Parthian Empire - Knowledge

384: 3004: 15507: 5885:, p. 24, "It is impossible to doubt that the Parthians were Zoroastrians. The evidence from the Nisa ostraca and the Parthian parchment from Avroman suffice to prove this, by the use of the Zoroastrian calendar, which was restricted in use, as it had been previously, to communication with Iranians only, yielding to the Seleucid calendar whenever the Parthians dealt with non-Zoroastrians. There are indications, however, that the practice of Zoroastrianism had reserved a large place for the cult of divine images, either those of ancestors in the Fravashi cult, or of deities, and for the existence of sanctuaries dedicated to named deities other than Ahura Mazda, and including deities that are of a non-Avestan background. The Parthian god Sasan is a case in point, but better evidence comes from Armenia, where alongside Aramazd and Anahit, Mher and Vahagn, the West Semitic god Barshamin, and Babylonian Nane were worshipped, as well as the Anatolian Tork and the goddess Astghik of disputed origins." 5309:'Parthian frontality', as we are now accustomed to call it, deeply differs both from ancient Near Eastern and from Greek frontality, though it is, no doubt, an offspring of the latter. For both in Oriental art and in Greek art, frontality was an exceptional treatment: in Oriental art it was a treatment strictly reserved for a small number of traditional characters of cult and myth; in Greek art it was an option resorted to only for definite reasons, when demanded by the subject, and, on the whole, seldom made use of. With Parthian art, on the contrary, frontality becomes the normal treatment of the figure. For the Parthians frontality is really nothing but the habit of showing, in relief and in painting, all figures full-face, even at the expense (as it seems to us moderns) of clearness and intelligibility. So systematic is this use that it amounts to a complete banishment 2555: 4628:. The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints. This was not unlike the earlier Achaemenid Empire, which also had some city-states, and even distant satrapies who were semi-independent but "recognised the supremacy of the king, paid tribute and provided military support", according to Brosius. However, the satraps of Parthian times governed smaller territories, and perhaps had less prestige and influence than their Achaemenid predecessors. During the Seleucid period, the trend of local ruling dynasties with semi-autonomous rule, and sometimes outright rebellious rule, became commonplace, a fact reflected in the later Parthian style of governance. 14944: 47: 14084: 12716: 2048: 13679: 2365: 2205: 17171: 4976: 13388: 16801: 4218: 4227: 15337: 5066: 13351: 12776: 3084:, which Crassus accepted. However, he was killed when one of his junior officers, suspecting a trap, attempted to stop him from riding into Surena's camp. Crassus' defeat at Carrhae was one of the worst military defeats of Roman history. Parthia's victory cemented its reputation as a formidable if not equal power with Rome. With his camp followers, war captives, and precious Roman booty, Surena traveled some 700 km (430 mi) back to Seleucia where his victory was celebrated. However, fearing his ambitions even for the Arsacid throne, Orodes had Surena executed shortly thereafter. 3242: 13930: 17523: 15564: 4331: 4517:

historians. Intentionally or unintentionally, because the translators and correctors of Arabic to Persian sources changed the letter "ġ" (غ) to "k" (ک) in all historical texts and also changed the word of "Persia" to "Iran", the true intention of the Islamic historical sources have been forgotten. As the consequence, these different dynastic branches have become a single dynasty in the form of the name Aškāniān (اشکانیان) in the new editions of Islamic sources. It is known, however, that the Arsacid royal family line survived within three ruling dynasties belonging to

4292: 4549: 3911: 14258: 3487: 13126: 5247: 17513: 3756: 12751: 14529: 13336: 4647: 3733: 16385: 4797: 16276: 12959: 4368:, which represent the majority of materials covering Parthian history, are not considered entirely reliable since they were written from the perspective of rivals and wartime enemies. These external sources generally concern major military and political events, and often ignore social and cultural aspects of Parthian history. The Romans usually depicted the Parthians as fierce warriors but also as a culturally refined people; recipes for Parthian dishes in the cookbook 4922: 2622: 21155: 14598: 2805: 3088: 5318: 4781: 21165: 5594:

husbands in battle with their own entourage. This was the reason why female members of the royal family could sometimes be taken captive by enemies and had to be ransomed, such as the famous occasion when the daughter of King Osroes was held captive by emperor Trajan from the occupation of Ctesiphon in 116 until 129, but also the reason why kings sometimes killed the women of his company after a defeat to prevent them from being taken prisoners.

4826:. The cataphracts were equipped with a lance for charging into enemy lines, but were not equipped with bows and arrows which were restricted to horse archers. Due to the cost of their equipment and armor, cataphracts were recruited from among the aristocratic class who, in return for their services, demanded a measure of autonomy at the local level from the Arsacid kings. The light cavalry was recruited from among the commoner class and acted as 15592: 18386: 4762: 4010: 2539:, followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins. After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus refused to accept unless the Arsacids relinquished all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released Demetrius from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to 1613: 16618: 4327:. For example, at the early Parthian capital of Mithradatkert/Nisa in Turkmenistan, large caches of pottery ostraca have been found yielding information on the sale and storage of items like wine. Along with parchment documents found at sites like Dura-Europos, these also provide valuable information on Parthian governmental administration, covering issues such as taxation, military titles, and provincial organization. 5222: 4342: 5515: 13610: 14706: 5399: 13523: 13346: 14701: 14253: 13925: 13518: 13331: 14818: 13780: 12763: 5434:), combined with trousers and made with fine, ornamented materials. The aristocratic elite of Hatra adopted the bobbed hairstyles, headdresses, and belted tunics worn by the nobility belonging to the central Arsacid court. The trouser-suit was even worn by the Arsacid kings, as shown on the reverse images of coins. The Parthian trouser-suit was also adopted in 2170:" to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased. However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe. Homa Katouzian and Gene Ralph Garthwaite claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis and Maria Brosius state that Andragoras was not 3380: 4747:, but this royal retinue was small. Garrisons were also permanently maintained at border forts; Parthian inscriptions reveal some of the military titles granted to the commanders of these locations. Military forces could also be used in diplomatic gestures. For example, when Chinese envoys visited Parthia in the late 2nd century BC, the 4683:. Specific government offices of Preferred Friend, Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that "while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office, the king could intervene on behalf of an individual, review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate." 4838:, was a highly effective tactic. It appears that most of the Parthian army was cavalry, for tactical and strategic reasons. The light cavalry is thought to have carried a sword into battle as well, while cataphracts likely were also armed with short swords or knives. The Parthians also made use of the 5580:

The Parthian kings were polygamous and had several wives with the title "queen" (referred to with the Babylonian spelling šarratu or the Greek basilisse), as well as concubines. It is known that kings often married their sisters, but it is unknown if they were the kings' full sisters or half sisters.

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The size of the Parthian army is unknown, as is the size of the empire's overall population. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower. Dense population centers in regions

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taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war. The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins, the

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Antony attempted to strike an alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, whose relations with Phraates IV had recently soured. This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33 BC; they escaped a Parthian invasion while Antony's rival Octavian attacked his forces to

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Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates' forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates and joined

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in 211 BC. Yet Curtis and Brosius state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC, and Brosius in 217 BC. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established

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in dealing with Parthia and gained very little territory from these invasions. The primary motivations for war were the advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor, as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of

3463:, Iraq), led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by Artabanus II, who feared further rebellion elsewhere. Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a 5008:

On his coins, Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps. According to A. Shahbazi, Arsaces "deliberately diverges from Seleucid coins to emphasize his nationalistic and royal aspirations, and he calls himself Kārny/Karny (Greek: Autocrator), a title already borne by Achaemenid

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was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates I treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter

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accompanied by music. However, their stories, composed in verse form, were not written down until the subsequent Sassanian period. In fact, there is no known Parthian-language literature that survives in original form; all of the surviving texts were written down in the following centuries. It is

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betrayed and killed him: Trajan crowned him the new king of Parthia. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. On Trajan's return north, the Babylonian settlements revolted against the Roman garrisons. Trajan was forced to retreat from Mesopotamia in 117 AD, overseeing a

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secluded from contact with men, and royal women were not allowed to participate in the royal banquets. Whether the royal women lived in seclusion from men is unknown, as no evidence of that has been found, but it is known that women at least participated in the royal banquets as entertainers, as

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Parthian art, with its distinct use of frontality in portraiture, was lost and abandoned with the profound cultural and political changes brought by the Sasanian Empire. However, even after the Roman occupation of Dura-Europos in 165 AD, the use of Parthian frontality in portraiture continued to

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briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans

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Royal women appear to have been less included in royal representation. Artwork depicts royal women dressed similarly to those of the Achaemenid period: in long-sleeved, many-folded dresses tied by a belt, with a tiara or a veil hanging down their back. While their names and titles did appear in

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at the cities of Hecatompylos, Seleucia, and Ecbatana. They most likely operated a mint at Mithridatkert/Nisa as well. From the empire's inception until its collapse, drachmas produced throughout the Parthian period rarely weighed less than 3.5 g or more than 4.2 g. The first Parthian

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The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sasanian monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era. There were three distinct tiers of nobility, the highest being the regional kings directly below the King of

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In Islamic sources, the Parthian dynasty is mentioned with three dynastic branch names: Aškāniān (اشکانیان), Ašġāniān (اشغانیان), and Afquršāhān (افقورشاهان). The obvious differences between the names of Parthian dynastic branches in Islamic sources has been forgotten by modern Persian-speaking

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It is assumed that royal Parthian women could own and manage their own property, land and manufactures, as could their predecessors in the Achaemenid and Seleucid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire. It is fully attested that royal women, as well as noblewomen, accompanied their

2543:, but refused the other demands. By spring 129 BC, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down the revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the 10203:

Maria Brosius, "WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia", Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2021, available at WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia (accessed on 26 January 2021). Originally Published: January 1, 2000. Last Updated: March 15, 2010. Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, New York, 1996–

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of events. In contrast to Greek and Roman histories, the early Chinese histories maintained a more neutral view when describing Parthia, although the habit of Chinese chroniclers to copy material for their accounts from older works (of undetermined origin) makes it difficult to establish a

3601:. 88–105 AD) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts. William Watson speculates that the Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome, especially after Ban Chao's 5300:

the Parthians favored and emphasized frontality, meaning the person depicted by painting, sculpture, or raised-relief on coins faced the viewer directly instead of showing his or her profile. Although frontality in portraiture was already an old artistic technique by the Parthian period,

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on Parthian history remain scarce, with fewer of them available than for any other period of Iranian history. Most contemporary written records on Parthia contain Greek as well as Parthian and Aramaic inscriptions. The Parthian language was written in a distinct script derived from the

3414:. To ensure that her child Phraataces would inherit the throne without incident, Musa convinced Phraates IV to give his other sons to Augustus as hostages. Again, Augustus used this as propaganda depicting the submission of Parthia to Rome, listing it as a great accomplishment in his 4128:. 211–217 AD) deposed the kings of Osroene and Armenia to make them Roman provinces once more. He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus' daughters, but the marriage was not allowed. Consequently Caracalla made war on Parthia, conquering 3989:

during his withdrawal. His retreat was—in his intentions—temporary, because he wanted to renew the attack on Parthia in 118 AD and "make the subjection of the Parthians a reality," but Trajan died suddenly in August 117 AD. During his campaign, Trajan was granted the title

8768:, p. 138 for further analysis: "Curiously, at the same time as the Parthian was depicted as uncivilised, he was also 'orientalised' in traditional fashion, being described as luxury-loving, leading an effeminate lifestyle, and demonstrating excessive sexuality." 383: 3291:

The Parthians pursued and harassed Antony's army as it fled to Armenia. Eventually, the greatly weakened force reached Syria. Antony lured Artavasdes II into a trap with the promise of a marriage alliance. He was taken captive in 34 BC, paraded in Antony's mock

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in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border. Thus, from the mid-1st century BC onwards, the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border, primarily against Rome. A year following Mithridates II's subjugation of Armenia,

3969:. Trajan spent the winter of 115–116 at Antioch, but resumed his campaign in the spring. Marching down the Euphrates, he captured Dura-Europos, the capital Ctesiphon and Seleucia, and even subjugated Characene, where he watched ships depart to India from the 2903:, that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced. This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia. This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of 10232:

Kaim, B. 2016. "Women, Dance and the Hunt: Splendour and Pleasures of Court Life in Arsacid and Early Sasanian Art." In V. S. Curtis, E. J. Pendleton, M. Alram and T. Daryaee (eds.), The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion, Oxford,

4964:("friends of the Greeks"). The word "philhellene" was inscribed on Parthian coins until the reign of Artabanus II. The discontinuation of this phrase signified the revival of Iranian culture in Parthia. Vologases I was the first Arsacid ruler to have the 5262:; and the art of Parthian Mesopotamia. The first genuine Parthian art, found at Mithridatkert/Nisa, combined elements of Greek and Iranian art in line with Achaemenid and Seleucid traditions. In the second phase, Parthian art found inspiration in 5555:

were part of the corpus of oral literature from Parthian times, although compiled much later. Although literature of the Parthian language was not committed to written form, there is evidence that the Arsacids acknowledged and respected written

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belief, Iranian cosmogony, and even echoes of Christianity ... may be regarded as a typical reflection of the mixed religious doctrines of the late Arsacid period, which the Zoroastrian orthodoxy of the Sasanians was soon to sweep away."

5464:. The earliest coins of Mithridates I show him wearing the soft cap, yet coins from the latter part of his reign show him for the first time wearing the royal Hellenistic diadem. Mithridates II was the first to be shown wearing the Parthian 3534:, to rule the region as an ally of Rome. Shortly before his death, Artabanus managed to force Tiridates from the throne using troops from Hyrcania. After Artabanus' death in 38 AD, a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor 3869:

into Parthia's eastern territories around 72 AD mentioned by Roman historians. Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia, later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern

1864:. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from 4576:. An indigenous historical source reveals that territories overseen by the central government were organized in a similar manner to the Seleucid Empire. They both had a threefold division for their provincial hierarchies: the Parthian 4957:

in religion, the arts, and even clothing fashions. Conscious of both the Hellenistic and Persian cultural roots of their kingship, the Arsacid rulers styled themselves after the Persian King of Kings and affirmed that they were also

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fastened in place with a belt, loose-fitting and many-folded trousers held by garters, and a diadem or band over his coiffed, bobbed hair. His outfit is commonly seen in relief images of Parthian coins by the mid-1st century BC.

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There are very few written and archeological sources about the position of women in the Parthian Empire, and the fragmentary information that does exist is only about royal women, whose position shows many similarities to their

4386:, who lived during the reign of Augustus, provides an account of Parthian territories, perhaps from a Parthian government survey. To a lesser extent, people and events of Parthian history were also included in the histories of 2996:. 80–58; 55–51 BC) against a rebellion in Egypt. Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BC. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as 4690:

By the 1st century AD, the Parthian nobility had assumed great power and influence in the succession and deposition of Arsacid kings. Some of the nobility functioned as court advisers to the king, as well as holy priests.

2695:, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC. Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals. After the Greek philosopher 3525:

on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia. Artabanus II tried and failed to restore Parthian control of Armenia, prompting an aristocratic revolt that forced him to flee to

46: 2610:. c. 128–124 BC) shared a similar fate fighting nomads in the east. He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari (identified as the Yuezhi), although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka. 4674:

to have married her own son, though this would be an extreme and isolated case. Brosius provides an extract from a letter written in Greek by King Artabanus II in 21 AD, which addresses the governor (titled

2594:(Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders. Mithridates I was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia. 3961:, also captured Nisibis; its occupation was essential to securing all the major routes across the northern Mesopotamian plain. The following year, Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only 3079:

With some 20,000 Romans dead, approximately 10,000 captured, and roughly another 10,000 escaping west, Crassus fled into the Armenian countryside. At the head of his army, Surena approached Crassus, offering a

9321:""From Terror to Tactical Usage: Elephants in the Partho-Sasanian Period," The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion, eds. V. Sarkhosh Curtis et. al., Oxford, 2016, pp. 36–41" 7332:, p. 80 asserts that permanent occupation was the obvious goal of the Parthians, especially after the cities of Roman Syria and even the Roman garrisons submitted to the Parthians and joined their cause. 2481:), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and maintained. Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty. Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until the reign of 4709:, two groups from which "the kings were appointed." Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sassanian period, only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents: the 5137:. Aside from the main gods and goddesses, each ethnic group and city had their own designated deities. As with Seleucid rulers, Parthian art indicates that the Arsacid kings viewed themselves as gods; this 15506: 4256:

Local and foreign written accounts, as well as non-textual artifacts, have been used to reconstruct Parthian history. Although the Parthian court maintained records, the Parthians had no formal study of

2750:. Pearls were also a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits. Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 AD 5441:

Parthian sculptures depict wealthy women wearing long-sleeved robes over a dress, with necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and headdresses bedecked in jewelry. Their many-folded dresses were fastened by a

3882:. The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome's military reforms. To match Parthia's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors, the Romans at first used foreign allies (especially 3807:. Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings. However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it also continued through the 4037:

border at the Euphrates, choosing not to invade Mesopotamia due to Rome's now limited military resources. Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him, yet the Romans made him king of

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river. The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome, although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome.

3467:. Following this, Anilai became embroiled in an armed conflict with a son-in-law of Artabanus, who eventually defeated him. With the Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the 3003: 9121: 5353:, but remained distinct from the two. The style is first attested at Mithridatkert/Nisa. The Round Hall of Nisa is similar to Hellenistic palaces, but different in that it forms a circle and 3803:, on the throne. Rhadamistus was eventually driven from power, and, beginning with the reign of Tiridates, Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia—with brief interruptions—through the 2660:. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BC and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BC, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene 2949:

Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III and convinced him to march against Armenia's new capital at

2961:, Tigranes the Younger was brought to Rome as a hostage. Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him, but Pompey refused. In retaliation, Phraates launched an invasion into 4455:(Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ). However, this could also have been a transliteration of "Arsaces", after the dynasty's eponymous founder. The works and historical authors include the 19657: 4857:

in battle. However, royal Parthian women accompanied the king on military campaigns and were known to have ridden on chariots and wagons. Similarly, the Parthians appeared to have used

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and Ctesiphon. Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to the throne proved more dangerous to the Empire's stability than foreign invasion, and Parthian power evaporated when

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As seen in Parthian coinage, the headdresses worn by the Parthian kings changed over time. The earliest Arsacid coins show rulers wearing the soft cap with cheek flaps, known as the

2892:," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns. It is only with the beginning of the reign of 22746: 22741: 4666:

relations, and was usually succeeded by his first-born son. Like the Ptolemies of Egypt, there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half-sisters;

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accepted by historians. A fictitious claim was later made from the 2nd-century BC onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings,

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was known during the Achaemenid period and earlier in smaller and subterranean structures, it was the Parthians who first built them on a monumental scale. The earliest Parthian

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would have found the bloody sacrifices of some Parthian-era Iranian cults to be unacceptable. However, there is evidence that Vologases I encouraged the presence of Zoroastrian

5029:. 404–358 BC) as a means to bolster their legitimacy in ruling over former Achaemenid territories, i.e. as being "legitimate successors of glorious kings" of ancient Iran. 3068:

and light infantry. Using a baggage train of about 1,000 camels, the Parthian army provided the horse archers with a constant supply of arrows. The horse archers employed the "

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Examples of clothing in Parthian inspired sculptures have been found in excavations at Hatra, in northwestern Iraq. Statues erected there feature the typical Parthian shirt (

2707:. c. 40–47 AD) in 42 AD, Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital 19647: 4972:

appear on his minted coins alongside the now almost illegible Greek. However, the use of Greek-alphabet legends on Parthian coins remained until the collapse of the empire.

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like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land. The largest army raised by the Parthians appears to have been 50,000.

2306:) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior. The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the 3230:, northeast of Antioch. Pacorus was killed during the battle, and his forces retreated across the Euphrates. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II chose 3830:

rebelled against his father Vologases I in 55 AD, Vologases withdrew his forces from Armenia. Rome quickly attempted to fill the political vacuum left behind. In the

4177:, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. There is evidence, however, that suggests Vologases VI continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 228 AD. 11439:, vol. 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. 87–104, 5606:

of Elymais. Only two women are known to have ruled the Parthian Empire, one as monarch and one as regent. Musa of Parthia is the only woman confirmed to have ruled as

3957:. 98–117 AD) had the next Parthian nominee for the throne, Parthamasiris, killed in 114 AD, instead making Armenia a Roman province. His forces, led by 342: 317: 10447:, vol. 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. 26–36, 3432:, married him. The Parthian nobility, disapproving of the notion of a king with non-Arsacid blood, forced the pair into exile in Roman territory. Phraates' successor 3284:, with the intention of seizing the capital Praaspa, the location of which is now unknown. However, Phraates IV ambushed Antony's rear detachment, destroying a giant 22682: 12592: 10622:, vol. 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. 7–25, 3261:

Upon assuming the throne, Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers. One of them, Monaeses, fled to Antony and persuaded him to

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tetradrachms, weighing in principle around 16 g with some variation, appear after Mithridates I conquered Mesopotamia and were minted exclusively at Seleucia.

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noted that members of the Suren family, the first among the nobility, were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations.

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The Sassanians would not only assume Parthia's legacy as Rome's Persian nemesis, but they would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by

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yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu. The Parthian Empire was enriched by taxing the Eurasian caravan trade in

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The Parthian Empire, being culturally and politically heterogeneous, had a variety of religious systems and beliefs, the most widespread being those dedicated to

4739:, yet were able to quickly recruit troops in the event of local crises. There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king, comprising nobles, 14039: 5266:, as exemplified by the investiture relief of Mithridates II at Mount Behistun. The third phase occurred gradually after the Parthian conquest of Mesopotamia. 3566:; he was captured and sent to Gotarzes, where he was allowed to live after having his ears mutilated, an act that disqualified him from inheriting the throne. 10579:

Chegini, N.N.; Nikitin, A.V. (1996). "Sasanian Iran - economy, society, arts and crafts". In Litvinsky, B.A.; Guang-da, Zhang; Samghabadi, R. Shabani (eds.).

