-called
526:Birds generally fly.
515:defeasible reasoning
504:Argumentation scheme
492:problem of induction
383:." Premise 2: "Some
232:Argument terminology
37:For other uses, see
4995:Logical consequence
4728:Philosophical logic
4658:Mathematical object
4549:P versus NP problem
4514:Computable function
4308:Reverse mathematics
4234:Logical consequence
4111:primitive recursive
4106:elementary function
3879:Free/bound variable
3732:TarskiâGrothendieck
3251:Logical connectives
3181:Logical equivalence
3031:Logical consequence
2589:Parade of horribles
2565:In-group favoritism
2391:Syntactic ambiguity
2034:Syllogistic fallacy
1957:propositional logic
1813:Mendelson, Elliot.
1441:2011SciEd..95..627O
930:Practical arguments
890:Abductive reasoning
742:information systems
714:thinking critically
579:A is true (false).
556:
442:Inductive reasoning
436:Inductive arguments
408:inductive arguments
265:logical consequence
245:Deductive arguments
184:, are presented in
166:Formal and informal
162:(to shine; white).
158:, suffixed form of
153:Proto-Indo-European
116:Inductive arguments
4792:Unity of opposites
4456:Transfer principle
4419:Semantics of logic
4404:Categorical theory
4380:Non-standard model
3894:Logical connective
3021:Information theory
2970:Mathematical logic
2675:Poisoning the well
2492:Proof by assertion
2467:Texas sharpshooter
2401:Questionable cause
2338:Slothful induction
2297:Anecdotal evidence
2157:Circular reasoning
2052:Exclusive premises
2014:Illicit conversion
1792:Salmon, Wesley C.
1735:, Cambridge, 1998.
1639:, Dickenson, 1975.
1464:, Parker and Moore
981:Ralph H. Johnson,
839:an 'ole in 't roof
787:Socrates is mortal
554:
448:inductive argument
401:Existential import
257:deductive argument
251:Deductive argument
234:
202:mathematical logic
78:but in a symbolic
4972:
4971:
4824:List of fallacies
4809:Explanatory power
4736:Critical thinking
4694:
4693:
4626:Abstract category
4429:Theories of truth
4239:Rule of inference
4229:Natural deduction
4210:
4209:
3755:
3754:
3460:Cartesian product
3365:
3364:
3271:Many-valued logic
3246:Boolean functions
3129:Russell's paradox
3104:diagonal argument
3001:First-order logic
2936:
2935:
2914:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2850:Ignoratio elenchi
2762:
2761:
2612:
2611:
2574:Not invented here
2279:Converse accident
2201:Correlative-based
2178:Compound question
2121:False attribution
2116:False equivalence
2090:
2089:
1887:McKeon, Matthew.
1729:Douglas N. Walton
1598:The Art of Debate
1462:Critical Thinking
1449:10.1002/sce.20438
1429:Science Education
1214:978-94-007-6883-3
1030:978-1-108-69828-3
968:978-1-285-19736-4
935:Semantic argument
925:Logical reasoning
881:Philosophy portal
617:Nikolas Kompridis
583:
582:
523:Tweety is a bird.
259:asserts that the
186:ordinary language
16:(Redirected from
5007:
4954:Platonic realism
4721:
4714:
4707:
4698:
4697:
4685:
4684:
4636:History of logic
4631:Category of sets
4524:Decision problem
4303:Ordinal analysis
4244:Sequent calculus
4142:Boolean algebras
4082:
4081:
4056:
4027:logical/constant
3781:
3780:
3767:
3690:ZermeloâFraenkel
3441:Set operations:
3376:
3375:
3313:
3144:
3143:
3124:LöwenheimâSkolem
3011:Formal semantics
2963:
2956:
2949:
2940:
2939:
2926:
2925:
2897:Special pleading
2776:
2775:
2637:Appeal to motive
2623:
2622:
2599:Stirring symbols
2579:Island mentality
2517:Wishful thinking
2498:
2497:
2214:Perfect solution
2191:No true Scotsman
2186:Complex question
2171:Leading question
2150:Question-begging
2136:No true Scotsman
2101:
2100:
2024:Quantifier shift
2019:Proof by example
1952:
1951:
1926:
1919:
1912:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1883:
1874:Zalta, Edward N.