3471:, forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 AD, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local 5293:

walls. The common motif of the Sasanian period showing two horsemen engaged in combat with lances first appeared in the Parthian reliefs at Mount Behistun.

3440:, who had adopted many Roman mannerisms during time in Rome. The Parthian nobility, angered by Vonones' sympathies for the Romans, backed a rival claimant, 2387:, holding a club in his left hand and a cup in his right hand; Greek inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the Great King Arsaces the 18166: 4509:, types of agricultural crops grown in Parthia, production of wine using grapes, itinerant merchants, and the size and location of Parthian territory. The 4085:) that soon ravaged the Roman world. Although they withdrew, from this point forward the city of Dura-Europos remained in Roman hands. When Roman emperor 2926:. 119–63 BC), an ally of Tigranes II of Armenia, requested aid from Parthia against Rome, but Sinatruces refused help. When the Roman commander 2403:. The locations of these are unknown. Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor 4687:

Kings, the second being those related to the King of Kings only through marriage, and the lowest order being heads of local clans and small territories.

4077:

in 164 AD. The Romans captured and burnt Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the ground, yet they were forced to retreat once the Roman soldiers contracted a

10251:

J. Oelsner, "Recht im hellenistischen Babylon," in Legal Documents of the Hellenistic World, ed. M. J. Geller and H. Maehler, London, 1995, pp. 106–148.

5313:

of the side-view and of all intermediate attitudes. This singular state of things seems to have become established in the course of the 1st century A.D.

20816: 19669: 18759: 14168: 14044: 2711:, his caravan leader read Vardanes' official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality. 4753:

maintains that 20,000 horsemen were sent to the eastern borders to serve as escorts for the embassy, although this figure is perhaps an exaggeration.

22811: 20922: 17729: 2574:

While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BC the nomadic confederation of the

14461: 2763: 16800: 14083: 20336: 20327: 20071: 19583: 13899: 11454:

Waters, Kenneth H. (1974), "The Reign of Trajan, part VII: Trajanic Wars and Frontiers. The Danube and the East", in Temporini, Hildegard (ed.),

19568: 4136:, the Parthians were able to defeat the Romans, but both sides suffered heavy losses. After this debacle, the Parthians made a settlement with 21552: 5905:. Each ethnic group, each city, and each land or kingdom was able to adhere to its own gods, their respective cults and religious rituals. In 2034:

is viewed by some historians as a valid source for understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources.

22796: 14839: 14560: 14471: 14160: 13875: 13817: 13813: 12585: 11768:(a website featuring the history, geography, coins, arts and culture of ancient Parthia, including a bibliographic list of scholarly sources) 2648:

Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer

2735: 2547:

in 129 BC. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin; his son Seleucus was made a Parthian hostage and a daughter joined Phraates'

19859: 14117: 14113: 13821: 4101:. c. 191–208 AD), the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon. After assuming the title 5984: 19637: 18754: 17526: 14564: 14371: 13942: 13905: 13871: 13446: 13442: 12775: 562: 227: 20005: 19521: 17170: 13729: 13573: 13438: 13434: 12715: 11616:

Zhang, Guanuda (2002), "The Role of the Sogdians as Translators of Buddhist Texts", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner (ed.),

9113: 5009:

supreme generals, such as Cyrus the Younger." In line with Achaemenid traditions, rock-relief images of Arsacid rulers were carved at

3153:

was unable to lead the Roman defense against Parthia due to his departure to Italy, where he amassed his forces to confront his rival

2414:

Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when forces under Mithridates I captured two

22736: 14457: 14453: 14367: 14164: 12921: 11793: 11435:

Wang, Tao (2007), "Parthia in China: a Re-examination of the Historical Records", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.),

4181: 1641: 4987:. When the head of Crassus was brought to Orodes II, he, alongside Armenian king Artavasdes II, were busy watching a performance of 22791: 18810: 18159: 14568: 13825: 12578: 12178: 5676: 11639: 22776: 19556: 18371: 12132: 12006: 5598:

official documents, Parthian women were rarely depicted in art. Only two royal women were ever depicted on Parthian coins: queen

4641: 1535: 10618:

Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh (2007), "The Iranian Revival in the Parthian Period", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.),

5422:

of a Parthian nobleman found at Shami, Elymais. Standing 1.9 m (6 ft), the figure wears a V-shaped jacket, a V-shaped

4281: 3226:

As a result, Pacorus I temporarily withdrew from Syria. When he returned in the spring of 38 BC, he faced Ventidius at the

20181: 20032: 19795: 13971: 13725: 13705: 3072:" tactic: feigning retreat to draw enemy out, then turning and shooting at them when exposed. This tactic, executed with heavy 2527:. After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus initiated a campaign in 130 BC to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of 13678: 13387: 4983:

Greek cultural influence did not disappear from the Parthian Empire, however, and there is evidence that the Arsacids enjoyed

4132:

and sacking the Parthian tombs there. Caracalla was assassinated the next year on the road to Carrhae by his soldiers. At the

4120:(d. 224 AD) rebelled against him and gained control over a greater part of the empire. Meanwhile, the Roman emperor 22766: 22505: 21887: 20527: 20357: 20302: 20171: 20037: 18935: 17722: 17680: 17633: 17603: 11992: 11709: 11649: 11625: 11606: 11587: 11539: 11444: 11425: 11406: 11363: 11336: 11317: 11168: 11060: 11041: 11019: 10894: 10872: 10839: 10820: 10742: 10687: 10646: 10627: 10543: 10522: 10502: 10452: 10375: 10350: 10323: 10275: 8206: 5836: 5730: 4050: 3717: 3219:, Turkey) in 39 BC. Shortly afterward, a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the 5277:

of Arsacid kings. Use of these motifs extended to include portrayals of local rulers. Common art mediums were rock-reliefs,

5171:, did not proclaim his first religious revelation until 228/229 AD, Bivar asserts that his new faith contained "elements of 2255:, formed an alliance with Arsaces I against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of 22781: 19689: 19679: 11852: 10558:

The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity Through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE

5419: 3820: 2809: 1976: 1841: 22411: 20887: 20837: 20563: 20097: 18501: 18152: 17785: 15927: 13422: 13274: 13131: 11985: 7768:, pp. 137–138 for more information on Roman coins depicting Parthians returning the lost military standards to Rome. 4874: 4588:, and hyparchy. The Parthian Empire also contained several subordinate semi-autonomous kingdoms, including the states of 3831: 3737: 3709: 3574: 2715: 10208: 5386:

are also commonly found in the ancient temples of Hatra and perhaps modeled on the Parthian style. The largest Parthian

22557: 21557: 20112: 20101: 20046: 19994: 19849: 19652: 16597: 14276: 11146: 10569: 5196: 4303:

coins issued by each ruler. These represent a "transition from non-textual to textual remains," according to historian

3108: 2598:

sides with the Saka. Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle. The Roman historian

10889:, Ann Arbor: Cushing Malloy Inc., Journal of Roman Archaeology: Supplementary Series Number Eighteen, pp. 67–90, 5468:, embroidered with pearls and jewels, a headdress commonly worn in the late Parthian period and by Sasanian monarchs. 22726: 21201: 20542: 20486: 20466: 20282: 20257: 20153: 20077: 19979: 19609: 19451: 18228: 11568: 11512: 11483: 11270: 11197: 11089: 10999: 10933: 10801: 10771: 10716: 10608: 10481: 10433: 10404: 10304: 8575: 8555: 5691: 3994:

by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia. However, only the 4th-century AD historians

2430:

in 148 or 147 BC; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by

2296:

he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king (

20376: 14943: 7528:, p. 81 for analysis on Rome's shift of attention away from Syria to the Upper Euphrates, starting with Antony. 2783: 2554: 21007: 20573: 18892: 17715: 11243: 3281: 3272:, Artavasdes II of Armenia once again switched alliances by sending Antony additional troops. Antony invaded Media 3253:. c. 38–2 BC). Inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΕΥΕΡΓΕΤΟΥ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the 3142: 5374:

and open on one side. Use of the barrel vault replaced the Hellenic use of columns to support roofs. Although the

4513:

also mentions that the Parthians kept records by "writing horizontally on strips of leather," that is, parchment.

4204:. Nevertheless, for a period of more than 400 years, they succeeded the Parthian realm as Rome's principal rival. 3265:. Antony defeated Parthia's Judaean ally Antigonus in 37 BC, installing Herod as a client king in his place. 22756: 22731: 22183: 20517: 20057: 19893: 19888: 19627: 19254: 16591: 11999: 3892:

force to complement their heavy legionary infantry. The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers (

1728: 1002: 17: 21345: 4382:

wrote histories focusing on Parthia, which are now lost and survive only as quoted extracts in other histories.

2988:, the Roman proconsul of Syria, marched in support of Mithridates to the Euphrates, but had to turn back to aid 2957:. He promised Pompey that he would act as a guide through Armenia, but, when Tigranes II submitted to Rome as a 22761: 21122: 20947: 20827: 20811: 20297: 20232: 20133: 20082: 19854: 19805: 19790: 19694: 19684: 19664: 19456: 19115: 18805: 18789: 16664: 16211: 16135: 11531: 10561: 10443:

Bivar, A.D.H. (2007), "Gondophares and the Indo-Parthians", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.),

5570: 5350: 4593: 4457: 4299:

The most valuable indigenous sources for reconstructing an accurate chronology of Arsacid rulers are the metal

3741: 3542:. After Vardanes was assassinated during a hunting expedition, the Parthian nobility appealed to Roman emperor 3029:, who was now proconsul of Syria, invaded Parthia in 53 BC in belated support of Mithridates. As his army 2673: 2426:. c. 170–145 BC). Turning his sights on the Seleucid realm, Mithridates I invaded Media and occupied 1892: 1569: 744: 20755: 19526: 19466: 17921: 10533: 22621: 20981: 20422: 20405: 20312: 20287: 20143: 20051: 20041: 18831: 17516: 17496: 16778: 16685: 16670: 16508: 16378: 16179: 15878: 15563: 12947: 11786: 11124:, Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte, vol. 122 (in German), Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, pp. 355–364 5357:

inside a square space. However, the artwork of Nisa, including marble statues and the carved scenes on ivory

4589: 4169:

began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule. He confronted Artabanus IV at the

3780: 3713: 1634: 3846:

was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia. Following a peace treaty, Tiridates I traveled to

2473:

had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates I established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana,

2292:

Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 210 or 209 BC. Despite some

22616: 22500: 20985: 20821: 20537: 20277: 20267: 20015: 19871: 19471: 18841: 18576: 18119: 17317: 17126: 17102: 16502: 15482: 12171: 12034: 10266:

An, Jiayao (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner (ed.),

8568:

Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3

7421: 7419: 5574: 4997:(c. 480–406 BC). The producer of the play decided to use Crassus' actual severed head in place of the 4003: 3502:

depicted on the obverse, and on the reverse a Parthian man kneeling in submission while offering the Roman

3212: 2523:. 138–129 BC), a brother of Demetrius, assumed the Seleucid throne and married the latter's wife 2350:) eventually ascended the Parthian throne. Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference. 1756: 20751: 4846:

where a Parthian force defeated a much larger Roman army under Crassus. Light infantry units, composed of

4311:

astronomical tablets and colophons discovered in Babylonia. Indigenous textual sources also include stone

1836:, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of 22786: 22626: 21663: 20776: 20770: 20721: 20532: 20362: 20241: 19866: 18897: 18779: 18774: 18709: 18385: 16739: 15778: 15577: 15124: 15118: 13365: 12721: 12127: 12111: 5651: 5054: 2795: 2159: 2154:

Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain.

1845: 1606: 1594: 433: 7416: 6448: 6446: 5258:

Parthian art can be divided into three geo-historical phases: the art of Parthia proper; the art of the

2566:. c. 124–91 BC). Reverse side: seated archer carrying a bow; inscription reading "of the 2281:), was unable to immediately retaliate because his troops were engaged in putting down the rebellion of 22801: 20991: 20452: 20317: 19785: 19563: 19461: 18902: 18511: 17366: 17222: 16985: 16676: 16486: 15832: 15494: 15462: 15456: 13663: 12277: 11965: 11878: 11842: 11560: 11504: 11475: 11262: 11189: 11081: 10991: 10925: 10793: 10763: 10734: 10708: 10600: 10473: 10425: 10396: 10296: 4975: 4834:

and were able to shoot at enemies while riding and facing away from them; this technique, known as the

4812:

The combination of horse archers and cataphracts formed an effective backbone for the Parthian military

4637: 3804: 3593:

was the only means to reach Rome. Discouraged by this, Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided

3207:

Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive.

2359: 2240: 2236: 1968: 1967:

of the 7th century AD, although the Arsacid dynasty lived on through branches of the family that ruled

1884: 1564: 1525: 8494: 8492: 2177:

It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar and Katouzian affirm that it was his brother

22584: 21732: 21296: 21095: 20686: 20456: 20237: 20163: 20025: 20000: 19923: 19674: 19573: 19516: 18928: 18586: 18401: 17503: 17111: 16997: 16979: 16829: 16491: 16355: 16056: 15871: 14768: 12493: 12309: 12261: 12187: 12075: 12070: 12062: 12020: 12013: 11847: 11826: 10904: 6443: 6006:

Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".

4984: 4926: 4262: 4018: 3981: 3812: 3721: 3115:

Emboldened by the victory over Crassus, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in

2977: 2611: 2559: 2171: 2112: 2078: 1972: 1740: 1506: 1410: 669: 52: 11010:

Mawer, Granville Allen (2013), "The Riddle of Cattigara", in Nichols, Robert; Woods, Martin (eds.),

5263: 5160:. The Sasanian court would later adopt Zoroastrianism as the official state religion of the empire. 4153:

The Parthian Empire, weakened by internal strife and wars with Rome, was soon to be followed by the

3410:

Along with the prince, Augustus also gave Phraates IV an Italian slave-girl, who later became Queen

2861:

Despite this agreement, in 93 or 92 BC Parthia fought a war in Syria against the tribal leader

2770:, and fine leather. Caravans traveling through the Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes 22771: 22721: 22542: 22517: 22367: 22026: 22021: 20806: 20596: 20476: 20427: 20399: 20262: 19800: 19714: 19443: 18541: 18183: 17489: 17134: 17131: 17054: 17024: 16967: 16953: 16359: 15343: 15081: 14498: 14282: 13125: 12509: 12501: 12485: 12469: 12389: 12237: 12041: 11779: 11670: 8489: 5656: 5557: 4217: 3977: 3966: 3843: 3531: 3448:. c. 10–38 AD), who eventually defeated Vonones and drove him into exile in Roman Syria. 3262: 3227: 3208: 3045:. 53–34 BC). Orodes persuaded Artavasdes to a marriage alliance between the crown prince 3038: 2966: 2919: 2404: 2372: 2108: 1932: 1764: 1627: 1589: 1584: 1574: 363: 15336: 12156: 10678:

Demiéville, Paul (1986), "Philosophy and religion from Han to Sui", in Twitchett and Loewe (ed.),

5156:

priests at court and sponsored the compilation of sacred Zoroastrian texts which later formed the

4226: 1789:

from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the

22806: 22609: 22490: 22031: 21984: 21927: 21626: 21570: 21318: 21037: 21011: 21002: 20872: 20832: 20436: 20372: 20332: 20067: 19918: 19775: 19734: 18992: 18851: 18784: 18678: 18531: 18449: 18444: 17870: 17149: 17077: 17051: 17027: 17021: 17006: 16918: 16854: 16819: 16763: 16712: 16285: 14762: 14543: 14288: 13596: 13054: 12549: 12461: 12397: 12381: 12341: 12164: 12055: 11979: 11759: 11138: 7114:

writes that Lucius Afranius reoccupied the region without confronting the Parthian army, whereas

5686: 5666: 5329:, dated 245 AD, which Curtis and Schlumberger describe as a fine example of 'Parthian frontality' 5022: 4561: 4375: 4354: 4350: 4133: 4117: 4109: 4042: 3835: 3749: 3518: 3441: 3416: 3400: 3388: 3373: 3355: 3197: 3160:

After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade

3123:

Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC, but were repulsed by

3022: 3008: 2953:. When this siege failed, Tigranes the Younger once again fled, this time to the Roman commander 2825: 2817: 2799: 2677: 2271: 2191: 2155: 2014:

documents, much of Parthian history is only known through external sources. These include mainly

1956: 1936: 1908: 1152: 908: 489: 210: 11733: 8198: 5065: 5037:' heritage. The Arsacid kings chose typical Zoroastrian names for themselves and some from the " 4170: 4105:, he retreated in late 198 AD, failing as Trajan once did to capture Hatra during a siege. 22631: 22532: 22527: 22215: 22163: 22083: 22016: 21920: 21905: 21798: 21565: 21519: 21360: 21247: 21127: 20766: 20507: 20462: 20186: 20148: 19876: 19632: 18882: 18734: 18493: 17312: 17302: 17092: 17087: 17082: 17042: 17033: 16976: 16956: 16950: 16944: 16941: 16932: 16860: 16857: 16848: 16748: 16727: 16341: 16115: 16047: 15957: 15701: 15695: 15176: 14631: 14490: 14055: 13836: 13376: 13350: 13310: 12953: 12726: 12437: 12253: 11755: 10980:

Lukonin, V.G. (1983). "Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade". In

10367: 10361: 6933:, p. 70; for an archaeological survey of Roman glasswares in ancient Chinese burials, see 5964: 5941:, p. 149-150, "Buddhism was practiced in the easternmost reaches of the Parthian Empire." 5898: 5722: 5712: 5335: 5326: 4543: 4201: 4094: 4070: 3839: 3827: 3800: 3792: 3539: 3522: 3331: 3172:. They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern 3124: 2981: 2943: 2874: 2862: 2839: 2603: 2256: 2248: 2187: 2178: 2023: 1964: 1900: 1469: 972: 446: 176: 17623: 13929: 12958: 10885:(1996), "Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives", in Kennedy, David L.; Braund, David (eds.), 9961: 9959: 5745:

urge. The kings built or occupied numerous cities as their capitals, the most important being

4842:

in armed combat. The heavy and light cavalry of Parthia proved to be a decisive factor in the

22562: 22522: 22335: 22210: 21274: 21264: 21223: 21194: 20415: 20367: 20342: 20062: 19810: 19588: 19506: 19123: 19080: 18551: 18037: 17672:

Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History

17593: 17556: 17478: 17355: 17015: 16991: 16947: 16935: 16929: 16926: 16881: 16875: 16851: 16816: 16772: 16760: 16757: 16754: 16742: 16736: 16724: 16718: 16537: 16447: 16444: 16435: 15998: 14075: 12365: 12293: 12213: 12048: 11862: 11751: 10864: 10851:

Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel

5590:

women are shown in archeological images entertaining at such occasions with music and dance.

4772: 4444: 4426: 3995: 3914: 3433: 3220: 3128: 2915: 2904: 2751: 2692: 2516: 2293: 2228: 2182: 1828:, religious beliefs, and regalia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed 850: 770: 708: 166: 22450: 17670: 17522: 13335: 11578:

Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han Foreign Relations", in Twitchett, Denis and Michael Loewe (ed.),

11347: 3241: 480: 22655: 22485: 22455: 22330: 22261: 22232: 22151: 21485: 21323: 21313: 20966: 20868: 20761: 20701: 20676: 20655: 20635: 20608: 20410: 20352: 20247: 20010: 19975: 19739: 18921: 18769: 18729: 18208: 16923: 16872: 16781: 16775: 16745: 16347: 16300: 16288: 16112: 16053: 15677: 15571: 15394: 14921: 14069: 13590: 13007: 12205: 11883: 10656:

De Jong, Albert (2008). "Regional Variation in Zoroastrianism: The Case of the Parthians".