1820:Frege, Gottlob.
1808:Elementary Logic
1700:Rob Grootendorst
1683:The New Rhetoric
1609:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1568:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1552:on 18 April 2021
1548:. Archived from
1546:www.i3s.unice.fr
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1193:"Informal Logic"
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857:natural language
831:Iron is a metal.
641:World disclosure
635:World-disclosing
625:world disclosure
557:
553:
416:Informal fallacy
300:counter argument
278:Validity (logic)
100:computer science
76:natural language
21:
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4939:Logical atomism
4895:
4788:Socratic method
4739:
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4690:
4679:
4672:
4617:Category theory
4607:Algebraic logic
4590:
4561:Lambda calculus
4499:Church encoding
4485:
4461:Truth predicate
4317:
4283:Complete theory
4206:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4062:
4054:
3774: and
3770:
3765:
3751:
3727:New Foundations
3695:axiom of choice
3678:
3640:Gödel numbering
3580: and
3572:
3476:
3361:
3311:
3292:
3241:Boolean algebra
3227:
3191:Equiconsistency
3156:Classical logic
3133:
3114:Halting problem
3102: and
3078: and
3066: and
3065:
3060:Theorems (
3055:
2972:
2967:
2937:
2932:
2906:
2880:Rationalization
2823:
2770:
2758:
2696:
2618:Genetic fallacy
2608:
2521:
2496:
2471:
2395:
2386:Sorites paradox
2366:False precision
2347:
2328:Double counting
2283:
2258:
2230:
2195:
2182:Loaded question
2166:Loaded language
2145:
2086:
2028:
1994:
1941:
1930:
1843:
1806:Mates, Benson.
1789:
1787:Further reading
1757:T. Edward Damer
1591:
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861:argument scheme
853:
851:Argument mining
847:
845:Argument mining
819:
811:it follows that
807:for that reason
760:
754:
669:
663:
655:tacit knowledge
643:
637:
629:Michel Foucault
605:
592:
506:
500:
480:deductive logic
478:'s analogue to
476:inductive logic
444:
438:
430:
424:
335:Some examples:
323:proof procedure
315:interpretations
280:
274:
253:
247:
226:
206:formal language
178:
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147:The Latin root
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80:formal language
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4909:Constructivism
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4414:Satisfiability
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4152:minimal axioms
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3842:Formation rule
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3752:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3664:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3650:Large cardinal
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3586:
3584:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3487:
3485:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3422:
3417:
3415:Extensionality
3412:
3410:Ordinal number
3407:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3379:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3302:
3300:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3237:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3152:
3150:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3094:Cantor's
3092:
3087:
3082:
3072:
3070:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2973:
2966:
2965:
2958:
2951:
2943:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2858:
2853:
2846:
2841:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2821:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2784:
2782:
2773:
2764:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2719:
2712:
2710:Accomplishment
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2506:
2504:
2495:
2494:
2485:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2462:Slippery slope
2459:
2454:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2428:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2405:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2381:Slippery slope
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2357:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2307:Cherry picking
2299:
2293:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2270:
2268:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2240:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2205:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2163:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2105:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2005:
2003:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1961:
1959:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1929:
1928:
1921:
1914:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1884:
1862:
1853:
1842:
1841:External links
1839:
1838:
1837:
1825:
1818:
1811:
1804:
1797:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1776:
1773:
1754:
1743:
1736:
1726:
1719:L. S. Stebbing
1716:
1707:
1696:
1689:Henri Poincaré
1686:
1676:
1666:
1657:
1640:
1629:
1620:
1610:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1563:
1533:
1476:
1466:
1454:
1416:
1399:
1375:
1362:
1349:
1334:
1303:
1271:
1226:
1213:
1182:
1163:(8): 399â419.