10318:. 8: Papers Presented to David Sellwood. Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali. 9956: 5868: 5485: 5354: 5346: 5018: 4365: 4361: 4330: 4295:

A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, 2nd century AD. Located in Tamoikin Art Fund

4185: 3622: 3200:(r. 40–37 BC); the latter was made king of Judea while Herod fled to his fort at 3046: 2973: 2965:(southeastern Turkey) where, according to two conflicting Roman accounts, the Roman consul 2755: 2510: 2505: 2084: 2056: 2019: 2015: 1732: 1579: 195: 22435: 16384: 11294:

Shayegan, Rahim M. (2007), "On Demetrius II Nicator's Arsacid Captivity and Second Rule",

4501:

invasion of Parthia and valuable political and geographical information. For example, the

2762:. 75–88 AD). Besides silk, Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included 2640:

was perhaps the most lucrative luxury item the Parthians traded at the western end of the

1860:, although the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, 8: 22347: 22227: 22193: 22095: 21915: 21910: 21722: 21441: 21377: 21252: 21237: 20706: 20395: 20128: 20020: 19619: 19614: 19578: 19511: 19360: 19048: 18856: 18764: 18739: 18546: 18521: 18073: 18018: 17932: 17839: 17817: 17428: 17283: 16988: 16938: 16863: 16813: 16766: 16751: 16730: 16429: 16415: 16303: 16236: 16059: 15950: 15892: 15656: 15329: 15169: 14888: 14693: 14510: 14323: 13639: 12850: 12285: 11898: 11701: 11120:

Posch, Walter (1998), "Chinesische Quellen zu den Parthern", in Weisehöfer, Josef (ed.),

5718: 5302: 5270: 5046: 4998: 4903:, was the standard currency used throughout the Parthian Empire. The Arsacids maintained 4609: 4034: 3946: 3934: 3696: 3645: 3602: 3555: 3499: 2989: 2866: 2696: 1806: 1312: 1182: 611: 407: 237: 148: 22063: 22053: 4979:

A ceramic Parthian water spout in the shape of a man's head, dated 1st or 2nd century AD

4291: 4053: AD began when Vologases invaded Armenia and Syria, retaking Edessa. Roman emperor 4049:. c. 147–191 AD) who ushered in a period of peace and stability. However, the 3513:

Although at peace with Parthia, Rome still interfered in its affairs. The Roman emperor

3312:

the west. After the defeat and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BC, Parthian ally

3037:, southeastern Turkey), Orodes II invaded Armenia, cutting off support from Rome's ally 22460: 22440: 22423: 22374: 22239: 22048: 21999: 21932: 21850: 21791: 21786: 21781: 21737: 21707: 21599: 21497: 21365: 21340: 21070: 21032: 20977: 20972: 20877: 20792: 20432: 20292: 20252: 20092: 20087: 19985: 19970: 19729: 19531: 19352: 19321: 19214: 18971: 18846: 18815: 18714: 18561: 18478: 17781: 17654: 17468: 17345: 16906: 16845: 16839: 16367: 16331: 16244: 16225: 16121: 16118: 16071: 16037: 16034: 15989: 15680: 15665: 15650: 15326: 15323: 15314: 15073: 14248: 13976: 13249: 13102: 13019: 12822: 11971: 11556:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

11524: 11500:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

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The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

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Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XIII/4: Iran V. Peoples of Iran–Iran IX. Religions of Iran

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The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

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The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

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The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10987:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10968: 10960: 10921:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10789:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10759:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10704:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10665: 10596:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10469:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10421:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10392:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10292:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

8189: 6023: 5407: 5403: 5014: 4950: 4518: 4494: 4387: 4335: 3999: 3768: 3559: 3277: 3146: 3132: 3104: 3000:

after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed.

2681: 2599: 2544: 2478: 2396: 2364: 2311: 2186:

regnal date of Parthian history." Due to these and other discrepancies, Bivar outlines

1865: 1833: 1515: 1302: 922: 393: 87: 16124: 11310:

Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia

4548: 4505:(ch. 123) describes diplomatic exchanges, exotic gifts given by Mithridates II to the 3910: 3554:

to challenge Gotarzes. This backfired when Meherdates was betrayed by the governor of

2450:

ceremony. While Mithridates I retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of

2270:

tribe, Arsaces I led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor,

1891:

in the north. However, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the

22569: 22465: 22401: 22396: 22325: 22222: 21937: 21865: 21860: 21702: 21631: 21614: 21609: 21604: 21404: 21355: 21164: 21080: 20997: 20903: 20893: 20802: 20711: 20696: 20691: 20660: 20650: 20640: 20630: 20617: 20472: 20176: 19990: 19928: 19903: 19883: 19833: 19753: 19601: 19230: 19222: 19147: 19099: 18836: 18693: 18688: 18673: 18608: 18526: 18483: 18203: 18198: 18064: 18054: 17676: 17629: 17599: 16892: 16866: 16842: 16824: 16624: 16545: 16453: 16322: 16294: 16109: 16077: 16068: 16010: 16007: 16004: 15992: 15980: 15895: 15816: 15668: 15662: 15629: 15623: 15194: 15067: 14931: 14753: 14479: 14078: 14072: 13880: 13848: 13393: 12602: 12101: 12027: 11944: 11705: 11645: 11621: 11602: 11583: 11564: 11535: 11508: 11479: 11440: 11421: 11402: 11373:

Strugnell, Emma (2006), "Ventidius' Parthian War: Rome's Forgotten Eastern Triumph",

11359: 11332: 11313: 11266: 11236: 11193: 11164: 11142: 11085: 11056: 11037: 11015: 10995: 10972: 10929: 10890: 10868: 10835: 10816: 10797: 10767: 10738: 10728: 10712: 10683: 10642: 10623: 10604: 10565: 10553: 10539: 10518: 10498: 10492: 10477: 10448: 10429: 10400: 10371: 10346: 10329: 10319: 10314:

Assar, Gholamreza F. (2006). "A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 91–55 BC".

10300: 10271: 8571: 8551: 8202: 6053: 5976: 5860: 5832: 5726: 5503: 5495: 5481: 5078: 4969: 4942: 4843: 4489: 4383: 4086: 3858:. 54–68 AD) ceremoniously crowned him king of Armenia by placing the royal 3816: 3808: 3594: 3590: 3507: 3452: 3404: 3365: 3342:

in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named

3305: 3288:

meant for the siege of Praaspa; after this, Artavasdes II abandoned Antony's forces.

3030: 3026: 3012: 2889: 2734:

of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BC. The Han embassy

2723: 2535:. c. 132–127 BC). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the 2144: 2128: 2120: 1995: 1983: 1912: 1853: 1837: 1342: 1242: 1232: 942: 932: 890: 790: 734: 108: 15056: 10943:

Lightfoot, C.S. (1990), "Trajan's Parthian War and the Fourth-Century Perspective",

5825:

Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff

5445:

at one shoulder. Their headdresses also featured a veil which was draped backwards.

3319: 2946:

he reaffirmed with Lucullus the Euphrates as the boundary between Parthia and Rome.

2873:. 95–92? BC), killing the latter. When one of the last Seleucid monarchs, 22418: 22205: 22200: 22156: 22143: 22073: 22041: 22036: 21900: 21895: 21877: 21838: 21771: 21754: 21695: 21685: 21680: 21621: 21577: 21547: 21507: 21490: 21473: 21436: 21187: 21051: 21042: 20952: 20942: 20898: 20738: 20726: 20680: 20625: 20442: 20307: 20138: 20107: 19952: 19933: 19642: 19262: 18749: 18744: 18648: 18643: 18638: 18628: 18623: 18613: 18429: 18286: 18271: 18255: 18250: 18245: 18223: 18114: 17552: 17464: 17410: 17341: 17328: 17307: 17272: 17121: 16909: 16878: 16733: 16709: 16477: 16474: 16468: 16423: 16316: 16297: 16291: 16247: 16230: 16074: 16065: 16062: 15986: 15983: 15821: 15706: 15293: 14383: 14317: 14305: 13998: 13545: 12835: 11934: 11857: 11382: 11216: 10952: 10882: 9328: 7374: 7372: 7370: 6098: 6015: 5864: 5852: 5816: 5681: 5552: 5334:

flourish there. This is exemplified by the early 3rd-century AD wall murals of the

5204: 5050: 5038: 4890: 4613: 4573: 4522: 4395: 3871: 3683: 3339: 3138: 2779: 2637: 2540: 2497: 2148: 2136: 2047: 1694: 1661: 1372: 1062: 1032: 12570: 10583:. Vol. III: The Crossroads of Civilization: AD 250 to 750. UNESCO Publishing. 7917: 5543: 5402:

A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian soldier wearing a

3976:

In the last months of 116 AD, Trajan captured the Persian city of Susa. When

3865:

A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued, with only the invasion of

3791:. 51–55 AD) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates, 3486: 22751: 22636: 22604: 22477: 22445: 22428: 22384: 22379: 22357: 22352: 22310: 22303: 22278: 22138: 22133: 21974: 21855: 21749: 21744: 21712: 21537: 21527: 21421: 21414: 21394: 21350: 21232: 21218: 21085: 21022: 20957: 20932: 20917: 20856: 20645: 20497: 20387: 20209: 19908: 19844: 19748: 19596: 19498: 19270: 19246: 19182: 19163: 19131: 19016: 18958: 18683: 18658: 18653: 18633: 18581: 18566: 18556: 18536: 18506: 18458: 18454: 18424: 18131: 18095: 18085: 17795: 17473: 17459: 17434: 17387: 17350: 17336: 17160: 17009: 16869: 16834: 16706: 16701: 16629: 16603: 16459: 16334: 16328: 16313: 16306: 16260: 16250: 16083: 16028: 16022: 16019: 15965: 15913: 15749: 15683: 15671: 15659: 15647: 15632: 15611: 15530: 15434: 15431: 15405: 15320: 15299: 15287: 15254: 15248: 15218: 15140: 14950: 14302: 14257: 14211: 14205: 14195: 13985: 13085: 13063: 12830: 12349: 11893: 11655: 11554: 11550: 11498: 11494: 11469: 11465: 11351: 11256: 11252: 11183: 11179: 11158: 11075: 11071: 11029: 10985: 10981: 10919: 10915: 10787: 10783: 10757: 10753: 10702: 10698: 10594: 10590: 10467: 10463: 10419: 10415: 10390: 10386: 10290: 10286: 10212: 5844: 5820: 5671: 5661: 5636: 5599: 5537: 5259: 5074: 5034: 4954: 4896: 4667: 4625: 4572:

Compared with the earlier Achaemenid Empire, the Parthian government was notably

4553: 4415: 4300: 4285: 4154: 4078: 4074: 4054: 3687: 3637: 3589:, where Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the 3411: 3335: 3216: 3193: 3052:

Surena, with an army entirely on horseback, rode to meet Crassus. Surena's 1,000

2743: 2587: 2408: 2368: 2212: 2124: 2096: 2052: 2027: 2007: 1991: 1960: 1829: 1760: 1724: 1252: 1202: 1102: 1072: 1012: 952: 870: 840: 780: 575: 420: 372: 335: 322: 22058: 17512: 12750: 11599:

Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305

7367: 6361: 6359: 4041:. Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III, the latter succeeded by 3755: 3379: 3149:

in 40 BC; the following year he invaded Syria alongside Pacorus I. The triumvir

22579: 22574: 22537: 22512: 22495: 22406: 22391: 22362: 22320: 22168: 22128: 22123: 22078: 22004: 21964: 21954: 21944: 21759: 21638: 21532: 21399: 21281: 20927: 20447: 20272: 19760: 19724: 19387: 19305: 19238: 19064: 18663: 18069: 17371: 16915: 16808: 16697: 16650: 16611: 16554: 16456: 16392: 16310: 16269: 16263: 16253: 16241: 16025: 16013: 16001: 15921: 15810: 15764: 15674: 15644: 15608: 15472: 15317: 15296: 15290: 15281: 15233: 15203: 15185: 15160: 15148: 15060: 14917: 14788: 14639: 14501: 14495: 14398: 14390: 14326: 14299: 14263: 14096: 13863: 13860: 13761: 13169: 12934: 12840: 12817: 12709: 11949: 11939: 11903: 11888: 11674: 11635: 5856: 5523: 5499: 5415: 5322: 5200: 5164: 5145: 5010: 4965: 4714: 4710: 4276: 4248: 4093:. 193–211 AD) invaded Mesopotamia in 197 AD during the reign of 3958: 3918: 3903: 3661: 3618: 3503: 3396: 3360: 2985: 2747: 2657: 2524: 2400: 2307: 2286: 2216: 2140: 2132: 1915:

in 53 BC, and in 40–39 BC, Parthian forces captured the whole of the

1896: 1825: 1782: 1362: 1042: 1022: 962: 598: 509: 143: 11220: 4646: 3585:

at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome. He traveled as far west as the

3087: 2980:, after which Orodes turned on Mithridates, forcing him to flee from Media to 2493:

ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids, according to Brosius.

2204: 22715: 22697: 22684: 22660: 22547: 22342: 22315: 22288: 22266: 22244: 22011: 21994: 21979: 21823: 21776: 21764: 21690: 21582: 21456: 21451: 21426: 21308: 21158: 21062: 21047: 21017: 20962: 20842: 20797: 20746: 20716: 19419: 19313: 19278: 19000: 18463: 18311: 18218: 17977: 17973: 17806: 17666: 17589: 17574: 17446: 17378: 17258: 16903: 16900: 16653: 16647: 16607: 16563: 16471: 16432: 16266: 16205: 16106: 16103: 16031: 16016: 15977: 15974: 15917: 15856: 15738: 15444: 15437: 15414: 15308: 15302: 15266: 15188: 15144: 15101: 14893: 14791: 14785: 14743: 14642: 14445: 14407: 14180: 14066: 13980: 13790: 13741: 13496: 13480: 13173: 13099: 13060: 13034: 13028: 12989: 12930: 12901: 12626: 12106: 12096: 11386: 10414:

Bivar, A.D.H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids". In

10333: 10223:

Lerouge, Ch. 2007. L’image des Parthes dans le monde gréco-romain. Stuttgart.

10205: 6356: 6041: 5980: 5607: 5490: 5477: 5246: 5184: 5138: 5093:. Greek and Iranian deities were often blended together as one. For example, 4960: 4835: 4831: 4823: 4803: 4736: 4730: 4497:. They provide information on the nomadic migrations leading up to the early 4432: 4304: 4272: 4267: 4162: 3922: 3727: 3428:. c. 2 BC – 4 AD), Musa ruled alongside him, and according to 3351: 3301: 3293: 3285: 3254: 3177: 3073: 3069: 2834: 2567: 2297: 1920: 1849: 1814: 1441: 1430: 1172: 1092: 1052: 499: 459: 125: 22088: 22068: 14528: 12143: 11133:(2013). "Arsacid, Elymaean, and Persid Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). 3799:. c. 51–77 AD) planned to invade and place his brother, the later 3581:

on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire. Gan visited the court of

2881:), Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated. 22552: 22293: 22283: 22249: 22178: 22173: 22100: 21890: 21872: 21833: 21828: 21808: 21803: 21675: 21668: 21658: 21653: 21648: 21542: 21480: 21461: 21446: 21382: 21090: 21075: 21027: 20936: 20481: 20347: 19770: 19719: 19427: 19411: 19395: 19337: 18468: 18281: 18213: 18110: 17619: 17416: 17294: 17228: 17146: 17137: 17068: 16994: 16897: 16641: 16542: 16465: 16319: 16275: 16155: 16080: 16040: 15971: 15968: 15962: 15901: 15853: 15841: 15755: 15732: 15725: 15641: 15635: 15605: 15417: 15389: 15371: 15362: 15311: 15104: 15098: 15092: 14997: 14967: 14773: 14685: 14582: 14519: 14467: 14296: 14021: 13956: 13946: 13857: 13808: 13693: 13673: 13669: 13454: 13318: 13178: 13158: 13111: 13070: 12857: 12812: 12661: 12646: 12541: 12517: 12301: 11929: 11911: 10782:

Frye, R.N. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Sasanians". In

5902: 5750: 5619: 5476:

As culturally and religiously tolerant as the Parthians were, they adopted

5456:). This may have derived from an Achaemenid-era satrapal headdress and the 5371: 5273:

of the Parthian period include scenes of royal hunting expeditions and the

5226: 5216: 5106: 5090: 5086: 5030: 4858: 4850:

and mercenaries, were used to disperse enemy troops after cavalry charges.

4847: 4827: 4768: 4073:

invaded Armenia in 163 AD, followed by the invasion of Mesopotamia by

4062: 4014: 3970: 3875: 3732: 3678: 3669: 3586: 3347: 3211:, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the 3173: 3165: 3120: 3116: 3061: 3057: 2958: 2935: 2931: 2669: 2470: 2419: 2092: 2031: 1924: 1904: 1821: 1802: 1559: 1488: 1451: 1419: 1382: 1352: 1272: 1112: 678: 79: 17897: 17707: 11580:

Cambridge History of China: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

11103:"The Sacral Kingship of the early Arsacids. I. Fire Cult and Kingly Glory" 10680:

Cambridge History of China: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

9332: 5618:, is the only other woman believed to have been a ruler, in her case as a 4929:. The clothing is Parthian, while the style is Hellenistic (sitting on an 2614:(r. c. 124–91 BC) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in 2158:

concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to

22271: 22256: 22105: 21818: 21727: 21717: 21643: 21291: 21286: 21168: 21132: 20883: 20568: 20491: 20322: 18887: 18877: 18668: 18600: 18473: 18361: 18175: 17939: 17827: 17777: 17739: 17431: 17422: 17277: 17231: 17216: 17207: 17201: 17143: 17045: 17003: 16973: 16970: 16912: 16769: 16721: 16632: 16551: 16548: 16531: 16441: 16256: 16199: 16196: 16193: 16168: 16158: 16146: 15995: 15936: 15889: 15865: 15859: 15850: 15844: 15789: 15752: 15735: 15719: 15653: 15638: 15626: 15614: 15585: 15552: 15549: 15411: 15386: 15383: 15377: 15284: 15245: 15242: 15230: 15215: 15212: 15200: 15107: 15095: 15086: 15035: 15029: 14979: 14976: 14964: 14961: 14897: 14874: 14857: 14843: 14834: 14604: 14533: 14523: 14375: 14360: 14354: 14338: 14335: 14238: 14217: 14127: 14090: 14013: 13854: 13644: 13569: 13564: 13557: 13527: 13513: 13476: 13326: 13235: 13150: 13120: 13106: 12875: 12861: 12806: 12741: 12671: 12641: 12533: 12445: 12413: 12333: 12245: 11394: 7111: 5828: 5615: 5548: 5274: 5191:(fl. 2nd century AD), a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist monk, traveled to 5168: 5098: 4989: 4934: 4921: 4904: 4900: 4870: 4866: 4796: 4744: 4702: 4697: 4506: 4471: 4403: 4312: 3784: 3764: 3703: 3610: 3384: 3369: 3313: 3246: 3231: 3185: 3150: 3096: 2771: 2767: 2731: 2668:. After Mithridates II extended Parthian control further west, occupying 2653: 2625: 2528: 2463: 2447: 2439: 2388: 2384: 2252: 2227:

by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by

2167: 1987: 1928: 1810: 1794: 1786: 1731:

from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder,

1617: 1262: 1222: 982: 860: 114: 51:

The Parthian Empire in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of

14597: 11618:

Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road

11582:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, 11228: 10682:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 808–872, 10669: 10639:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

10268:

Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road

4650:

A statue of a young Palmyran in fine Parthian trousers, from a funerary

3838:

achieved some military successes against the Parthians while installing

3060:

were outnumbered roughly four to one by Crassus' army, comprising seven

2888:

succeeded him. He reigned during a period coined in scholarship as the "

2621: 2151:

and other languages in the multilingual territories they would conquer.

22298: 22115: 21989: 21949: 21882: 20522: 19913: 19435: 19403: 19329: 19297: 19107: 18419: 18414: 17440: 17437: 17419: 17396: 17381: 17375: 17255: 17252: 17210: 17198: 17192: 17177: 17048: 17039: 17036: 17030: 17012: 16982: 16790: 16715: 16656: 16522: 16462: 16325: 16219: 16190: 16187: 16184: 16172: 16164: 16152: 16140: 15886: 15862: 15847: 15783: 15745: 15722: 15716: 15620: 15359: 15191: 15089: 15048: 15038: 15032: 14994: 14991: 14988: 14982: 14970: 14958: 14955: 14925: 14871: 14868: 14681: 14660: 14636: 14612: 14441: 14332: 14329: 14320: 14311: 14230: 14121: 14007: 13962: 13950: 13794: 13632: 13628: 13577: 13398: 13306: 13232: 13228: 12972: 12845: 12795: 12789: 12453: 12429: 12421: 12405: 12357: 12269: 12229: 12221: 9211: 9209: 6027: 5514: 5461: 5457: 5338:, a temple in the same city dedicated to Palmyrene gods, and the local 5045:, according to V.G. Lukonin. The Parthians also adopted the use of the 4819: 4787: 4663: 4597: 4196:. 590–628 AD). However, they would lose these territories to 4189: 4158: 4144:. 217–218) where the Romans paid Parthia over two-hundred million 3980:

gathered forces in eastern Parthia to challenge the Romans, his cousin

3962: 3899: 3894: 3883: 3672:), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of " 3582: 3551: 3535: 3468: 3421: 3325: 3297: 3273: 3053: 2885: 2804: 2719: 2700: 2680:

in 97 BC, taking his son Tigranes hostage, who would later become

2665: 2490: 2482: 2333: 2315: 2244: 1944: 1478: 1392: 1212: 1192: 1162: 1122: 1082: 914: 880: 800: 754: 399: 18144: 15591: 11493:

Widengren, Geo (1983). "Sources of Parthian and Sasanian History". In

10964: 10095:, pp. 279–280 for comparison with Achaemenid satrapal headdresses 5317: 4577: 4440: 4437: 3965:

of Adiabene, since Osroes was engaged in a civil war to the east with

22188: 21959: 21843: 21813: 21594: 21468: 21259: 19648:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

19368: 19345: 19139: 19072: 19040: 18724: 18409: 18296: 18233: 17989: 17959: 17449: 17392: 17249: 17219: 17213: 17204: 17189: 17183: 17165: 17140: 17018: 17000: 16787: 16784: 16644: 16571: 16557: 16528: 16516: 16438: 16409: 16149: 16143: 15908: 15838: 15795: 15792: 15741: 15524: 15441: 15427: 15424: 15380: 15374: 15356: 15278: 15269: 15239: 15236: 15227: 15209: 15206: 15044: 15041: 14905: 14901: 14877: 14825: 14812: 14782: 14677: 14673: 14551: 14411: 14148: 14143: 14139: 14108: 14025: 14002: 13966: 13851: 13774: 13697: 13689: 13656: 13553: 13537: 13509: 13472: 13341: 13299: 13116: 12995: 12881: 12525: 12373: 12325: 12317: 11738:, vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 526–535 11358:. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 348–366. 11209:

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

10914:

Kurz, Otto (1983). "Cultural Relations Between Parthia and Rome". In

5746: 5382:

are found at Seleucia, built in the early 1st century AD. Monumental

5339: 5188: 5172: 5149: 5110: 4994: 4946: 4780: 4466: 4316: 4308: 4197: 4121: 3879: 3673: 3476: 3451:

During the reign of Artabanus II, two Jewish commoners and brothers,

3437: 2942:. c. 71–58). Phraates did not send aid to either, and after the 2893: 2855: 2843: 2739: 2649: 2641: 2633: 2536: 2474: 2455: 2435: 2431: 2267: 2011: 1999: 1888: 1869: 1798: 1790: 1322: 1292: 1282: 992: 830: 688: 71: 11102: 9320: 9206: 6019: 5963:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).