1143:
1136:
1118:
1101:
1085:
1078:
1050:
1029:
999:
989:
974:
967:
945:
943:
940:
938:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
900:Bayes' theorem
897:
892:
886:
885:
884:
868:
865:
849:Main article:
846:
843:
818:
815:
756:Main article:
753:
750:
738:
737:
734:
727:
724:
721:
665:Main article:
662:
659:
639:Main article:
636:
633:
609:Charles Taylor
604:
601:
591:
588:
581:
580:
577:
573:
572:
569:
568:Minor Premise:
565:
564:
561:
560:Major Premise:
548:fallaciousness
533:
532:
531:
530:
527:
524:
502:Main article:
499:
496:
440:Main article:
437:
434:
426:Main article:
423:
420:
412:Formal fallacy
373:
372:
371:
370:
355:
349:
343:
285:if and only if
276:Main article:
273:
270:
249:Main article:
246:
243:
225:
222:
198:symbolic logic
182:informal logic
172:Informal logic
167:
164:
144:
141:
126:, or even the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5012:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4902:
4898:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4781:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4746:
4744:
4742:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4722:
4717:
4715:
4710:
4708:
4703:
4702:
4699:
4689:
4688:
4683:
4675:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4593:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4576:Recursive set
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4492:
4488:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4398:
4395:
4394:
4393:
4390:
4386:
4385:of arithmetic
4383:
4382:
4381:
4378:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4292:from ZFC
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4275:
4272:
4271:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4217:
4213:
4203:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4192:
4191:non-Euclidean
4189:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4174:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4132:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4079:
4073:
4068:Example
4065:
4057:
4052:
4051:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3932:
3929:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3825:by definition
3823:
3822:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3768:
3762:
3758:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3712:KripkeâPlatek
3710:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3692:
3691:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3556:constructible
3554:
3553:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3479:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3309:
3308:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3236:
3234:
3233:Propositional
3230:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3161:Logical truth
3159:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3063:
3058:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2964:
2959:
2957:
2952:
2950:
2945:
2944:
2941:
2929:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2765:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2570:Invented here
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2333:False analogy
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2302:Sampling bias
2300:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2271:
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2267:
2266:
2265:Secundum quid
2261:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2209:False dilemma
2207:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2169:
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2158:
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2112:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2077:Illicit minor
2075:
2073:
2072:Illicit major
2070:
2068:
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2060:
2058:
2055:
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2012:
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1991:
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1828:Martin, Brian
1826:
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1771:0-534-60516-8
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1656:
1655:87-991013-7-8
1652:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1631:H. P. Grice,
1630:
1627:
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1622:J. L. Austin
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1292:. MaoningTech
1291:
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1079:9781315510880
1075:
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946:
936:
933:
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928:
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921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
910:Boolean logic
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
887:
882:
871:
864:
862:
858:
852:
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836:
832:
828:
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814:
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808:
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800:
799:I was thirsty
796:
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749:
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732:
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719:
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715:
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706:
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694:
688:
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685:argument that
682:
678:
674:
668:
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632:
630:
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311:logical truth
308:
303:
301:
295:
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288:
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279:
269:
266:
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242:
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239:truth bearers
230:
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210:argumentation
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81:
77:
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71:perspective.
70:
66:
62:
58:
57:argumentation
53:
51:
47:
40:
33:
19:
4934:Intuitionism
4919:Fictionalism
4758:
4678:
4476:Ultraproduct
4323:Model theory
4288:Independence
4224:Formal proof
4216:Proof theory
4199:
4172:
4129:real numbers
4101:second-order
4012:Substitution
3889:Metalanguage
3830:conservative
3803:Axiom schema
3747:Constructive
3717:MorseâKelley
3683:Set theories
3662:Aleph number
3655:inaccessible
3561:Grothendieck
3445:intersection
3332:Higher-order
3320:Second-order
3266:Truth tables
3223:Venn diagram
3197:
3006:Formal proof
2865:Naturalistic
2848:
2836:
2816:
2787:
2779:
2771:of relevance
2714:
2692:Whataboutism
2684:
2660:
2654:Godwin's law
2646:
2626:
2509:
2502:Consequences
2483:Law/Legality
2457:Single cause
2430:
2423:
2263:
2131:Loki's Wager
2111:Equivocation
2104:Equivocation
1892:
1877:
1831:
1821:
1814:
1807:
1800:
1793:
1760:
1750:
1739:
1732:
1722:
1712:
1710:K. R. Popper
1703:
1692:
1682:
1679:Ch. Perelman
1672:
1660:
1646:
1636:
1632:
1623:
1617:Epistemology
1616:
1606:
1597:
1575:. Retrieved
1566:
1554:. Retrieved
1550:the original
1545:
1536:
1511:11585/523460
1493:
1489:
1479:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1432:
1428:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1370:
1365:
1357:
1352:
1343:
1337:
1323:(1): 26â53.
1320:
1316:
1306:
1294:. Retrieved
1287:
1274:
1239:
1229:
1218:, retrieved
1196:
1185:
1160:
1156:
1146:
1127:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1088:
1060:
1053:
1042:, retrieved
1012:
1002:
992:
982:
977:
958:
895:Argument map
854:
838:
834:
830:
826:
820:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
764:
761:
739:
731:as arguments
730:
707:
702:
697:
689:
684:
680:
676:
672:
670:
661:Explanations
644:
606:
594:Argument by
593:
584:
542:
538:
534:
507:
471:
467:
457:
445:
431:
405:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
374:
367:
363:
357:
351:
345:
339:
334:
329:
327:
304:
296:
292:logical form
289:
281:
256:
254:
235:
201:
197:
194:formal logic
193:
181:
179:
176:Formal logic
159:
155:
148:
146:
132:
124:retroduction
84:propositions
73:
56:
54:
45:
43:
4914:Dialetheism
4804:Explanation
4774:Credibility
4586:Type theory
4534:undecidable
4466:Truth value
4353:equivalence
4032:non-logical
3645:Enumeration
3635:Isomorphism
3582:cardinality
3566:Von Neumann
3531:Ultrafilter
3496:Uncountable
3430:equivalence
3347:Quantifiers
3337:Fixed-point
3306:First-order
3186:Consistency
3171:Proposition
3148:Traditional
3119:Lindström's
3109:Compactness
3051:Type theory
2996:Cardinality
2885:Red herring
2642:Association
2323:Conjunction
2244:Composition
2141:Reification
2057:Existential
2009:Existential
1799:Aristotle,
1747:Ronald Loui
1613:Robert Audi
1496:(2): 1â25.
905:Belief bias
667:Explanation
651:ontological
603:Other kinds
576:Conclusion:
214:implication
96:mathematics
88:deductively
65:dialectical
4979:Categories
4959:Pragmatism
4949:Nominalism
4856:Propaganda
4831:Hypothesis
4784:Antithesis
4397:elementary
4090:arithmetic
3958:Quantifier
3936:functional
3808:Expression
3526:Transitive
3470:identities
3455:complement
3388:hereditary
3371:Set theory
2861:Moralistic
2795:Sealioning
2789:Ad nauseam
2716:Ipse dixit
2628:Ad hominem
2452:Regression
2254:Ecological
2067:Four terms
1985:Masked man
1889:"Argument"
1851:PhilPapers
1589:References
1137:0262277425
710:rhetorical
703:explaining
647:disclosive
590:By analogy
136:rhetorical
128:disclosure
92:inferences
69:rhetorical
5000:Reasoning
4985:Arguments
4929:Formalism
4891:Vagueness
4871:Relevance
4866:Reasoning
4779:Dialectic
4754:Ambiguity
4668:Supertask
4571:Recursion
4529:decidable
4363:saturated
4341:of models
4264:deductive
4259:axiomatic
4179:Hilbert's
4166:Euclidean
4147:canonical
4070:axiomatic
4002:Signature
3931:Predicate
3820:Extension
3742:Ackermann
3667:Operation
3546:Universal
3536:Recursive
3511:Singleton
3506:Inhabited
3491:Countable
3481:Types of
3465:power set
3435:partition
3352:Predicate
3298:Predicate
3213:Syllogism
3203:Soundness
3176:Inference
3166:Tautology
3068:paradoxes
2902:Straw man
2780:Arguments
2769:fallacies
2743:Tradition
2733:Etymology
2705:Authority
2686:Tu quoque
2670:Bulverism
2440:Gambler's
2409:Animistic
2353:Ambiguity
2319:Base rate
2062:Necessity
1934:fallacies
1669:Yu. Manin
1520:1533-5399
1408:Arguments
1266:1556-5068
1039:244088211
803:therefore
767:therefore
484:soundness
464:induction
428:Soundness
422:Soundness
319:tautology
218:inference
190:discourse