5069:

Parthian votive relief from Khūzestān Province, Iran, 2nd century AD

4307:. Other Parthian sources used for reconstructing chronology include 3127:, who ambushed and killed Osaces. The Arsacids sided with Pompey in 3103:(right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the 21589: 21372: 21330: 21269: 20558: 19898: 19780: 19032: 18861: 18516: 18439: 18434: 18341: 18326: 18321: 18276: 17983: 17968: 17964: 17948: 17914: 17902: 17890: 17865: 17399: 17225: 17186: 17180: 17057: 16638: 16635: 16580: 16577: 16519: 16450: 16400: 16363: 16216: 15758: 15617: 15599: 15582: 15520: 15447: 15421: 15368: 15350: 15260: 15135: 15026: 15017: 15005: 14973: 14937: 14913: 14863: 14831: 14807: 14779: 14749: 14737: 14730: 14716: 14710: 14645: 14555: 14537: 14449: 14427: 14423: 14308: 14234: 14063: 14017: 13994: 13989: 13920: 13915: 13884: 13701: 13625: 13621: 13614: 13492: 13413: 13258: 13090: 13080: 13075: 13066: 13002: 12985: 12756: 12703: 12477: 12186: 10956: 7115: 5529: 5297: 5282: 5180: 5002: 4930: 4761: 4718: 4671: 4605: 4601: 4526: 4484: 4476: 4419: 4411: 4399: 4346: 4146: 4137: 4082: 4009: 3942: 3760: 3653: 3578: 3570: 3563: 3543: 3514: 3495: 3491: 3460: 3456: 3429: 3392: 3343: 3161: 3154: 3100: 2962: 2950: 2934:

in 69 BC, Mithridates VI and Tigranes II requested the aid of

2927: 2851: 2782:, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between 2615: 2443: 2427: 2380: 2302: 2224: 1940: 1142: 1132: 698: 585: 169: 153: 75: 17628:. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). 16617: 11771: 11207:

Sellwood, David (1976). "The Drachms of the Parthian "Dark Age"".

4017:, depicted as a prisoner of war in chains held by a Roman (left); 21502: 21431: 21387: 21242: 21101: 19024: 18618: 18346: 18336: 18301: 18291: 18042: 18007: 18001: 17995: 17885: 17853: 17832: 17452: 17280: 17261: 17246: 17240: 17234: 16568: 16513: 16406: 16403: 16351: 16202: 15944: 15883: 15804: 15798: 15539: 15533: 15305: 15275: 15130: 15020: 14985: 14776: 14719: 14620: 14589: 14293: 13842: 13785: 13714: 13609: 13601: 13466: 13401: 13208: 13205: 13190: 13186: 12998: 12992: 12976: 12854: 12091: 5926: 5906: 5848: 5738: 5646: 5586: 5449: 5435: 5290: 5192: 5187:

into Iran proper. However, it is known from Chinese sources that

5134: 5118: 5082: 4862: 4854: 4655: 4621: 4585: 4581: 4557: 4370: 4341: 4324: 4258: 4236: 4174: 4166: 4038: 4026: 3888: 3745: 3691: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3606: 3527: 3480: 3464: 3320:

Peace with Rome, court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals

3269: 3189: 3131:

and even sent troops to support the anti-Caesarian forces at the

2969:

forced the Parthians out by either military or diplomatic means.

2847: 2813: 2575: 2501: 2451: 2415: 2208: 2116: 2003: 1948: 1877: 1744: 1332: 820: 651: 641: 631: 549: 522: 120: 21303: 14705: 4662:

The King of Kings headed the Parthian government. He maintained

3949:, son of Pacorus II, without consulting Rome. The Roman emperor 21335: 21210: 20907: 20227: 19056: 18366: 18316: 18238: 17243: 17237: 17195: 17106: 16574: 16525: 16100:

Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")

15898: 15801: 15786: 15770: 15515: 15500: 15365: 15272: 15263: 15197: 15154: 15023: 15014: 15011: 15008: 14909: 14881: 14822: 14713: 14608: 14435: 14314: 14226: 14214: 13845: 13802: 13767: 13748: 13720: 13617: 13549: 13487: 13430: 13382: 13291: 13262: 13218: 13215: 13165: 13095: 13013: 12966: 12916: 12891: 12886: 12865: 12682: 12656: 12631: 10242:

N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938.

9290: 9288: 9286: 9284: 6577: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5603: 5442: 5358: 5286: 5278: 5157: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5042: 4830:; they wore a simple tunic and trousers into battle. They used 4692: 4676: 4617: 4565: 4480: 4407: 4391: 4379: 4320: 3950: 3859: 3847: 3472: 3201: 3169: 3092: 3081: 3034: 3016: 2997: 2954: 2878: 2775: 2708: 2661: 2590:; the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the 2579: 2462:. By this time, Parthian authority extended as far east as the 2395:

Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the

2376: 2223:

For a time, Arsaces I consolidated his position in Parthia and

2163: 1952: 1916: 1873: 1861: 1857: 1752: 718: 621: 95: 18913: 14700: 14252: 13924: 13522: 13517: 13345: 13330: 10589:

Colpe, Carsten (1983). "Development of Religious Thought". In

5398: 4537: 4271:, was not compiled until the reign of the last Sasanian ruler 3902:

in their eastern provinces. Yet the Romans had no discernible

3157:

and eventually conducted negotiations with him at Brundisium.

2496:

The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general

1679: 21969: 19765: 18719: 18356: 18351: 18331: 17848: 17443: 17425: 15940: 15546: 15527: 14593: 14504: 14475: 14402: 14134: 13798: 13685: 13604: 13532: 13409: 13405: 13287: 13225: 13221: 13182: 12969: 12911: 12906: 12896: 12869: 12651: 11821: 11816: 11732:

Schippmann, Klaus (1987), "Arsacid ii. The Arsacid dynasty",

11620:, vol. 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 75–78, 10363:

The Persians, from the earliest days to the twentieth century

10270:, vol. 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 79–94, 8812: 8810: 8452: 6044: 5922: 5901:, "The Parthians and the peoples of the Parthian empire were 5742: 5641: 5631: 5611: 5582: 5465: 5423: 5235: 5221: 5102: 4839: 4749: 4651: 4240: 4129: 3986: 3866: 3736:

Map of the troop movements during the first two years of the

3665: 3657: 3614: 3550:. 41–54 AD) in 49 AD to release the hostage prince 3181: 2583: 2548: 2282: 2104: 2100: 2088: 1955:, revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, 1899:. Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the 1736: 526: 91: 14817: 13779: 11034:

The Provinces of the Roman Empire: From Caesar to Diocletian

10752:

Emmerick, R.E. (1983). "Buddhism Among Iranian Peoples". In

9281: 5767: 5765: 1700: 1673: 1670: 19545: 19008: 18944: 18306: 17844: 16397: 16161: 16088: 15932: 15688: 14799: 14654: 14576: 14417: 14345: 14174: 14060: 13891: 13866: 13754: 13735: 13504: 13462: 13417: 13357: 13295: 13242: 13211: 13140: 13040: 12982: 12979: 12926: 12770: 12762: 12732: 12692: 12676: 12666: 12636: 11456:

Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Principat. II.2

11014:, Canberra: National Library of Australia, pp. 38–39, 10462:

Boyce, Mary (1983). "Parthian Writings and Literature". In

7022: 5754: 5438:, Syria, along with the use of Parthian frontality in art. 5366: 5251: 5239: 5230: 5153: 5114: 5094: 4740: 4706: 4705:

that the Council of Parthia consisted of noble kinsmen and

4701:, preserved a claim by the Greek philosopher and historian 4680: 4498: 4452: 4244: 3851: 3772: 3660:

dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor

3065: 2821: 2672:

in 113 BC, he became embroiled in a conflict with the

2629: 2591: 2459: 2166:

who rebelled against them. Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his

1748: 1706: 1676: 539: 83: 21179: 11765: 10697:

Duchesne-Guillemin, J. (1983). "Zoroastrian religion". In

10343:

Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd Edition

9863: 9861: 8807: 5285:. Geometric and stylized plant patterns were also used on 4430:

chronological order of events. The Chinese called Parthia

2489:. c. 90–80 BC). It became the site of the royal 2119:. The latter was a northeastern province, first under the 2073:) with the Greek language inscription ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ "of Arsaces" 20523:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

14394: 10903:

Koshelenko, G.A.; Pilipko, V.N., eds. (1996). "Parthia".

8580: 5762: 5179:

There is scant archaeological evidence for the spread of

3436:

lasted just two years on the throne, and was followed by

3368:

to house the standards, and even in fine art such as the

1880:), although several other sites also served as capitals. 1712: 22747:

States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century

22742:

States and territories established in the 3rd century BC

17563:. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. 11549:

Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). "Iranian National History". In

11418:

Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History

10832:

The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran

9988: 9986: 9984: 9982: 9930: 9928: 9036: 9034: 7039: 7037: 4116:. c. 208–222 AD) took the throne, his brother 2434:. This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of 1793:, in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to present-day 14031: 12687: 11036:, vol. 2, Piscataway (New Jersey): Gorgias Press, 9858: 8665: 8663: 8108: 7824: 7822: 5913:

continued to be the main deity alongside the goddesses

5021:. Moreover, the Arsacids claimed familial descent from 3933:

Hostilities between Rome and Parthia were renewed when

3652:. 146–168 AD). Although it could be coincidental, 2266:). After spending some time in exile among the nomadic 1963:, which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the 17542:

Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.

11526:

The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia

10497:. Translated by W. J. Smyth. Cambridge: Polity Press. 10385:

Bickerman, Elias J. (1983). "The Seleucid Period". In

8616: 7118:

asserts that Afranius drove him out by military means.

6329: 5929:, was revered alongside a multiplicity of other gods." 5528:

It is known that during the Parthian period the court

5406:, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of 4945:

of the Seleucids was widely adopted by peoples of the

4451:), perhaps after the Greek name for the Parthian city 4235:

Parthian gold jewelry items found at a burial site in

3704:

Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline

2131:

as the official court language, speaking it alongside

15063:

Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu

9979: 9925: 9585: 9583: 9031: 7034: 6992: 6990: 6346: 6344: 5782: 5780: 5364:

A signature feature of Parthian architecture was the

4818:

The main striking force of the Parthian army was its

3941:. c. 109–128 AD) deposed the Armenian king 3517:(r. 14–37 AD) became involved in a plot by 3257:

Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Benefactor Philhellene"

3196:

were defeated by the Parthians and their Jewish ally

2087:

founded the Arsacid dynasty, he was chieftain of the

1709: 1703: 14131:

Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter

11280:

Shahbazi, Shahpur A. (1987), "Arsacids. I. Origin",

10815:, Oxford & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd., 9800: 9798: 9796: 9794: 9792: 9779: 9777: 9775: 9773: 9624: 9622: 8955: 8783: 8675: 8660: 8604: 8442: 8440: 8438: 7819: 7560: 7558: 6226: 6224: 6222: 5851:

was the medium of everyday writing, and it provided

5390:

at that site have a span of 15 m (50 ft).

5361:

vessels, is unquestionably influenced by Greek art.

4916: 2407:(r. c. 171–132 BC), whom Katouzian compares to 1935:. Several Roman emperors invaded Mesopotamia in the 1715: 1667: 12600: 11719:Neusner, J. (1963), "Parthian Political Ideology", 9344: 9342: 9184: 9182: 6535: 6533: 5823:; Krotkoff, Georg; Zahniser, A. H. Mathias (eds.). 5460:depicted in the Achaemenid reliefs at Behistun and 5148:is debated in modern scholarship. The followers of 4425:Parthian history can also be reconstructed via the 4374:exemplifies their admiration for Parthian cuisine. 3850:and Rome in 63 AD. At both sites the Roman emperor 3479:. The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and 1939:of the next few centuries, capturing the cities of 1697: 1664: 13934:(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 11523: 11101: 10696: 9708: 9660: 9580: 9574: 9455: 9453: 9114:"Strabo, Geography, Book 11, chapter 9, section 3" 8188: 7297: 7295: 6987: 6957: 6955: 6765: 6341: 6295: 6293: 6253: 6251: 6236: 5777: 4933:). The Greek inscription reads "King Arsaces, the 10902: 10199: 10197: 10195: 10193: 10191: 10189: 10187: 10185: 10070: 9789: 9770: 9619: 8967: 8435: 8239: 8190:"Emperor Trajan, 98–117: Greatest Extent of Rome" 7555: 6219: 5938: 4284:of the Achaemenids, and later developed into the 3076:on the flat plain, devastated Crassus' infantry. 2127:. After conquering the region, the Parni adopted 1990:and other languages, are scarce when compared to 1797:and western Pakistan. The empire, located on the 22713: 11178:Schlumberger, Daniel (1983). "Parthian Art". In 10861:The Persians: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Iran 10285:Asmussen, J.P. (1983). "Christians in Iran". In 9339: 9179: 8056: 7222: 7220: 7061: 6830: 6828: 6530: 6317: 6280: 6278: 6209: 6207: 6192: 5962: 5541:believed that such stories as the romantic tale 5305:explains the innovation of Parthian frontality: 4532: 4334:Parthian golden necklace, 2nd century AD, Iran, 4173:on 28 April 224 AD, perhaps at a site near 3842:as a Roman client. However, Corbulo's successor 1840:, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of 19584:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum 11051:Morton, William S.; Lewis, Charlton M. (2005), 11012:Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia 9514: 9512: 9450: 9438: 8186: 7292: 6952: 6685: 6290: 6248: 5944: 5799: 5797: 5795: 5741:that the kings themselves maintained was their 5581:According to Roman sources, Parthian kings had 5563: 5033:named one of his sons Darius and laid claim to 4580:, xšatrap, and dizpat, similar to the Seleucid 2411:(d. 530 BC), founder of the Achaemenid Empire. 1883:The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the 19670:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests 19569:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 10578: 10316:Parthica. Incontri di Culture Nel Mondo Antico 10182: 8458: 6056: 4853:The Parthians do not appear to have ever used 4207: 3668:, Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the 3330:Following the defeat and deaths of Antony and 2884:Following the rule of Mithridates II, his son 2824:, along the Persian Gulf), now located at the 2353: 21195: 19452:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 18929: 18160: 17723: 12586: 12172: 12148: 11787: 11464:Watson, William (1983). "Iran and China". In 11458:, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 415–427 11331:, London & Portland: Valentine Mitchell, 11251:Sellwood, David (1983). "Parthian Coins". In 7404: 7217: 6825: 6275: 6204: 5965:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 4822:, heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in 3874:, the heart of the Parthian Empire along the 3184:, the pro-Roman Jewish forces of high priest 3049:(d. 38 BC) and Artavasdes' sister. 2828:. Dated 50 BC – 150 AD, Parthian School. 1635: 280:2,800,000 km (1,100,000 sq mi) 22652:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 20528:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) 17577:. cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. 17551: 15055:: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk 13648:"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 11750:Various articles from Iran Chamber Society ( 11177: 10636: 10004: 9973: 9950: 9919: 9903: 9891: 9867: 9852: 9820: 9509: 9491: 9479: 8566:International Congress of Byzantine Studies 7884: 7848: 5999: 5792: 5753:, which they built from the ancient town of 4161:, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern 3775:. 2nd–3rd century AD. Louvre Museum Sb 7302. 2042: 2028:desire to form alliances against the Xiongnu 1856:; indeed, they accepted many local kings as 19638:2009 Iranian presidential election protests 18755:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 17737: 17587: 16804:Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon 11644:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. 11437:The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran 11050: 10620:The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran 10445:The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran 7868: 5843:In the Middle Persian period (Parthian and 4538:Central authority and semi-autonomous kings 3613:. However, Chinese records maintain that a 3268:The following year, when Antony marched to 2570:Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Philhellene." 2477:and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert ( 1959:, in 224 AD. Ardashir established the 1781:BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing 21202: 21188: 20144:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) 20006:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran 19522:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 18936: 18922: 18167: 18153: 17774:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 17730: 17716: 12593: 12579: 12179: 12165: 11794: 11780: 11695: 10810: 10730:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 10677: 10206:https://iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i 9965: 9848: 9760: 9720: 9704: 9640: 9530: 9471: 9428: 9271: 9251: 9219: 8949: 8745: 8729: 8693: 8646: 8622: 8486:, p. 44, who mentions this in passing 8345: 8281: 8225: 7958: 7688: 7616: 7517: 7473: 7262: 7246: 7191: 7150:, pp. 94–95 mentions this in passing. 6878: 6866: 6771: 6723: 6707: 6671: 6639: 6603: 6520: 6508: 6476: 6464: 6437: 6242: 5956: 5370:, an audience hall supported by arches or 5345:Parthian architecture adopted elements of 4069:. 161–169 AD) guard Syria while 2972:Phraates III was assassinated by his sons 2442:, where Mithridates I had coins minted at 2375:, showing him wearing a beard and a royal 1642: 1628: 45: 19653:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) 17504:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia 14100:"King of the four quarters of the world" 11548: 11492: 11372: 11329:Rome's Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand 11312:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11129: 10942: 10858: 10490: 10384: 10366:, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 9684: 9589: 9416: 8961: 8928:, Tahouri Publishers, Tehran, pp. 95-111. 8816: 8801: 8789: 8777: 8713: 8697: 8681: 8669: 8650: 8610: 8598: 8586: 8510: 8483: 8429: 8341: 8325: 8257: 8233: 8229: 8158: 8146: 7620: 7592: 7461: 7429: 7382: 7361: 7258: 7175: 7131: 7016: 6759: 6731: 6647: 6230: 6126: 6102: 6005: 5518:Parthian long-necked lute, c. 3 BC – 3 AD 4184:the Levant, Anatolia, and Egypt from the 3494:struck in 19 BC during the reign of 3238:. c. 38–2 BC) as his new heir. 2251:in Central Asia. The latter's successor, 1817:, became a center of trade and commerce. 1727:political and cultural power centered in 22812:1st-millennium disestablishments in Asia 19472:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 17675:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. 11669: 11348:"Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts" 11307: 11293: 11279: 11250: 11206: 11099: 10906:History of Civilizations of Central Asia 10751: 10581:History of Civilizations of Central Asia 10531: 10284: 10258: 10092: 9748: 9724: 9613: 9562: 9518: 9400: 9388: 9376: 9312: 9294: 8926:Indo-Parthians and the Rise of Sasanians 8114: 7549: 7043: 7028: 7012: 6623: 6591: 6571: 5677:List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties 5513: 5397: 5321:A wall mural depicting a scene from the 5316: 5245: 5220: 5064: 4974: 4920: 4645: 4547: 4340: 4329: 4290: 4008: 4002:allege that he attempted to establish a 3909: 3759:Parthian king making an offering to god 3754: 3731: 3575:Protector-General of the Western Regions 3530:. The Romans released a hostage prince, 3485: 3378: 3240: 3086: 3002: 2803: 2620: 2553: 2363: 2203: 2046: 22476: 20258:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 18174: 17649: 17647: 17645: 17520: 11679:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5 11634: 11345: 11326: 11215:(1). Cambridge University Press: 2–25. 11070:Neusner, J. (1983). "Jews in Iran". In 11069: 11028: 10979: 10881: 10655: 10512: 10359: 10176: 10136: 10120: 10104: 10076: 10064: 10016: 9992: 9969: 9946: 9934: 9844: 9832: 9816: 9804: 9783: 9688: 9648: 9628: 9601: 9558: 9546: 9534: 9348: 9325:The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires 9318: 9306: 9267: 9255: 9247: 9235: 9231: 9215: 9188: 9173: 9169: 9157: 9153: 9141: 9100: 9088: 9076: 9064: 9052: 9040: 9025: 9013: 9001: 8985: 8973: 8937: 8908: 8896: 8828: 8765: 8717: 8701: 8654: 8550:pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 8498: 8479: 8417: 8385: 8337: 8309: 8293: 8102: 8090: 8074: 8062: 8050: 8022: 7974: 7946: 7765: 7704: 7684: 7668: 7644: 7525: 7489: 7457: 7453: 7437: 7433: 7386: 7341: 7329: 7317: 7301: 7286: 7270: 7242: 7195: 7147: 7083: 7055: 6996: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6961: 6894: 6882: 6858: 6815: 6791: 6691: 6679: 6643: 6563: 6539: 6504: 6492: 6456: 6417: 6389: 6373: 6369: 6350: 6335: 6299: 6257: 6186: 6170: 6154: 6138: 6085: 5950: 5894: 5882: 5771: 5509: 5393: 5234:at the entrance at the ancient site of 5210: 4861:infrequently. There is one mention, by 4642:List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms 4033:. 117–138 AD) reaffirmed the 3815:, and for many centuries afterwards in 3636:) in 166 AD, during the reigns of 2181:, who in turn was succeeded by his son 2103:tribes within the confederation of the 2010:coins, and the chance survival of some 14: 22714: 19796:History of democracy in classical Iran 17385: 16615: 16413: 14193: 14184:(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 14088: 13012: 11641:The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History 11463: 11453: 11415: 11156: 10848: 10617: 10552: 10124: 10108: 10088: 10052: 10040: 9915: 9879: 9475: 9459: 9444: 9432: 9412: 9372: 9360: 8989: 8915:, p. 90 for a similar translation 8856: 8506: 8421: 8401: 8313: 8277: 8142: 7840: 7828: 7652: 7588: 7576: 7537: 7521: 7199: 6946: 6862: 6803: 6787: 6727: 6659: 6611: 6587: 6452: 6429: 6284: 6213: 6182: 6130: 6073: 5987:from the original on 17 September 2016 5786: 5710: 5167:(216–276 AD), the founding prophet of 4911: 3391:, showing a Parthian man returning to 2877:, attempted to besiege Beroea (modern 2850:, convened with the Parthian diplomat 2722:into Central Asia during the reign of 1907:. The Parthians destroyed the army of 21183: 20594: 20518:Defense Industries Organization (DIO) 20303:Iran and the World Trade Organization 20207: 19950: 19831: 18956: 18917: 18148: 18130: 18109: 18099: 18017: 17988: 17920: 17896: 17711: 17665: 17510: 17477: 17472: 17463: 17415: 17354: 17349: 17340: 17335: 17326: 17316: 17311: 17306: 17301: 17292: 17158: 17130: 17125: 17120: 17110: 17101: 17091: 17086: 17075: 17066: 16960: 16695: 16602: 16500: 16490: 16376: 16224: 16133: 15955: 15948: 15906: 15830: 15808: 15776: 15762: 15731: 15715: 15589: 15561: 15537: 15492: 15453: 15398: 15334: 15167: 15152: 15129: 15116: 15079: 14929: 14886: 14760: 14736: 14728: 14691: 14629: 14618: 14588: 14572: 14541: 14508: 14488: 14466: 14433: 14342: 14274: 14262: 14221: 14133: 14125: 14053: 13834: 13588: 13581: 13543: 13470: 13452: 13421: 13374: 13340: 13325: 13317: 13304: 13285: 13273: 13256: 13240: 13203: 13156: 13130: 13052: 13017: 12945: 12769: 12738: 12731: 12720: 12701: 12574: 12160: 12147: 11775: 11615: 11596: 11420:, Durham: The Durham Academic Press, 11119: 11009: 10829: 10726: 10588: 10461: 10442: 10413: 10313: 10172: 10160: 10148: 10028: 9764: 9736: 9700: 9672: 9644: 9503: 8844: 8832: 8749: 8733: 8634: 8522: 8502: 8446: 8425: 8405: 8389: 8373: 8361: 8349: 8305: 8273: 8261: 8245: 8221: 8174: 8162: 8138: 8126: 8038: 8026: 8010: 7998: 7986: 7962: 7942: 7930: 7900: 7896: 7813: 7801: 7789: 7777: 7752: 7740: 7728: 7716: 7700: 7680: 7664: 7648: 7632: 7604: 7564: 7513: 7501: 7485: 7449: 7425: 7410: 7378: 7357: 7345: 7313: 7282: 7266: 7238: 7226: 7211: 7187: 7171: 7159: 7143: 7127: 7107: 7095: 7079: 7067: 7008: 6930: 6846: 6834: 6819: 6783: 6755: 6743: 6719: 6703: 6675: 6635: 6607: 6583: 6567: 6551: 6524: 6480: 6460: 6433: 6413: 6401: 6385: 6365: 6323: 6311: 6269: 6198: 6166: 6150: 6134: 5815: 5803: 5571:predecessors in the Achaemenid Empire 4061:. 161–180 AD) had co-ruler 3886:), but later established a permanent 3744:, detailing the Roman offensive into 3420:. When Phraataces took the throne as 2930:marched against the Armenian capital 2746:, the most highly priced luxury good 22797:Historical geography of Turkmenistan 19690:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 19680:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 17642: 17618: 11601:, London & New York: Routledge, 11521: 11434: 11393: 11122:Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse 10913: 10853:, Jefferson: McFarland & Company 10781: 10517:, London & New York: Routledge, 10345:, London & New York: Routledge, 10340: 9275: 9200: 8912: 8892: 8880: 8868: 8761: 8570:pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 8534: 8078: 7904: 7864: 7852: 7398: 6918: 6906: 6114: 6057: 4869:, of the use of one war elephant by 3821:Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania 3300:, Egypt, and eventually executed by 3007:A Roman marble head of the triumvir 2810:Bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman 2582:from their homelands in what is now 2446:in 141 BC and held an official 1982:Native Parthian sources, written in 20923:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute 20564:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone 20538:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) 20337:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 20072:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 12007:Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC 11801: 11698:The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire 11401:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 11163:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 11135:The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran 5250:The Parthian Temple of Charyios in 5144:The extent of Arsacid patronage of 4282:Imperial Aramaic chancellery script 4200:—the last Roman emperor before the 3569:In 97 AD, the Chinese general 3129:the civil war against Julius Caesar 2789: 2754:sent lions and Persian gazelles to 2504:in 142 BC. However, by 140 BC 24: 19462:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 17598:. Getty Publications. p. 14. 17517:Chronology of the Neolithic period 17169: 16799: 16616: 16598:First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt 16383: 16274: 15590: 15562: 15505: 15335: 14942: 14596: 12957: 11688: 11577: 10909:. Vol. II. UNESCO Publishing. 10265: 7880: 7844: 6934: 3064:and auxiliaries including mounted 2682:Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia 2676:. His forces defeated and deposed 2418:of the latter kingdom, then under 2239:. This conflict with Ptolemy, the 1820:The Parthians largely adopted the 25: 22823: 20533:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) 20154:Supreme National Security Council 19980:Persian Constitutional Revolution 19610:Interim Government of Iran (1981) 19517:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 19507:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) 17174:Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint. 15510:Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos 13321:("made the land of Elam submit") 11744: 10538:, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 5969:Journal of World-Systems Research 5704: 5692:Royal formula of Parthian coinage 5575:successors in the Sasanian Empire 5141:was perhaps the most widespread. 4917:Hellenism and the Iranian revival 4275:(r. 632–651 AD). Indigenous 3316:reassumed the throne of Armenia. 3145:, sided with Parthia against the 3141:, a general loyal to Cassius and 2107:. The Parni most likely spoke an 22737:Seleucid Empire successor states 21163: 21154: 21153: 20129:Assembly (or Council) of Experts 18893:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 18384: 17659: 17612: 17595:Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins 17581: 17567: 17545: 17536: 17521: 17511: 14816: 14704: 14699: 14527: 14256: 14251: 14082: 13928: 13923: 13778: 13677: 13608: 13521: 13516: 13386: 13349: 13344: 13334: 13329: 13124: 12774: 12761: 12749: 12714: 10727:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), 10245: 10236: 10226: 10217: 10166: 10154: 10142: 10130: 10114: 10098: 10082: 10058: 10046: 10034: 10022: 10010: 9998: 9940: 9909: 9897: 9885: 9873: 9838: 9826: 9810: 9754: 9742: 9730: 9714: 9694: 9678: 9666: 9654: 9634: 9607: 9595: 9568: 9552: 9540: 9524: 9497: 9485: 9465: 9422: 9406: 9394: 9382: 9366: 9354: 9300: 9261: 9241: 9225: 9194: 9163: 9147: 9135: 9106: 9094: 9082: 9070: 9058: 9046: 9019: 9007: 8995: 8979: 8943: 8931: 8918: 8902: 8886: 8874: 8862: 8850: 8838: 8822: 8795: 8771: 8755: 8739: 8723: 8707: 8687: 8640: 8628: 8592: 8560: 8540: 8528: 8516: 8473: 8464: 8411: 8395: 8379: 8367: 8355: 8331: 8319: 8299: 8287: 8267: 8251: 8215: 8180: 8168: 8152: 8132: 8120: 8096: 8084: 8068: 8044: 8032: 8016: 8004: 7992: 7980: 7968: 7952: 7936: 7924: 7910: 7890: 7874: 7858: 7834: 7807: 7795: 7783: 7771: 7758: 7746: 7734: 7722: 7710: 7694: 7674: 7658: 7638: 7626: 7610: 7598: 7582: 7570: 7543: 7531: 7507: 7495: 7479: 7467: 7443: 5081:cults. Aside from a minority of 4953:, the Parthian era witnessed an 4795: 4779: 4760: 4225: 4216: 3282:Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene 3280:), then ruled by Parthia's ally 3164:while Pacorus and his commander 2243:(246–241 BC), also allowed 1759:, who was rebelling against the 1693: 1660: 1611: 382: 340: 315: 27:Iranian empire (247 BC – 224 AD) 22792:Ancient history of the Caucasus 20328:Military equipment manufactured 19894:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests 19658:United States withdrawal (2018) 19579:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) 18943: 16592:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 12133:Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms 10811:Garthwaite, Gene Ralph (2005), 10494:A History of the Roman Republic 10175:, pp. 1154–1155; see also 9124:from the original on 2016-12-21 7392: 7351: 7335: 7323: 7307: 7276: 7252: 7232: 7205: 7181: 7165: 7153: 7137: 7121: 7101: 7089: 7073: 7049: 7002: 6967: 6940: 6924: 6912: 6900: 6888: 6872: 6852: 6840: 6809: 6797: 6777: 6749: 6737: 6713: 6697: 6665: 6653: 6629: 6617: 6597: 6557: 6545: 6514: 6498: 6486: 6470: 6423: 6407: 6395: 6379: 6305: 6263: 6176: 6160: 6144: 6120: 6108: 6091: 6079: 6067: 6034: 5049:with names from the Achaemenid 4802:Relief of an infantryman, from 4679:") and citizens of the city of 4108:Around 212 AD, soon after 2812:from the sanctuary at Shami in 2736:opened official trade relations 2500:led a rebellion at the capital 2338: 2320: 2276: 2261: 2211:, shaded yellow, alongside the 2196: 2188:two distinct royal chronologies 2061: 1852:", claiming inheritance of the 1769: 57: 22777:Ancient history of Afghanistan 20888:modern / contemporary 20134:Expediency Discernment Council 19457:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 19446:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) 18970: 18450:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 18445:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 17527:Rulers of Ancient Central Asia 16665:Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt 16212:Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt 16136:Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 14698:"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" 11532:University of California Press 11296:Bulletin of the Asia Institute 11053:China: Its History and Culture 10658:Bulletin of the Asia Institute 10562:University of California Press 5932: 5888: 5876: 5809: 5610:of the Parthian Empire, while 4463:Records of the Grand Historian 3748:and capture of the country by 3176:), with the lone exception of 3056:(armed with lances) and 9,000 2914:Following the outbreak of the 2026:, prompted by the Han Chinese 1998:sources. Aside from scattered 13: 1: 20102:state-sponsorship allegations 19832: 18832:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 18229:Tigris–Euphrates river system 17497:Muslim conquest of the Levant 16743:Cleopatra II Philometor Soter 16686:Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 16671:Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 16509:Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 16379:Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt 16180:Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 15879:Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 11993:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 11346:Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2004). 