143:Etymology
104:reasoning
18:Arguments
4944:Logicism
4924:Finitism
4876:Rhetoric
4861:Prudence
4799:Evidence
4759:Argument
4749:Analysis
4653:Logicism
4646:timeline
4622:Concrete
4481:Validity
4451:T-schema
4444:Kripke's
4439:Tarski's
4434:semantic
4424:Strength
4373:submodel
4368:spectrum
4336:function
4184:Tarski's
4173:Elements
4160:geometry
4116:Robinson
4037:variable
4022:function
3995:spectrum
3985:Sentence
3941:variable
3884:Language
3837:Relation
3798:Automata
3788:Alphabet
3772:language
3626:-jection
3604:codomain
3590:Function
3551:Universe
3521:Infinite
3425:Relation
3208:Validity
3198:Argument
3096:theorem,
2928:Category
2560:Ridicule
2545:Flattery
2535:Children
2432:Post hoc
2312:McNamara
2274:Accident
2249:Division
2096:Informal
1856:Argument
1847:Argument
867:See also
621:fallible
272:Validity
156:argu-yo-
67:and the
50:premises
46:argument
4964:Realism
4851:Premise
4841:Opinion
4836:Inquiry
4819:Fallacy
4595:Related
4392:Diagram
4290: (
4269:Hilbert
4254:Systems
4249:Theorem
4127:of the
4072:systems
3852:Formula
3847:Grammar
3763: (
3707:General
3420:Forcing
3405:Element
3325:Monadic
3100:paradox
3041:Theorem
2977:General
2747:Novelty
2722:Poverty
2584:Loyalty
2550:Novelty
2527:Emotion
2476:Appeals
2445:Inverse
2425:Cum hoc
2414:Furtive
1932:Common
1876:(ed.).
1858:at the
1782:. 1982.
1577:9 March
1556:9 March
1528:9561587
1437:Bibcode
1296:15 June
1284:"Argue"
1177:2026735
795:I drank
775:because
758:Fallacy
681:whether
596:analogy
149:arguere
61:logical
4886:Theory
4764:Belief
4358:finite
4121:Skolem
4074:
4049:Theory
4017:Symbol
4007:String
3990:atomic
3867:ground
3862:closed
3857:atomic
3813:ground
3776:syntax
3672:binary
3599:domain
3516:Finite
3281:finite
3139:Logics
3098:
3046:Theory
2832:Cliché
2767:Other
2738:Nature
2726:Wealth
2361:Accent
1947:Formal
1769:
1653:
1526:
1518:
1410:?" in
1264:
1211:
1175:
1134:
1076:
1037:
1027:
965:
801:. The
472:strong
468:cogent
90:valid
63:, the
4881:Rigor
4348:Model
4096:Peano
3953:Proof
3793:Arity
3722:Naive
3609:image
3541:Fuzzy
3501:Empty
3450:union
3395:Class
3036:Model
3026:Lemma
2984:Axiom
2594:Spite
2488:Stone
1872:. In
1794:Logic
1524:S2CID
1220:2 May
1173:JSTOR
1044:2 May
1035:S2CID
942:Notes
779:hence
693:claim
261:truth
112:sound
108:valid
4814:Fact
4769:Bias
4471:Type
4274:list
4078:list
4055:list
4044:Term
3978:rank
3872:open
3766:list
3578:Maps
3483:sets
3342:Free
3312:list
3062:list
2989:list
2680:Tone
2555:Pity
2540:Fear
1938:list
1767:ISBN
1651:ISBN
1579:2021
1558:2021
1516:ISSN
1474:5â8.
1298:2018
1262:ISSN
1222:2022
1209:ISBN
1132:ISBN
1074:ISBN
1046:2022
1025:ISBN
963:ISBN
809:not
777:and
482:'s "
414:and
395:are
387:are
379:are
216:and
174:and
160:arg-
98:and
4738:and
4158:of
4140:of
4088:of
3620:Sur
3594:Map
3401:Ur-
3383:Set
1999:In
1955:In
1849:at
1635:in
1506:hdl
1498:doi
1445:doi
1325:doi
1252:hdl
1244:doi
1201:doi
1165:doi
1066:doi
1017:doi
698:why
677:how
675:or
673:why
446:An
418:).
403:).
44:An
4981::
4790:,
4786:,
4544:NP
4168::
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3624:Bi
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771:so
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