10641:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 10532:Burstein, Stanley M. (2004), 10515:The Persians: An Introduction 9949:, pp. 111–112, 127–128; 9250:, pp. 116–118; see also 8482:, pp. 100–101; see also 8161:, pp. 117–118; see also 7851:, pp. 239–240; see also 5939:Koshelenko & Pilipko 1996 5711:Fattah, Hala Mundhir (2009). 4533:Government and administration 4157:. Indeed, shortly afterward, 4051:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 4013:A Parthian (right) wearing a 3718:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 2897: 2342: 2324: 2279: 222 – 187 BC 2264: 246 – 225 BC 2199: 404 – 358 BC 2113:northwestern Iranian language 2065: 1773: 759: 723: 603: 590: 567: 554: 531: 514: 464: 451: 438: 425: 412: 288: 111:(official, court, literature) 22767:Empires and kingdoms of Iran 20559:Asaluyeh industrial corridor 19951: 19860:twin towns and sister cities 19166:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) 19043:Mannai (10th–7th century BC) 19019:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) 16046:Fourth Babylonian dynasty (" 12780:(Uruk influence or control) 12035:Battle of the Cilician Gates 12000:Antony's Atropatene campaign 11530:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: 11100:Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016). 10945:The Journal of Roman Studies 10360:Bausani, Alessandro (1971), 5622:instead of a queen regnant. 5564:Women in the Parthian Empire 4895:Usually made of silver, the 3213:Battle of the Cilician Gates 2730:. 141–87 BC), the 2636:, 2nd century BC, silk from 2332:) succeeded Arsaces II, and 7: 22782:Ancient history of Pakistan 21209: 20838:Water supply and sanitation 20595: 20569:Kish Island Free Trade Zone 20208: 19628:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) 19003:civilization (3100–2700 BC) 18957: 18898:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 18780:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 18775:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 16740:Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator 15779:Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15578:Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15125:Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15119:Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt 14379:(Vassals of the Akkadians) 13366:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 12767:(Anonymous "King-priests") 12722:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 12563:usurpers or rival claimants 11986:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 11327:Sheldon, Rose Mary (2010), 11308:Shayegan, Rahim M. (2011), 10849:Howard, Michael C. (2012), 10637:de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), 9474:, pp. 80–81; see also 9415:, pp. 14–15; see also 9103:, pp. 104–105, 117–118 8308:, pp. 90–91; see also 8077:, pp. 87–88; see also 7687:, pp. 97–99; see also 7647:, pp. 96–97, 136–137; 7460:, pp. 80–81; see also 7130:, pp. 48–49; see also 5625: 5471: 5060: 4884: 4875:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 4735:The Parthian Empire had no 4724: 4631: 4208:Native and external sources 3832:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 3738:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 3710:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 2774:to China. The merchants of 2602:reports that his successor 2379:on his head. Reverse side: 2354:Expansion and consolidation 2235:. 246–222 BC) of 2219:(purple) around 200 BC 10: 22828: 20318:Economy of the Middle East 19695:2021–2022 Iranian protests 19685:2019–2020 Iranian protests 19665:2017–2018 Iranian protests 19126:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) 18903:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 17532: 17367:Sasanian conquest of Egypt 16794: 16677:Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt 16561: 16535: 16487:Assyrian conquest of Egypt 15833:Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 15598:Third Babylonian dynasty ( 15495:Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15457:Second Intermediate Period 14267:(vassal of the Akkadians) 13655: 12800:Early or legendary kings: 11675:"Army i. Pre-Islamic Iran" 11561:Cambridge University Press 11505:Cambridge University Press 11476:Cambridge University Press 11263:Cambridge University Press 11190:Cambridge University Press 11082:Cambridge University Press 10992:Cambridge University Press 10926:Cambridge University Press 10887:The Roman Army in the East 10863:, New Haven & London: 10794:Cambridge University Press 10764:Cambridge University Press 10735:Cambridge University Press 10709:Cambridge University Press 10601:Cambridge University Press 10491:Bringmann, Klaus (2007) . 10474:Cambridge University Press 10426:Cambridge University Press 10397:Cambridge University Press 10297:Cambridge University Press 8459:Chegini & Nikitin 1996 6045: 5737:One characteristic of the 5614:, mother of underage king 5585:full of female slaves and 5521: 5494:in the empire. The native 5214: 4888: 4728: 4638:Seven Great Houses of Iran 4635: 4541: 4427:Chinese historical records 3929:. c. 110–147 AD) 3805:Arsacid dynasty of Armenia 3783:Pharasmanes I had his son 3725: 3714:Trajan's Parthian campaign 3707: 3623:arrived at the Han capital 3617:, perhaps only a group of 3323: 2911:. c. 78–69 BC). 2793: 2688:. c. 95–55 BC). 2357: 2172:overthrown by the Arsacids 2076: 2037: 1895:, and eventually the late 22645: 22597: 22114: 21518: 21217: 21149: 21115: 21061: 20864: 20855: 20785: 20737: 20669: 20616: 20607: 20603: 20590: 20551: 20543:National Development Fund 20506: 20463:Telecommunications and IT 20457:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 20386: 20283:Foreign direct investment 20228:Bonyad (charitable trust) 20220: 20216: 20203: 20162: 20121: 19963: 19959: 19946: 19840: 19827: 19707: 19574:1979 Khuzestan insurgency 19564:Interim Government (1979) 19543: 19491: 19484: 19380: 19290: 19207: 19198: 19175: 19092: 18985: 18978: 18969: 18965: 18952: 18870: 18824: 18798: 18702: 18599: 18492: 18400: 18393: 18382: 18264: 18191: 18182: 18127: 18106: 18094: 18091: 18084: 18081: 18063: 18053: 18036: 18029: 18027: 17993: 17981: 17972: 17963: 17958: 17930: 17913: 17884: 17869: 17864: 17843: 17838: 17826: 17816: 17804: 17794: 17776: 17773: 17763: 17758: 17753: 17746: 17501: 17494: 17487: 17458: 17408: 17405: 17364: 17323: 17289: 17270: 17112:Parthamaspates of Parthia 17098: 17063: 16922: 16890: 16683: 16662: 16589: 16586: 16492:Assyrian conquest of Elam 16485: 16373: 16339: 16273: 16234: 16098: 16087: 16044: 15872:Third Intermediate Period 15687: 15558: 15402:Second Babylonian dynasty 15347:("Old Babylonian Period") 15113: 15065: 14829: 14797: 14769:Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt 14741: 14725: 14672: 14669: 14652: 14574: 14559: 14518: 14485: 14431: 14415: 14389: 14381: 14352: 14277:First Intermediate Period 14271: 14247: 14203: 14188: 14172: 14147: 14138: 14112: 14107: 13919: 13898: 13879: 13870: 13831: 13806: 13789: 13765: 13752: 13747: 13733: 13718: 13709: 13661: 13637: 13562: 13502: 13485: 13450: 13429: 13423:Early Dynastic Period III 13371: 13355: 13283: 13281: 13270: 13197: 13148: 13138: 13049: 13026: 12942: 12873: 12804: 12787: 12784: 12725: 12698: 12625: 12609: 12561: 12201: 12154: 12149:Links to related articles 12120: 12084: 12063:Parthian war of Caracalla 12021:Battle of Ctesiphon (198) 12014:Battle of Ctesiphon (165) 11958: 11922: 11871: 11835: 11827:Parni conquest of Parthia 11809: 11221:10.1017/S0035869X00132988 11157:Roller, Duane W. (2010), 11055:, New York: McGraw-Hill, 10830:Green, Tamara M. (1992), 8195:Atlas of Military History 5925:'s main god, the sun-god 4927:Mithridates II of Parthia 4445:Old Chinese pronunciation 4019:Arch of Septimius Severus 3982:Parthamaspates of Parthia 3813:Arsacid dynasty of Iberia 3722:Parthian war of Caracalla 3095:bearing the portraits of 2978:Mithridates IV of Parthia 2079:Parni conquest of Parthia 2043:Origins and establishment 294: 284: 276: 271: 267: 257: 247: 243: 233: 223: 219: 204: 189: 185: 175: 162: 136: 101: 67: 44: 39: 32: 22727:Former countries in Asia 20293:International oil bourse 20058:Ministry of Intelligence 19643:Syrian civil war (2011–) 19467:1921 Persian coup d'état 17755:Northwestern Mesopotamia 17490:Muslim conquest of Egypt 16954:Antiochus XIII Asiaticus 16785:Cleopatra VII Philopator 16282:Eight Babylonian Dynasty 15344:First Babylonian dynasty 15082:Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt 14586:(vassal of the Gutians) 14283:Seventh Dynasty of Egypt 13275:Early Dynastic Period II 12042:Battle of Mount Gindarus 11696:Ellerbrock, Uwe (2021). 11387:10.1556/AAnt.46.2006.3.3 10859:Katouzian, Homa (2009), 9819:, p. 127; see also 9319:Daryaee, Touraj (2016). 8911:, p. 118; see also 8764:, p. 564; see also 8340:, p. 100; see also 8232:, p. 120; see also 8187:Dr. Aaron Ralby (2013). 8105:, pp. 9–10, 231–235 7146:, pp. 48–49; also, 5697: 5657:Assyria (Roman province) 5652:Augustus' Eastern policy 5420:the famous bronze statue 5404:Hellenistic-style helmet 4955:Iranian cultural revival 4771:, now on display at the 3978:Sanatruces II of Parthia 3967:Vologases III of Parthia 3898:) and even mail-armored 3844:Lucius Caesennius Paetus 3834: AD, the commander 3664:have been discovered at 3532:Tiridates III of Parthia 3366:building of a new temple 3228:Battle of Mount Gindarus 3209:Publius Ventidius Bassus 3107:by Octavian, Antony and 3039:Artavasdes II of Armenia 2920:Mithridates VI of Pontus 2780:Eastern Iranian language 2109:eastern Iranian language 1801:trade route between the 20817:scientists and scholars 20323:Milad Tower and complex 20113:Women's rights movement 20108:White Revolution (1963) 19776:Peoples of the Caucasus 19118:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) 19011:dynasties (2700–540 BC) 17575:"Rulers of Mesopotamia" 17318:Province of Mesopotamia 17127:Province of Mesopotamia 17103:Province of Mesopotamia 17078:Roman conquest of Egypt 16919:Antigonus II Mattathias 16713:Ptolemy II Philadelphus 16286:Ninurta-kudurri-usur II 14763:Middle Kingdom of Egypt 14289:Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 13597:Fourth Dynasty of Egypt 13132:Early Dynastic Period I 13055:Second Dynasty of Egypt 12112:Roman–Iranian relations 12056:Battle of Nisibis (217) 11597:Young, Gary K. (2001), 11416:Torday, Laszlo (1997), 11139:Oxford University Press 10513:Brosius, Maria (2006), 10067:, pp. 108, 134–135 9727:, pp. 928, 933–934 9709:Duchesne-Guillemin 1983 9661:Duchesne-Guillemin 1983 9575:Duchesne-Guillemin 1983 9363:, pp. 9, 11–12, 16 8509:, p. 14; see also 7918:"Louvre Museum Sb 7302" 7869:Morton & Lewis 2005 7619:, p. 80; see also 7524:, p. 13; see also 7464:, pp. 239, 245–246 7194:, p. 79; see also 6642:, p. 77; see also 6495:, pp. 103, 110–113 5714:A Brief History of Iraq 5667:Battle of Nisibis (217) 5199:and translated several 5097:was often equated with 5023:Artaxerxes II of Persia 4493:(Book of Later Han) by 4376:Apollodorus of Artemita 4355:National Museum of Iran 4323:documents, and pottery 4150:with additional gifts. 4118:Artabanus IV of Parthia 4110:Vologases VI of Parthia 4043:Vologases IV of Parthia 3836:Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo 3750:Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo 3644:. 161–180 AD) and 3519:Pharasmanes I of Iberia 3442:Artabanus II of Parthia 3417:Res Gestae Divi Augusti 3401:Marcus Licinius Crassus 3389:Augustus of Prima Porta 3383:A close-up view of the 3374:Augustus of Prima Porta 3356:Tiridates II of Parthia 3198:Antigonus II Mattathias 3023:Marcus Licinius Crassus 3009:Marcus Licinius Crassus 2826:National Museum of Iran 2796:Roman–Persian relations 2772:Roman luxury glasswares 2678:Artavasdes I of Armenia 2272:Antiochus III the Great 2192:Artaxerxes II of Persia 1909:Marcus Licinius Crassus 434:Shulaveri–Shomu culture 22757:240s BC establishments 22732:Former empires in Asia 21128:Anti-Iranian sentiment 21123:Science and technology 20948:Intellectual movements 20828:International rankings 20812:Intellectual movements 20298:International rankings 19791:Heads of state of Iran 19597:Nojeh coup plot (1980) 19158:Empire (247 BC–AD 224) 18995:culture (3400–2000 BC) 18735:Babylonian mathematics 17915:Middle Hittite Kingdom 17175: 16957:Philip II Philoromaeus 16951:Antiochus XII Dionysus 16945:Demetrius III Eucaerus 16942:Antiochus XI Epiphanes 16933:Antiochus IX Cyzicenus 16805: 16773:Cleopatra VI Tryphaena 16728:Arsinoe III Philopator 16621: 16389: 16279: 16116:Ninurta-kudurri-usur I 16048:Second Dynasty of Isin 15595: 15568: 15511: 15340: 15223:(Non-dynastic usurpers 14947: 14632:Tenth Dynasty of Egypt 14601: 14491:Ninth Dynasty of Egypt 14056:Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 13837:Fifth Dynasty of Egypt 13664:Second kingdom of Mari 13377:Third Dynasty of Egypt 13311:Dumuzid, the Fisherman 12963: 12954:First Dynasty of Egypt 11966:Seleucid–Parthian Wars 11700:. Abingdon-on-Thames: 11522:Wood, Frances (2002), 11507:. pp. 1261–1283. 11192:. pp. 1027–1054. 11160:Cleopatra: a biography 10535:The Reign of Cleopatra 10476:. pp. 1151–1165. 10341:Ball, Warwick (2016), 10091:, p. 8; see also 9643:, pp. 68, 83–84; 9091:, pp. 99–100, 104 8548:The Jews of Arab Lands 6008:Social Science History 5519: 5416:Parthian riding outfit 5411: 5336:Dura-Europos synagogue 5330: 5327:Dura-Europos synagogue 5315: 5255: 5243: 5089:, most Parthians were 5070: 4980: 4938: 4659: 4658:, early 3rd century AD 4569: 4564:), and his wife Queen 4544:List of Parthian kings 4357: 4338: 4296: 4286:Pahlavi writing system 4095:Vologases V of Parthia 4071:Marcus Statius Priscus 4022: 4006:in lower Mesopotamia. 3945:and replaced him with 3930: 3907:Rome's client states. 3840:Tigranes VI of Armenia 3828:Vardanes II of Parthia 3801:Tiridates I of Armenia 3793:Vologases I of Parthia 3776: 3752: 3510: 3469:local Jewish community 3407: 3258: 3125:Gaius Cassius Longinus 3112: 3019: 2875:Demetrius III Eucaerus 2865:and her Seleucid ally 2840:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 2830: 2748:imported by the Romans 2645: 2578:dislodged the nomadic 2571: 2392: 2360:Seleucid–Parthian wars 2257:Seleucus II Callinicus 2249:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 2247:to rebel and form the 2220: 2179:Tiridates I of Parthia 2115:spoken at the time in 2074: 973:Masmughans of Damavand 447:Zayandeh River Culture 259:• Disestablished 22762:224 disestablishments 22698:33.09361°N 44.58083°E 22622:Medieval great powers 20416:Shetab Banking System 20406:Banking and insurance 20368:Tehran Stock Exchange 20288:Intellectual property 19633:PJAK conflict (2004–) 19406:Turcomans (1378–1508) 19398:Turcomans (1374–1468) 19347:Ilkhanate (1256–1335) 19150:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) 18038:Neo-Babylonian Empire 17871:Old Babylonian Empire 17786:Early Dynastic period 17561:The Ancient Near East 17479:Byzantine Mesopotamia 17393:Province of Asoristan 17356:Byzantine Mesopotamia 17173: 17166:Province of Asoristan 16948:Philip I Philadelphus 16936:Seleucus VI Epiphanes 16930:Antiochus VIII Grypus 16927:Seleucus V Philometor 16882:Antiochus VII Sidetes 16876:Antiochus VI Dionysus 16803: 16776:Berenice IV Epiphanea 16737:Ptolemy VI Philometor 16725:Ptolemy IV Philopator 16722:Berenice II Euergetis 16719:Ptolemy III Euergetes 16620: 16538:Neo-Babylonian Empire 16448:Marduk-apla-iddina II 16445:Marduk-zakir-shumi II 16436:Marduk-apla-iddina II 16387: 16342:Humban-Tahrid dynasty 16278: 15999:Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur 15689:Middle Elamite period 15594: 15566: 15509: 15339: 14946: 14600: 14355:Third kingdom of Mari 14076:Merenre Nemtyemsaf II 13151:First kingdom of Mari 12961: 12948:Early Dynastic Period 12790:Proto-Dynastic period 12076:Bactrian–Parthian War 12071:Armenian–Parthian War 12049:Battle of Amanus Pass 11735:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11282:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11244:registration required 10865:Yale University Press 10259:References or sources 9333:10.2307/j.ctvh1dkb6.7 9172:, pp. 116, 122; 9118:www.perseus.tufts.edu 8899:, pp. 90–91, 122 8819:, pp. 1265, 1267 8780:, pp. 1261, 1264 7432:, pp. 239, 245; 7198:, pp. 94–95 and 5522:Further information: 5517: 5401: 5320: 5307: 5249: 5242:, built c. 50 AD 5224: 5215:Further information: 5068: 5017:(r. 522–486 BC) made 4978: 4924: 4889:Further information: 4773:Palazzo Madama, Turin 4729:Further information: 4649: 4636:Further information: 4551: 4453:Antiochia in Margiana 4344: 4333: 4294: 4012: 3913: 3758: 3735: 3726:Further information: 3521:to place his brother 3489: 3434:Orodes III of Parthia 3382: 3350:, becoming the first 3324:Further information: 3244: 3221:Battle of Amanus Pass 3090: 3006: 2916:Third Mithridatic War 2807: 2784:Parthia and Han China 2752:Pacorus II of Parthia 2738:with Parthia via the 2699:visited the court of 2693:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 2624: 2557: 2517:Antiochus VII Sidetes 2367: 2229:Ptolemy III Euergetes 2207: 2183:Arsaces II of Parthia 2111:, in contrast to the 2077:Further information: 2050: 2006:, rock inscriptions, 2002:tablets, fragmentary 1751:'s northeast, then a 1687:), also known as the 851:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 805:3rd-century BC–132 BC 771:Kingdom of Cappadocia 727: 6th century BC 709:Neo-Babylonian Empire 102:Common languages 60: 124–91 BC 22632:European colonialism 22617:Ancient great powers 20377:Technology start-ups 20278:Environmental issues 20268:Economic Reform Plan 20182:Provincial governors 19872:Environmental issues 19620:Iran Air Flight 655 19361:Jalayirid Sultanate 19233:Caliphate (750–1258) 19075:Kingdom (652–625 BC) 18730:Babylonian astronomy 18209:Mesopotamian Marshes 17765:Southern Mesopotamia 17760:Northern Mesopotamia 16924:Alexander II Zabinas 16788:Ptolemy XV Caesarion 16764:Ptolemy XI Alexander 16746:Ptolemy VIII Physcon 16301:Marduk-zakir-shumi I 16289:Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina 16113:Eulmash-shakin-shumi 16054:Marduk-kabit-ahheshu 15678:Marduk-apla-iddina I 15572:New Kingdom of Egypt 15395:Early Kassite rulers 14689:(Vassals of Ur III) 14670:(Vassals of UR III) 14070:Merenre Nemtyemsaf I 14040:Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II 13591:Old Kingdom of Egypt 11756:The Art of Parthians 11702:Taylor & Francis 11563:. pp. 359–480. 11478:. pp. 537–558. 11399:The Roman Revolution 11265:. pp. 279–298. 11084:. pp. 909–923. 10994:. pp. 681–746. 10928:. pp. 559–567. 10796:. pp. 116–180. 10766:. pp. 949–964. 10711:. pp. 866–908. 10603:. pp. 819–865. 10299:. pp. 924–948. 10163:, pp. 1158–1159 10123:, pp. 101–102; 10107:, pp. 101–102; 9953:, pp. 1037–1041 9922:, pp. 1052–1053 9894:, pp. 1052–1053 9855:, pp. 1049–1050 9823:, pp. 1041–1043 8924:Kalani, Reza. 2022. 8804:, pp. 1265–1266 8637:, pp. 1151–1152 8589:, pp. 1261–1262 8197:. Parragon. p. 8053:, pp. 67, 87–88 7883:, pp. 460–461; 7847:, pp. 460–461; 7843:, pp. 543–544; 7591:, pp. 138–151; 6865:, pp. 540–542; 5510:Literature and music 5394:Clothing and apparel 5211:Art and architecture 4899:coin, including the 4188:during the reign of 4186:Eastern Roman Empire 4171:Battle of Hormozdgān 3917:of Parthian king at 3611:eastern Central Asia 3577:, sent his emissary 3372:scene on his statue 3354:. Around this time, 3047:Pacorus I of Parthia 2974:Orodes II of Parthia 2944:fall of Tigranocerta 2756:Emperor Zhang of Han 2511:Rhodogune of Parthia 2506:Demetrius II Nicator 1887:in the west and the 22694: / 22627:Modern great powers 20777:Freedom of religion 20363:Supreme Audit Court 20242:Automotive industry 19889:Iranian Balochistan 19615:1987 Mecca incident 19512:Iran crisis of 1946 19501:dynasty (1925–1979) 19430:Dynasty (1751–1794) 19371:dynasty (1338–1357) 19363:dynasty (1335–1432) 19355:dynasty (1314–1393) 19340:dynasty (1244–1381) 19324:dynasty (1077–1231) 19308:dynasty (1011–1215) 19225:Caliphate (661–750) 19217:Caliphate (632–661) 19185:Empire (AD 224–651) 19102:Empire (550–330 BC) 19083:Empire (626–539 BC) 19067:Empire (678–549 BC) 19051:Empire (911–609 BC) 18811:Destruction by ISIL 18765:Sumerian literature 18740:Akkadian literature 18176:Ancient Mesopotamia 18019:Neo-Assyrian Empire 17933:Bronze Age Collapse 17866:Old Hittite Kingdom 17840:Old Assyrian period 17818:Third Dynasty of Ur 17429:Shapur-i Shahrvaraz 16939:Antiochus X Eusebes 16767:Ptolemy XII Auletes 16758:Ptolemy X Alexander 16752:Ptolemy IX Lathyros 16731:Ptolemy V Epiphanes 16416:Neo-Assyrian Empire 16304:Marduk-balassu-iqbi 16237:Neo-Assyrian Empire 16060:Ninurta-nadin-shumi 15951:Syro-Hittite states 15657:Shagarakti-Shuriash 15330:Ashur-nadin-ahhe II 14324:Neferkare Pepiseneb 14223:Akkadian Governors: 12727:Pre-Dynastic period 11980:Roman–Parthian Wars 11681:. pp. 489–499. 11671:Shahbazi, A. Shapur 11131:Rezakhani, Khodadad 9835:, pp. 129, 132 9297:, pp. 489–499. 8732:, pp. 67, 75; 8546:Norman A. Stillman 8025:, pp. 99–100; 7031:, pp. 188–189. 5774:, pp. 348–366. 5719:Infobase Publishing 5687:Roman–Parthian Wars 5303:Daniel Schlumberger 5197:Buddhist missionary 5055:Macedonian calendar 5047:Babylonian calendar 4912:Society and culture 4461:(also known as the 4345:A Parthian ceramic 4025:Trajan's successor 4021:, Rome, 203 AD 3935:Osroes I of Parthia 3646:Emperor Huan of Han 3498:, with the goddess 3397:legionary standards 3361:legionary standards 3013:defeated at Carrhae 2990:Ptolemy XII Auletes 2867:Antiochus X Eusebes 2800:Roman–Parthian Wars 2697:Apollonius of Tyana 2348: – 171 BC 2330: – 176 BC 2174:until 238 BC. 2099:and one of several 2071: – 211 BC 1937:Roman–Parthian Wars 1807:Mediterranean Basin 1507:Contemporary period 1411:Early modern period 1313:Jalayirid Sultanate 1183:Khwarazmian dynasty 612:Neo-Assyrian Empire 490:Kura–Araxes culture 408:Baradostian culture 249:• Established 238:Classical antiquity 149:Babylonian religion 22787:Classical Anatolia 22703:33.09361; 44.58083 20908:Persian New Year ( 20313:Main economic laws 19884:Iranian Azerbaijan 19786:Monarchs of Persia 19730:Persianate society 19438:Empire (1789–1925) 19422:Empire (1736–1796) 19414:Empire (1501–1736) 19390:Empire (1370–1507) 19316:Empire (1037–1194) 19281:dynasty (934–1062) 19273:dynasty (931–1090) 19265:dynasty (861–1003) 19134:Empire (312–63 BC) 19035:(c.1595–c.1155 BC) 18847:Mesopotamian myths 17875:Southern Akkadians 17782:Jemdet Nasr period 17655:Sumerian King List 17469:Palaestina Secunda 17346:Palaestina Secunda 17176: 16907:Alexander Jannaeus 16806: 16796:Hellenistic Period 16622: 16390: 16368:Humban-haltash III 16332:Nabu-shuma-ukin II 16280: 16245:Tukulti-Ninurta II 16226:Kingdom of Samaria 16122:Mar-biti-apla-usur 16119:Shirikti-shuqamuna 16089:Neo-Elamite period 16072:Marduk-shapik-zeri 16057:Itti-Marduk-balatu 16038:Tiglath-Pileser II 16035:Ashur-resh-ishi II 15990:Enlil-kudurri-usur 15681:Zababa-shuma-iddin 15666:Kadashman-Harbe II 15651:Kadashman-Enlil II 15596: 15569: 15512: 15341: 15327:Ashur-rim-nisheshu 15324:Ashur-bel-nisheshu 15315:Ashur-nadin-ahhe I 15074:Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 14948: 14602: 13977:Lugal-kinishe-dudu 13358:Old Elamite period 13250:Mesh-ki-ang-gasher 13103:Sekhemib-Perenmaat 13020:Jemdet Nasr period 12964: 11972:Battle of Ecbatana 11879:Seven Great Houses 10428:. pp. 21–99. 10211:2020-11-03 at the 10019:, pp. 132–134 9995:, pp. 134–135 9937:, pp. 111–112 9707:, pp. 80–81; 9703:, pp. 85–86; 9691:, pp. 102–103 9663:, pp. 872–873 9616:, pp. 924–928 9604:, pp. 909–923 9577:, pp. 867–868 9537:, pp. 128–129 9379:, pp. 279–298 9176:, pp. 231–232 9144:, pp. 704–705 9079:, pp. 700–704 9067:, pp. 699–700 9043:, pp. 103–104 9028:, pp. 114–115 9016:, pp. 115–116 9004:, pp. 113–114 8895:, pp. 89–90; 8859:, pp. 541–542 8720:, pp. 118–119 8704:, pp. 118–119 8696:, pp. 75–76; 8537:, pp. 173–174 8505:, pp. 95–96; 8348:, p. 81; and 8328:, pp. 120–124 8312:, p. 137 and 8224:, pp. 88–90; 8093:, pp. 231–232 8081:, pp. 561–562 7945:, pp. 79–81; 7867:, pp. 46–47; 7831:, pp. 543–544 7703:, pp. 68–69; 7651:, pp. 66–67; 7623:, pp. 251–252 7595:, pp. 304–307 7579:, pp. 145–151 7516:, pp. 60–63; 7488:, pp. 58–59; 7428:, pp. 57–58; 7401:, pp. 214–217 7360:, pp. 56–57; 7344:, pp. 78–79; 7316:, pp. 55–56; 7285:, pp. 52–55; 7269:, pp. 52–55; 7261:, pp. 42–43; 7245:, pp. 94–95; 7241:, pp. 52–55; 7190:, pp. 55–56; 7174:, pp. 49–50; 7082:, pp. 45–46; 6976:, pp. 73–78; 6909:, pp. 100–101 6897:, pp. 123–125 6885:, pp. 122–123 6861:, pp. 90–91; 6818:, pp. 91–92; 6790:, pp. 11–12; 6758:, pp. 40–41; 6722:, pp. 38–39; 6678:, pp. 36–37; 6638:, pp. 37–38; 6626:, pp. 145–150 6610:, pp. 36–37; 6606:, pp. 76–77; 6594:, pp. 121–150 6586:, pp. 36–37; 6459:, pp. 86–87; 6455:, pp. 10–11; 6432:, pp. 10–11; 6388:, pp. 29–31; 6169:, pp. 24–27; 6137:, pp. 24–27; 5520: 5418:is exemplified by 5412: 5408:Nisa, Turkmenistan 5351:Greek architecture 5331: 5256: 5244: 5195:in Han China as a 5071: 5057:of the Seleucids. 5019:royal inscriptions 5015:Darius I of Persia 4993:by the playwright 4981: 4951:Hellenistic period 4939: 4660: 4570: 4562:Khūzestān Province 4358: 4351:Khūzestān Province 4339: 4336:Reza Abbasi Museum 4297: 4182:briefly conquering 4023: 3931: 3777: 3769:Masdjid-e Suleiman 3753: 3742:Kingdom of Armenia 3603:military victories 3560:Izates bar Monobaz 3511: 3504:military standards 3408: 3359:received the lost 3278:Iranian Azerbaijan 3259: 3168:invaded the Roman 3147:Second Triumvirate 3133:Battle of Philippi 3113: 3105:Second Triumvirate 3031:marched to Carrhae 3020: 2831: 2818:Khūzestān Province 2716:diplomatic venture 2674:Kingdom of Armenia 2646: 2572: 2545:Battle of Ecbatana 2397:Gates of Alexander 2393: 2312:defeat at Magnesia 2221: 2075: 1893:Kingdom of Armenia 1842:Iranian traditions 1526:Interim Government 1516:Iranian Revolution 1303:Muzaffarid dynasty 1007:864 – 14th century 997:791 – 11th century 923:Rashidun Caliphate 745:Kingdom of Armenia 394:Prehistoric period 206:• 208–224 AD 191:• 247–211 BC 22802:Ancient Near East 22677: 22676: 22671: 22670: 22593: 22592: 22558:Polish–Lithuanian 21733:Gurjara-Pratihara 21177: 21176: 21145: 21144: 21141: 21140: 21111: 21110: 21018:Opium consumption 20851: 20850: 20687:Ethnic minorities 20661:Iranian languages 20586: 20585: 20582: 20581: 20199: 20198: 20195: 20194: 20078:Political parties 20016:Children's rights 20001:Foreign relations 19995:2009 presidential 19942: 19941: 19904:Iranian Kurdistan 19823: 19822: 19819: 19818: 19703: 19702: 19675:COVID-19 pandemic 19534:Revolution (1979) 19480: 19479: 19300:Empire (977–1186) 19257:dynasty (864–928) 19249:dynasty (821–873) 19241:dynasty (819–999) 19194: 19193: 19110:(c.323 BC–AD 226) 18911: 18910: 18862:Ziggurat (Temple) 18837:Sumerian religion 18595: 18594: 18542:Middle Babylonian 18484:Kish civilization 18380: 18379: 18204:Lower Mesopotamia 18199:Upper Mesopotamia 18142: 18141: 18137: 18136: 18065:Macedonian Empire 18055:Achaemenid Empire 17928:c. 1200–1150 BCE 17911:c. 1400–1200 BCE 17882:c. 1600–1400 BCE 17862:c. 1800–1600 BCE 17824:c. 2000–1800 BCE 17814:c. 2100–2000 BCE 17802:c. 2200–2100 BCE 17792:c. 2350–2200 BCE 17771:c. 3500–2350 BCE 17705: 17704: 17699: 17698: 17695: 17694: 17682:978-1-62564-606-4 17667:Unger, Merrill F. 17635:978-0-14-193825-7 17605:978-1-60606-649-2 17372:Province of Egypt 17303:Province of Egypt 17083:Province of Egypt 16825:Antigonid dynasty 16625:Achaemenid Empire 16546:Nebuchadnezzar II 16454:Ashur-nadin-shumi 16323:Nabu-shuma-ishkun 16295:Nabu-shuma-ukin I 16110:Kashshu-nadin-ahi 16078:Marduk-ahhe-eriba 16069:Marduk-nadin-ahhe 16011:Asharid-apal-Ekur 16008:Tiglath-Pileser I 16005:Ashur-resh-ishi I 15993:Ninurta-apal-Ekur 15981:Tukulti-Ninurta I 15928:Kingdom of Israel 15896:Osorkon the Elder 15817:Shutrukid dynasty 15702:Igehalkid dynasty 15669:Adad-shuma-iddina 15663:Enlil-nadin-shumi 15630:Kadashman-Enlil I 15624:Kadashman-harbe I 15068:Sukkalmah dynasty 14932:Isin-Larsa period 14754:Shimashki Dynasty 14480:Puzur-Inshushinak 14079:Netjerkare Siptah 13849:Neferirkare Kakai 13394:Egyptian pyramids 12603:Ancient Near East 12568: 12567: 12554: 12546: 12538: 12530: 12522: 12514: 12506: 12498: 12490: 12482: 12474: 12466: 12458: 12450: 12442: 12434: 12426: 12418: 12410: 12402: 12394: 12386: 12378: 12370: 12362: 12354: 12346: 12338: 12330: 12322: 12314: 12306: 12298: 12290: 12282: 12274: 12266: 12258: 12250: 12242: 12234: 12226: 12218: 12210: 12196: 12195:(247 BC – 224 AD) 12141: 12140: 12128:Parthian monarchs 12102:Parthian Dark Age 12028:Battle of Carrhae 11853:Caucasian Albania 11711:978-1-000-35848-3 11651:978-0-19-987575-7 11627:978-2-503-52178-7 11608:978-0-415-24219-6 11589:978-0-521-24327-8 11541:978-0-520-24340-8 11446:978-1-84511-406-0 11427:978-1-900838-03-0 11408:978-0-19-280320-7 11365:978-0-933273-90-0 11338:978-0-85303-981-5 11319:978-0-521-76641-8 11170:978-0-19-536553-5 11062:978-0-07-141279-7 11043:978-1-59333-026-2 11021:978-0-642-27809-8 10896:978-1-887829-18-2 10874:978-0-300-12118-6 10841:978-90-04-09513-7 10822:978-1-55786-860-2 10744:978-0-521-66991-7 10689:978-0-521-24327-8 10648:978-90-04-15605-0 10629:978-1-84511-406-0 10545:978-0-313-32527-4 10524:978-0-415-32089-4 10504:978-0-7456-3371-8 10454:978-1-84511-406-0 10399:. pp. 3–20. 10377:978-0-236-17760-8 10352:978-0-415-72078-6 10325:978-8-881-47453-0 10277:978-2-503-52178-7 10005:Schlumberger 1983 9974:Schlumberger 1983 9951:Schlumberger 1983 9920:Schlumberger 1983 9904:Schlumberger 1983 9892:Schlumberger 1983 9868:Schlumberger 1983 9853:Schlumberger 1983 9821:Schlumberger 1983 9492:Schlumberger 1983 9480:Schlumberger 1983 9478:, p. 21 and 9375:, pp. 7–25; 9254:, p. 78 and 9203:, pp. 99–100 8470:Herodian, IV.15.5 8208:978-1-4723-0963-1 7885:de Crespigny 2007 7849:de Crespigny 2007 6682:, pp. 89, 91 6646:, p. 90 and 6574:, pp. 83–103 6097:"roughly western 5838:978-1-57506-020-0 5817:Chyet, Michael L. 5732:978-0-8160-5767-2 5536:) recited poetic 5496:Parthian language 5482:official language 5139:cult of the ruler 5039:heroic background 4844:Battle of Carrhae 4529:in the Caucasus. 4475:(Book of Han) by 4384:Isidore of Charax 4263:universal history 4134:Battle of Nisibis 4103:Parthicus Maximus 4087:Septimius Severus 3817:Caucasian Albania 3595:Emperor He of Han 3591:Arabian Peninsula 3508:Battle of Carrhae 3453:Anilai and Asinai 3387:on the statue of 3306:Ptolemaic Kingdom 2890:Parthian Dark Age 2724:Emperor Wu of Han 2310:and the Seleucid 2121:Achaemenid Empire 2024:Chinese histories 1994:and even earlier 1977:Caucasian Albania 1913:Battle of Carrhae 1854:Achaemenid Empire 1755:(province) under 1652: 1651: 1544: 1543: 1497: 1496: 1460: 1459: 1401: 1400: 1343:Afrasiyab dynasty 1243:Khorshidi dynasty 1233:Pishkinid dynasty 1123:Ghaznavid dynasty 943:Abbasid Caliphate 933:Umayyad Caliphate 899: 898: 895:550s–11th century 791:Kingdom of Pontus 735:Achaemenid Empire 699:Anshanite Kingdom 660: 659: 563:Oxus Civilization 471: 470: 356: 355: 352: 351: 348: 347: 328: 327: 215: 200: 16:(Redirected from 22819: 22709: 22708: 22706: 22705: 22704: 22699: 22695: 22692: 22691: 22690: 22687: 22474: 22473: 22139:Austro-Hungarian 21839:Chagatai Khanate 21204: 21197: 21190: 21181: 21180: 21167: 21157: 21156: 21008:National symbols 20862: 20861: 20677:Iranian citizens 20614: 20613: 20605: 20604: 20592: 20591: 20574:Research centers 20263:Economic history 20218: 20217: 20205: 20204: 20139:Guardian Council 19961: 19960: 19948: 19947: 19829: 19828: 19806:Electric history 19801:Military history 19715:Ancient Persians 19623: 19622:shootdown (1988) 19605: 19592: 19589:Iranian Embassy 19559: 19548: 19546:Islamic Republic 19535: 19527:1953 coup d'état 19502: 19489: 19488: 19447: 19444:Khanates of the 19439: 19431: 19423: 19415: 19407: 19399: 19391: 19372: 19364: 19356: 19348: 19341: 19333: 19325: 19317: 19309: 19301: 19282: 19274: 19266: 19258: 19250: 19242: 19234: 19226: 19218: 19205: 19204: 19186: 19167: 19159: 19151: 19143: 19135: 19127: 19119: 19111: 19103: 19084: 19076: 19068: 19060: 19052: 19044: 19036: 19028: 19020: 19012: 19004: 18996: 18983: 18982: 18967: 18966: 18954: 18953: 18938: 18931: 18924: 18915: 18914: 18760:Sumerian cuisine 18750:Warfare in Sumer 18745:Economy of Sumer 18398: 18397: 18388: 18272:Fertile Crescent 18256:Sinjar Mountains 18251:Hamrin Mountains 18246:Zagros Mountains 18224:Taurus Mountains 18189: 18188: 18169: 18162: 18155: 18146: 18145: 18115:Byzantine Empire 17990:Middle Babylonia 17956:c. 1150–911 BCE 17749: 17748: 17732: 17725: 17718: 17709: 17708: 17687: 17686: 17663: 17657: 17651: 17640: 17639: 17616: 17610: 17609: 17588:Thomas, Ariane; 17585: 17579: 17578: 17571: 17565: 17564: 17549: 17543: 17540: 17525: 17515: 17465:Palaestina Prima 17411:Byzantine Empire 17342:Palaestina Prima 17329:Byzantine Empire 17308:Syria Palaestina 17273:Palmyrene Empire 17259:Bahram VI Chobin 17122:Syria Palaestina 16910:Salome Alexandra 16893:Kingdom of Judea 16879:Diodotus Tryphon 16734:Cleopatra I Syra 16710:Ptolemy Keraunos 16478:Ashur-uballit II 16475:Sin-shumu-lishir 16469:Ashur-etil-ilani 16424:Sargonid dynasty 16317:Marduk-apla-usur 16298:Nabu-apla-iddina 16292:Shamash-mudammiq 16248:Ashurnasirpal II 16231:Kingdom of Judah 16075:Adad-apla-iddina 16066:Enlil-nadin-apli 16063:Nebuchadnezzar I 15987:Ashur-nirari III 15984:Ashur-nadin-apli 15822:Shutruk-Nakhunte 15707:Untash-Napirisha 15696:Kidinuid dynasty 15294:Shamshi-Adad III 15002:Dynasty of Larsa 14820: 14708: 14703: 14531: 14384:Shar-Kali-Sharri 14318:Neferkare Tereru 14306:Neferkare Khendu 14260: 14255: 14086: 14045:Kiku-siwe-tempti 13932: 13927: 13782: 13711:Kish III dynasty 13681: 13612: 13525: 13520: 13425:(2600–2340 BCE) 13390: 13353: 13348: 13338: 13333: 13277:(2700–2600 BCE) 13134:(2900–2700 BCE) 13128: 13045:(3100–2700 BCE) 13024:(3100–2900 BCE) 12778: 12765: 12753: 12729:(4000–2900 BCE) 12718: 12617: 12616: 12613: 12612: 12595: 12588: 12581: 12572: 12571: 12552: 12544: 12536: 12528: 12520: 12512: 12504: 12496: 12488: 12480: 12472: 12464: 12456: 12448: 12440: 12432: 12424: 12416: 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Archived from 11630: 11611: 11592: 11574: 11551:Yarshater, Ehsan 11544: 11529: 11518: 11495:Yarshater, Ehsan 11489: 11466:Yarshater, Ehsan 11459: 11449: 11430: 11411: 11389: 11369: 11352:Yarshater, Ehsan 11341: 11322: 11303: 11289: 11276: 11253:Yarshater, Ehsan 11247: 11240: 11203: 11180:Yarshater, Ehsan 11174: 11152: 11125: 11115: 11105: 11095: 11072:Yarshater, Ehsan 11065: 11046: 11030:Mommsen, Theodor 11024: 11005: 10982:Yarshater, Ehsan 10975: 10939: 10916:Yarshater, Ehsan 10910: 10899: 10877: 10854: 10844: 10825: 10807: 10784:Yarshater, Ehsan 10777: 10754:Yarshater, Ehsan 10747: 10722: 10699:Yarshater, Ehsan 10692: 10673: 10651: 10632: 10614: 10591:Yarshater, Ehsan 10584: 10575: 10549: 10527: 10508: 10487: 10464:Yarshater, Ehsan 10457: 10439: 10416:Yarshater, Ehsan 10410: 10387:Yarshater, Ehsan 10380: 10355: 10337: 10310: 10287:Yarshater, Ehsan 10280: 10252: 10249: 10243: 10240: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10221: 10215: 10201: 10180: 10170: 10164: 10158: 10152: 10146: 10140: 10134: 10128: 10118: 10112: 10102: 10096: 10086: 10080: 10074: 10068: 10062: 10056: 10050: 10044: 10038: 10032: 10031:, pp. 91–92 10026: 10020: 10014: 10008: 10002: 9996: 9990: 9977: 9963: 9954: 9944: 9938: 9932: 9923: 9913: 9907: 9901: 9895: 9889: 9883: 9877: 9871: 9865: 9856: 9842: 9836: 9830: 9824: 9814: 9808: 9802: 9787: 9781: 9768: 9758: 9752: 9746: 9740: 9734: 9728: 9718: 9712: 9698: 9692: 9682: 9676: 9670: 9664: 9658: 9652: 9638: 9632: 9626: 9617: 9611: 9605: 9599: 9593: 9587: 9578: 9572: 9566: 9556: 9550: 9544: 9538: 9528: 9522: 9516: 9507: 9501: 9495: 9489: 9483: 9469: 9463: 9457: 9448: 9442: 9436: 9435:, pp. 14–15 9426: 9420: 9410: 9404: 9398: 9392: 9386: 9380: 9370: 9364: 9358: 9352: 9346: 9337: 9336: 9316: 9310: 9304: 9298: 9292: 9279: 9265: 9259: 9245: 9239: 9229: 9223: 9213: 9204: 9198: 9192: 9186: 9177: 9167: 9161: 9151: 9145: 9139: 9133: 9132: 9130: 9129: 9110: 9104: 9098: 9092: 9086: 9080: 9074: 9068: 9062: 9056: 9050: 9044: 9038: 9029: 9023: 9017: 9011: 9005: 8999: 8993: 8992:, pp. 19–21 8983: 8977: 8971: 8965: 8959: 8953: 8952:, pp. 67–68 8947: 8941: 8935: 8929: 8922: 8916: 8906: 8900: 8890: 8884: 8878: 8872: 8866: 8860: 8854: 8848: 8842: 8836: 8826: 8820: 8814: 8805: 8799: 8793: 8787: 8781: 8775: 8769: 8759: 8753: 8752:, pp. 80–81 8743: 8737: 8727: 8721: 8716:, p. 1263; 8711: 8705: 8700:, p. 1263; 8691: 8685: 8679: 8673: 8667: 8658: 8657:, pp. 79–80 8653:, p. 1262; 8644: 8638: 8632: 8626: 8625:, pp. 75–76 8620: 8614: 8608: 8602: 8596: 8590: 8584: 8578: 8564: 8558: 8544: 8538: 8532: 8526: 8525:, pp. 95–96 8520: 8514: 8496: 8487: 8477: 8471: 8468: 8462: 8456: 8450: 8449:, pp. 94–95 8444: 8433: 8415: 8409: 8408:, pp. 93–94 8399: 8393: 8392:, pp. 93–94 8383: 8377: 8371: 8365: 8364:, pp. 92–93 8359: 8353: 8335: 8329: 8323: 8317: 8303: 8297: 8291: 8285: 8271: 8265: 8264:, pp. 90–91 8255: 8249: 8248:, pp. 90–91 8243: 8237: 8219: 8213: 8212: 8192: 8184: 8178: 8177:, pp. 88–89 8172: 8166: 8165:, pp. 90–91 8156: 8150: 8136: 8130: 8129:, pp. 86–87 8124: 8118: 8112: 8106: 8100: 8094: 8088: 8082: 8072: 8066: 8060: 8054: 8048: 8042: 8036: 8030: 8020: 8014: 8013:, pp. 83–85 8008: 8002: 8001:, pp. 81–85 7996: 7990: 7984: 7978: 7972: 7966: 7965:, pp. 79–81 7956: 7950: 7940: 7934: 7928: 7922: 7921: 7914: 7908: 7894: 7888: 7878: 7872: 7862: 7856: 7838: 7832: 7826: 7817: 7816:, pp. 76–78 7811: 7805: 7804:, pp. 75–76 7799: 7793: 7792:, pp. 73–74 7787: 7781: 7775: 7769: 7762: 7756: 7755:, pp. 72–73 7750: 7744: 7743:, pp. 71–72 7738: 7732: 7726: 7720: 7719:, pp. 69–71 7714: 7708: 7707:, pp. 97–99 7698: 7692: 7678: 7672: 7671:, pp. 96–99 7662: 7656: 7655:, pp. 12–13 7642: 7636: 7635:, pp. 66–67 7630: 7624: 7614: 7608: 7607:, pp. 65–66 7602: 7596: 7586: 7580: 7574: 7568: 7567:, pp. 64–65 7562: 7553: 7547: 7541: 7535: 7529: 7511: 7505: 7504:, pp. 58–59 7499: 7493: 7483: 7477: 7471: 7465: 7447: 7441: 7423: 7414: 7408: 7402: 7396: 7390: 7376: 7365: 7355: 7349: 7339: 7333: 7327: 7321: 7311: 7305: 7299: 7290: 7280: 7274: 7256: 7250: 7249:, pp. 78–79 7236: 7230: 7224: 7215: 7214:, pp. 52–55 7209: 7203: 7202:, pp. 12–13 7185: 7179: 7178:, pp. 42–43 7169: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7141: 7135: 7134:, pp. 42–43 7125: 7119: 7105: 7099: 7098:, pp. 46–47 7093: 7087: 7077: 7071: 7070:, pp. 44–45 7065: 7059: 7058:, pp. 91–92 7053: 7047: 7041: 7032: 7026: 7020: 7006: 7000: 6999:, pp. 77–78 6994: 6985: 6984:, pp. 12–16 6971: 6965: 6959: 6950: 6944: 6938: 6937:, pp. 79–84 6928: 6922: 6916: 6910: 6904: 6898: 6892: 6886: 6876: 6870: 6869:, pp. 77–78 6856: 6850: 6844: 6838: 6832: 6823: 6822:, pp. 40–41 6813: 6807: 6806:, pp. 11–12 6801: 6795: 6781: 6775: 6769: 6763: 6753: 6747: 6746:, pp. 38–39 6741: 6735: 6717: 6711: 6701: 6695: 6689: 6683: 6669: 6663: 6662:, pp. 80–81 6657: 6651: 6650:, pp. 41–42 6633: 6627: 6621: 6615: 6601: 6595: 6581: 6575: 6561: 6555: 6549: 6543: 6537: 6528: 6527:, pp. 38–39 6518: 6512: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6484: 6474: 6468: 6450: 6441: 6427: 6421: 6411: 6405: 6399: 6393: 6383: 6377: 6363: 6354: 6353:, pp. 85–86 6348: 6339: 6333: 6327: 6326:, pp. 98–99 6321: 6315: 6309: 6303: 6297: 6288: 6282: 6273: 6272:, pp. 29–31 6267: 6261: 6255: 6246: 6240: 6234: 6228: 6217: 6211: 6202: 6201:, pp. 28–29 6196: 6190: 6189:, pp. 83–84 6185:, pp. 7–8; 6180: 6174: 6173:, pp. 83–84 6164: 6158: 6148: 6142: 6141:, pp. 83–84 6124: 6118: 6112: 6106: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6077: 6071: 6065: 6060: 6059: 6048: 6047: 6038: 6032: 6031: 6003: 5997: 5996: 5994: 5992: 5960: 5954: 5948: 5942: 5936: 5930: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5845:Sasanian Empires 5821:Afsaruddin, Asma 5813: 5807: 5801: 5790: 5784: 5775: 5769: 5760: 5759: 5708: 5682:Romans in Persia 5558:Greek literature 5553:Kayanian dynasty 5506:were also used. 5410:, 2nd century BC 5053:, replacing the 5051:Iranian calendar 4891:Parthian coinage 4848:levied commoners 4799: 4783: 4764: 4717:. The historian 4590:Caucasian Iberia 4568:, 1st century BC 4523:Caucasian Iberia 4396:Diodorus Siculus 4229: 4220: 3985:failed siege of 3872:Fertile Crescent 3684:Gulf of Thailand 3538:and his brother 3340:Battle of Actium 3139:Quintus Labienus 2902: 2899: 2790:Rome and Armenia 2652:, then ruled by 2498:Diodotus Tryphon 2349: 2347: 2344: 2340: 2331: 2329: 2326: 2322: 2314:in 190 BC. 2280: 2278: 2265: 2263: 2241:Third Syrian War 2200: 2198: 2162:, the appointed 2072: 2070: 2067: 2063: 2032:Parthian artwork 1973:Caucasian Iberia 1965:Muslim conquests 1901:kings of Armenia 1780: 1779: – 132 1778: 1775: 1771: 1722: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1686: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1644: 1637: 1630: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1585:Military history 1575:Economic history 1553:Related articles 1536:Islamic Republic 1512: 1511: 1475: 1474: 1416: 1415: 1373:Kar-Kiya dynasty 1293:Chobanid dynasty 1283:Ilkhanate Empire 1063:Sallarid dynasty 1033:Saffarid dynasty 919: 918: 764: 761: 729:–11th century AD 728: 725: 689:Scythian Kingdom 675: 674: 605: 592: 569: 556: 533: 516: 486: 485: 466: 453: 440: 427: 414: 404: 403: 386: 376: 358: 357: 344: 343: 332: 331: 319: 318: 312: 311: 296: 295: 213: 198: 61: 59: 49: 30: 29: 21: 22827: 22826: 22822: 22821: 22820: 22818: 22817: 22816: 22772:Arsacid dynasty 22722:Parthian Empire 22712: 22711: 22702: 22700: 22696: 22693: 22688: 22685: 22683: 22681: 22680: 22678: 22673: 22672: 22667: 22656:American Empire 22641: 22637:African empires 22589: 22472: 22164:Central African 22110: 21928:Romano-Germanic 21514: 21248:Middle Assyrian 21221: 21213: 21208: 21178: 21173: 21137: 21107: 21086:Rap and hip-hop 21057: 21038:Public holidays 21023:Persian gardens 21012:Imperial Anthem 21003:National Jewels 20958:Iranian studies 20847: 20781: 20733: 20665: 20626:Persian (Farsi) 20599: 20578: 20547: 20509: 20502: 20437:Pharmaceuticals 20382: 20373:Venture capital 20348:Rial (currency) 20333:Nuclear program 20212: 20191: 20158: 20117: 20068:Nuclear program 20033:Judicial system 19955: 19938: 19909:Iranian plateau 19836: 19815: 19699: 19621: 19603: 19590: 19558:History (1979–) 19557: 19549: 19544: 19539: 19533: 19500: 19476: 19445: 19437: 19429: 19421: 19413: 19405: 19397: 19389: 19376: 19370: 19362: 19354: 19346: 19339: 19331: 19323: 19315: 19307: 19299: 19286: 19280: 19272: 19264: 19256: 19248: 19240: 19232: 19224: 19216: 19200: 19190: 19184: 19171: 19165: 19157: 19149: 19141: 19133: 19125: 19117: 19109: 19101: 19088: 19082: 19081:Neo-Babylonian 19074: 19066: 19059:(860 BC–590 BC) 19058: 19050: 19042: 19034: 19027:(c.2300–675 BC) 19026: 19018: 19010: 19002: 18994: 18974: 18961: 18948: 18942: 18912: 18907: 18866: 18820: 18794: 18703:Culture/society 18698: 18591: 18587:Muslim conquest 18557:Fall of Babylon 18488: 18389: 18376: 18260: 18178: 18173: 18143: 18138: 18132:Sassanid Empire 18101:Parthian Empire 18096:Seleucid Empire 18086:Seleucid Empire 18005: 17999: 17976: 17967: 17796:Akkadian Empire 17742: 17736: 17706: 17701: 17700: 17691: 17690: 17683: 17664: 17660: 17652: 17643: 17636: 17617: 17613: 17606: 17586: 17582: 17573: 17572: 17568: 17550: 17546: 17541: 17537: 17474:Byzantine Syria 17460:Byzantine Egypt 17435:Farrukh Hormizd 17395: 17391: 17388:Sasanian Empire 17374: 17370: 17351:Byzantine Syria 17337:Byzantine Egypt 17276: 17168: 17164: 17161:Sasanian Empire 17081: 16986:Mithridates III 16966: 16963:Parthian Empire 16896: 16835:Seleucid Empire 16832: 16822: 16798: 16707:Ptolemy I Soter 16705: 16702:Ptolemaic Egypt 16674: 16668: 16628: 16610: 16606: 16604:Kings of Byblos 16595: 16567: 16541: 16512: 16506: 16480: 16460:Mushezib-Marduk 16430:Tiglath-Pileser 16428: 16419: 16396: 16382: 16366: 16362: 16358: 16354: 16350: 16346: 16345: 16337: 16335:Nabu-mukin-zeri 16329:Nabu-nadin-zeri 16314:Marduk-bel-zeri 16307:Baba-aha-iddina 16284: 16261:Adad-nirari III 16251:Shalmaneser III 16240: 16229: 16228: 16215: 16209: 16208: 16206:Menkheperre Ini 16183: 16176: 16175: 16139: 16125:Nabû-mukin-apli 16102: 16091:(1100–540 BCE) 16084:Nabu-shum-libur 16052: 16029:Ashur-nirari IV 16023:Ashurnasirpal I 16020:Shamshi-Adad IV 15966:Ashur-uballit I 15961: 15943: 15939: 15935: 15931: 15925: 15924: 15920: 15916: 15914:Kings of Byblos 15912: 15882: 15875: 15869: 15868: 15837: 15836: 15820: 15814: 15782: 15769: 15768: 15750:Neferneferuaten 15710: 15709: 15705: 15699: 15693: 15692:(1500–1100 BCE) 15684:Enlil-nadin-ahi 15672:Adad-shuma-usur 15660:Kashtiliashu IV 15648:Kadashman-Turgu 15633:Burnaburiash II 15612:Kashtiliash III 15604: 15581: 15575: 15545: 15544:(1600–1260 BCE) 15543: 15513: 15504: 15498: 15486: 15480: 15476: 15470: 15466: 15460: 15440: 15435:Peshgaldaramesh 15430: 15420: 15410: 15406:Sealand Dynasty 15403: 15400: 15399: 15393: 15392: 15355: 15348: 15346: 15321:Ashur-nirari II 15300:Puzur-Ashur III 15288:Shamshi-Adad II 15259: 15257: 15255:Adaside dynasty 15252: 15251: 15226: 15224: 15222: 15221: 15184: 15182: 15180: 15173: 15164: 15158: 15147: 15143: 15141:Kings of Byblos 15139: 15133: 15122: 15085: 15072: 15071: 15053:Uruk VI dynasty 15051: 15000: 14951:Dynasty of Isin 14941: 14935: 14924: 14920: 14916: 14912: 14908: 14904: 14900: 14896: 14892: 14867: 14861: 14854: 14850: 14849: 14848: 14846: 14842: 14838: 14821: 14815: 14811: 14805: 14802: 14772: 14766: 14748: 14709: 14697: 14688: 14684: 14680: 14676: 14659: 14649: 14635: 14619: 14611: 14607: 14603: 14592: 14585: 14581: 14567: 14563: 14554: 14550: 14549: 14547: 14536: 14532: 14526: 14522: 14513:(2150–2000 BCE) 14494: 14478: 14474: 14470: 14464: 14460: 14456: 14452: 14448: 14444: 14440: 14426: 14422: 14410: 14406: 14382: 14378: 14374: 14370: 14366: 14365: 14363: 14358: 14348: 14303:Djedkare Shemai 14292: 14286: 14280: 14266: 14237: 14233: 14229: 14225: 14212:Sargon of Akkad 14210: 14209: 14206:Akkadian Empire 14198:(2340–2150 BCE) 14196:Akkadian Period 14183: 14179: 14167: 14163: 14142: 14130: 14120: 14116: 14099: 14095: 14081: 14059: 14038: 14036: 14024: 14020: 14016: 14005: 14001: 13997: 13988: 13979: 13965: 13961: 13949: 13945: 13933: 13904: 13901: 13895: 13883: 13874: 13841: 13840: 13824: 13820: 13816: 13812: 13801: 13797: 13793: 13784: 13783: 13777: 13773: 13772: 13760: 13759: 13743: 13740: 13728: 13724: 13713: 13704: 13700: 13696: 13692: 13688: 13684: 13683: 13682: 13676: 13672: 13668: 13667: 13659:(2500-539 BCE) 13647: 13643: 13613: 13607: 13600: 13594: 13576: 13572: 13568: 13556: 13552: 13548: 13536: 13530: 13526: 13512: 13508: 13498: 13495: 13491: 13479: 13475: 13465: 13461: 13459: 13445: 13441: 13437: 13433: 13397: 13391: 13385: 13381: 13380: 13364: 13363: 13362:(2700–1500 BCE) 13361: 13309: 13298: 13261:("conqueror of 13247: 13231: 13224: 13214: 13200: 13181: 13177: 13172: 13163: 13154: 13146: 13143: 13123: 13059: 13058: 13044: 13038: 13032: 13023: 12965: 12951: 12938: 12879: 12810: 12799: 12793: 12779: 12773: 12766: 12760: 12754: 12748: 12747: 12746:(4000–3100 BCE) 12745: 12739: 12713: 12707: 12679: 12660: 12650: 12623: 12621: 12605: 12599: 12569: 12564: 12557: 12278:Mithridates III 12233:(170–165/64 BC) 12197: 12192:Parthian Empire 12185: 12150: 12142: 12137: 12116: 12080: 12061: 12054: 12047: 12040: 12033: 12026: 12019: 12012: 12005: 11998: 11991: 11984: 11970: 11954: 11918: 11867: 11831: 11805: 11803:Parthian Empire 11800: 11752:Parthian Empire 11747: 11742: 11731: 11721:Iranica Antiqua 11718: 11712: 11691: 11689:Further reading 11686: 11661: 11659: 11652: 11636:Daryaee, Touraj 11628: 11609: 11590: 11571: 11542: 11515: 11486: 11447: 11428: 11409: 11366: 11339: 11320: 11273: 11241: 11200: 11171: 11149: 11092: 11063: 11044: 11022: 11002: 10936: 10897: 10875: 10842: 10823: 10804: 10774: 10745: 10719: 10690: 10649: 10630: 10611: 10572: 10554:Canepa, Matthew 10546: 10525: 10505: 10484: 10455: 10436: 10407: 10378: 10353: 10326: 10307: 10278: 10261: 10256: 10255: 10250: 10246: 10241: 10237: 10231: 10227: 10222: 10218: 10213:Wayback Machine 10202: 10183: 10171: 10167: 10159: 10155: 10147: 10143: 10135: 10131: 10119: 10115: 10103: 10099: 10087: 10083: 10075: 10071: 10063: 10059: 10051: 10047: 10039: 10035: 10027: 10023: 10015: 10011: 10003: 9999: 9991: 9980: 9972:, p. 128; 9966:Garthwaite 2005 9964: 9957: 9945: 9941: 9933: 9926: 9914: 9910: 9902: 9898: 9890: 9886: 9878: 9874: 9866: 9859: 9849:Garthwaite 2005 9847:, p. 127; 9843: 9839: 9831: 9827: 9815: 9811: 9803: 9790: 9782: 9771: 9763:, p. 823; 9761:Demiéville 1986 9759: 9755: 9747: 9743: 9735: 9731: 9721:Garthwaite 2005 9719: 9715: 9705:Garthwaite 2005 9699: 9695: 9683: 9679: 9671: 9667: 9659: 9655: 9647:, p. 823; 9641:Garthwaite 2005 9639: 9635: 9627: 9620: 9612: 9608: 9600: 9596: 9588: 9581: 9573: 9569: 9561:, p. 687; 9557: 9553: 9545: 9541: 9531:Garthwaite 2005 9529: 9525: 9517: 9510: 9502: 9498: 9490: 9486: 9472:Garthwaite 2005 9470: 9466: 9458: 9451: 9443: 9439: 9429:Garthwaite 2005 9427: 9423: 9411: 9407: 9399: 9395: 9387: 9383: 9371: 9367: 9359: 9355: 9347: 9340: 9317: 9313: 9305: 9301: 9293: 9282: 9272:Garthwaite 2005 9270:, p. 120; 9266: 9262: 9252:Garthwaite 2005 9246: 9242: 9234:, p. 120; 9230: 9226: 9220:Garthwaite 2005 9218:, p. 120; 9214: 9207: 9199: 9195: 9187: 9180: 9168: 9164: 9156:, p. 704; 9152: 9148: 9140: 9136: 9127: 9125: 9112: 9111: 9107: 9099: 9095: 9087: 9083: 9075: 9071: 9063: 9059: 9051: 9047: 9039: 9032: 9024: 9020: 9012: 9008: 9000: 8996: 8988:, p. 701; 8984: 8980: 8972: 8968: 8960: 8956: 8950:Garthwaite 2005 8948: 8944: 8936: 8932: 8923: 8919: 8907: 8903: 8891: 8887: 8879: 8875: 8867: 8863: 8855: 8851: 8843: 8839: 8827: 8823: 8815: 8808: 8800: 8796: 8788: 8784: 8776: 8772: 8760: 8756: 8746:Garthwaite 2005 8744: 8740: 8730:Garthwaite 2005 8728: 8724: 8712: 8708: 8694:Garthwaite 2005 8692: 8688: 8680: 8676: 8668: 8661: 8647:Garthwaite 2005 8645: 8641: 8633: 8629: 8623:Garthwaite 2005 8621: 8617: 8609: 8605: 8597: 8593: 8585: 8581: 8565: 8561: 8545: 8541: 8533: 8529: 8521: 8517: 8501:, p. 101; 8497: 8490: 8478: 8474: 8469: 8465: 8457: 8453: 8445: 8436: 8420:, p. 100; 8416: 8412: 8400: 8396: 8388:, p. 100; 8384: 8380: 8372: 8368: 8360: 8356: 8346:Garthwaite 2005 8344:, p. 115; 8336: 8332: 8324: 8320: 8304: 8300: 8292: 8288: 8282:Garthwaite 2005 8272: 8268: 8260:, p. 120; 8256: 8252: 8244: 8240: 8226:Garthwaite 2005 8220: 8216: 8209: 8185: 8181: 8173: 8169: 8157: 8153: 8137: 8133: 8125: 8121: 8113: 8109: 8101: 8097: 8089: 8085: 8073: 8069: 8061: 8057: 8049: 8045: 8037: 8033: 8021: 8017: 8009: 8005: 7997: 7993: 7985: 7981: 7973: 7969: 7959:Garthwaite 2005 7957: 7953: 7941: 7937: 7929: 7925: 7916: 7915: 7911: 7895: 7891: 7879: 7875: 7863: 7859: 7839: 7835: 7827: 7820: 7812: 7808: 7800: 7796: 7788: 7784: 7776: 7772: 7763: 7759: 7751: 7747: 7739: 7735: 7727: 7723: 7715: 7711: 7699: 7695: 7689:Garthwaite 2005 7679: 7675: 7663: 7659: 7643: 7639: 7631: 7627: 7617:Garthwaite 2005 7615: 7611: 7603: 7599: 7587: 7583: 7575: 7571: 7563: 7556: 7548: 7544: 7536: 7532: 7518:Garthwaite 2005 7512: 7508: 7500: 7496: 7484: 7480: 7474:Garthwaite 2005 7472: 7468: 7448: 7444: 7424: 7417: 7409: 7405: 7397: 7393: 7385:, p. 244; 7377: 7368: 7356: 7352: 7340: 7336: 7328: 7324: 7312: 7308: 7300: 7293: 7281: 7277: 7263:Garthwaite 2005 7257: 7253: 7247:Garthwaite 2005 7237: 7233: 7225: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7192:Garthwaite 2005 7186: 7182: 7170: 7166: 7158: 7154: 7142: 7138: 7126: 7122: 7106: 7102: 7094: 7090: 7078: 7074: 7066: 7062: 7054: 7050: 7042: 7035: 7027: 7023: 7015:, p. 225; 7007: 7003: 6995: 6988: 6972: 6968: 6960: 6953: 6945: 6941: 6929: 6925: 6917: 6913: 6905: 6901: 6893: 6889: 6879:Garthwaite 2005 6877: 6873: 6867:Garthwaite 2005 6857: 6853: 6845: 6841: 6833: 6826: 6814: 6810: 6802: 6798: 6782: 6778: 6772:Garthwaite 2005 6770: 6766: 6754: 6750: 6742: 6738: 6724:Garthwaite 2005 6718: 6714: 6708:Garthwaite 2005 6702: 6698: 6690: 6686: 6672:Garthwaite 2005 6670: 6666: 6658: 6654: 6640:Garthwaite 2005 6634: 6630: 6622: 6618: 6604:Garthwaite 2005 6602: 6598: 6582: 6578: 6562: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6538: 6531: 6521:Garthwaite 2005 6519: 6515: 6509:Garthwaite 2005 6503: 6499: 6491: 6487: 6477:Garthwaite 2005 6475: 6471: 6465:Garthwaite 2005 6451: 6444: 6438:Garthwaite 2005 6428: 6424: 6412: 6408: 6400: 6396: 6384: 6380: 6364: 6357: 6349: 6342: 6334: 6330: 6322: 6318: 6310: 6306: 6298: 6291: 6283: 6276: 6268: 6264: 6256: 6249: 6243:Garthwaite 2005 6241: 6237: 6229: 6220: 6212: 6205: 6197: 6193: 6181: 6177: 6165: 6161: 6149: 6145: 6125: 6121: 6113: 6109: 6096: 6092: 6084: 6080: 6072: 6068: 6039: 6035: 6020:10.2307/1170959 6004: 6000: 5990: 5988: 5961: 5957: 5949: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5893: 5889: 5881: 5877: 5839: 5831:. p. 284. 5814: 5810: 5802: 5793: 5785: 5778: 5770: 5763: 5733: 5709: 5705: 5700: 5672:History of Iran 5662:Baghdad Battery 5637:Pahlavi scripts 5628: 5600:Musa of Parthia 5566: 5538:oral literature 5526: 5512: 5474: 5396: 5260:Iranian plateau 5219: 5213: 5201:Buddhist canons 5063: 4966:Parthian script 4919: 4914: 4893: 4887: 4816: 4815: 4814: 4813: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4800: 4792: 4791: 4790:fighting a lion 4784: 4776: 4775: 4765: 4733: 4727: 4644: 4634: 4554:Kamnaskires III 4546: 4540: 4535: 4416:Pliny the Elder 4366:Latin histories 4261:; the earliest 4254: 4253: 4252: 4251: 4232: 4231: 4230: 4222: 4221: 4210: 4155:Sasanian Empire 4075:Avidius Cassius 4055:Marcus Aurelius 3811:kings with the 3730: 3724: 3708:Main articles: 3706: 3688:South China Sea 3638:Marcus Aurelius 3619:Roman merchants 3412:Musa of Parthia 3336:Ptolemaic Egypt 3328: 3322: 3217:Mersin Province 3135:in 42 BC. 2967:Lucius Afranius 2900: 2829: 2802: 2794:Main articles: 2792: 2764:iron from India 2664:under Parthian 2588:Northwest China 2409:Cyrus the Great 2362: 2356: 2345: 2337: 2327: 2319: 2275: 2260: 2215:(blue) and the 2213:Seleucid Empire 2195: 2125:Seleucid Empire 2123:, and then the 2097:Iranian peoples 2081: 2068: 2060: 2045: 2040: 2020:Roman histories 1961:Sasanian Empire 1776: 1768: 1761:Seleucid Empire 1723:), was a major 1696: 1692: 1663: 1659: 1656:Parthian Empire 1648: 1618:Iran portal 1612: 1610: 1609: 1601: 1600: 1599: 1590:Women's history 1554: 1546: 1545: 1509: 1499: 1498: 1472: 1462: 1461: 1413: 1403: 1402: 1253:Qutlugh-Khanids 1203:Atabegs of Yazd 1103:Rawadid dynasty 1073:Ziyarid dynasty 1013:Tahirid dynasty 911: 909:Medieval period 901: 900: 885:6th century–785 871:Sasanian Empire 841:Kings of Persis 811:Parthian Empire 781:Seleucid Empire 762: 726: 672: 670:Imperial period 662: 661: 576:Akkadian Empire 523:Lullubi Kingdom 483: 473: 472: 421:Zarzian culture 396: 374: 367: 341: 336:Sasanian Empire 323:Seleucid Empire 316: 260: 250: 207: 192: 158: 132: 63: 56: 35: 34:Parthian Empire 28: 23: 22: 18:Arsacid dynasty 15: 12: 11: 5: 22825: 22815: 22814: 22809: 22807:Former empires 22804: 22799: 22794: 22789: 22784: 22779: 22774: 22769: 22764: 22759: 22754: 22749: 22744: 22739: 22734: 22729: 22724: 22675: 22674: 22669: 22668: 22666: 22665: 22664: 22663: 22658: 22649: 22647: 22643: 22642: 22640: 22639: 22634: 22629: 22624: 22619: 22614: 22613: 22612: 22601: 22599: 22595: 22594: 22591: 22590: 22588: 22587: 22582: 22577: 22572: 22567: 22566: 22565: 22555: 22550: 22545: 22540: 22535: 22530: 22525: 22520: 22515: 22510: 22509: 22508: 22503: 22493: 22488: 22482: 22480: 22471: 22470: 22469: 22468: 22463: 22458: 22453: 22448: 22438: 22433: 22432: 22431: 22421: 22416: 22415: 22414: 22409: 22404: 22394: 22389: 22388: 22387: 22382: 22372: 22371: 22370: 22365: 22360: 22355: 22350: 22340: 22339: 22338: 22333: 22323: 22318: 22313: 22308: 22307: 22306: 22301: 22296: 22291: 22286: 22276: 22275: 22274: 22269: 22259: 22254: 22253: 22252: 22247: 22237: 22236: 22235: 22230: 22220: 22219: 22218: 22213: 22203: 22198: 22197: 22196: 22191: 22186: 22181: 22176: 22166: 22161: 22160: 22159: 22154: 22146: 22141: 22136: 22131: 22126: 22120: 22118: 22112: 22111: 22109: 22108: 22103: 22098: 22093: 22092: 22091: 22086: 22081: 22076: 22071: 22066: 22061: 22051: 22046: 22045: 22044: 22039: 22034: 22029: 22024: 22019: 22009: 22008: 22007: 22002: 21997: 21992: 21982: 21977: 21972: 21967: 21962: 21957: 21952: 21947: 21942: 21941: 21940: 21935: 21925: 21924: 21923: 21918: 21913: 21908: 21903: 21898: 21885: 21880: 21875: 21870: 21869: 21868: 21863: 21858: 21848: 21847: 21846: 21841: 21836: 21831: 21821: 21816: 21811: 21806: 21801: 21796: 21795: 21794: 21789: 21784: 21779: 21769: 21768: 21767: 21762: 21757: 21752: 21742: 21741: 21740: 21735: 21730: 21720: 21715: 21710: 21705: 21700: 21699: 21698: 21693: 21688: 21678: 21673: 21672: 21671: 21666: 21661: 21656: 21651: 21646: 21636: 21635: 21634: 21629: 21619: 21618: 21617: 21612: 21607: 21602: 21592: 21587: 21586: 21585: 21575: 21574: 21573: 21568: 21560: 21555: 21550: 21545: 21540: 21535: 21530: 21524: 21522: 21520:Post-classical 21516: 21515: 21513: 21512: 21511: 21510: 21500: 21495: 21494: 21493: 21488: 21478: 21477: 21476: 21466: 21465: 21464: 21459: 21454: 21449: 21444: 21439: 21429: 21424: 21419: 21418: 21417: 21412: 21407: 21402: 21392: 21391: 21390: 21385: 21375: 21370: 21369: 21368: 21363: 21358: 21353: 21348: 21338: 21333: 21328: 21327: 21326: 21321: 21319:Middle Kingdom 21316: 21306: 21301: 21300: 21299: 21294: 21289: 21279: 21278: 21277: 21275:Neo-Babylonian 21272: 21267: 21265:Old Babylonian 21257: 21256: 21255: 21250: 21240: 21235: 21229: 21227: 21215: 21214: 21207: 21206: 21199: 21192: 21184: 21175: 21174: 21172: 21171: 21161: 21150: 21147: 21146: 21143: 21142: 21139: 21138: 21136: 21135: 21130: 21125: 21119: 21117: 21113: 21112: 21109: 21108: 21106: 21105: 21098: 21093: 21088: 21083: 21078: 21073: 21067: 21065: 21059: 21058: 21056: 21055: 21045: 21040: 21035: 21030: 21025: 21020: 21015: 21005: 21000: 20995: 20989: 20975: 20970: 20960: 20955: 20950: 20945: 20940: 20930: 20925: 20920: 20915: 20901: 20896: 20891: 20881: 20875: 20865: 20859: 20853: 20852: 20849: 20848: 20846: 20845: 20840: 20835: 20830: 20825: 20819: 20814: 20809: 20800: 20795: 20789: 20787: 20783: 20782: 20780: 20779: 20774: 20764: 20759: 20749: 20743: 20741: 20735: 20734: 20732: 20731: 20730: 20729: 20724: 20719: 20714: 20709: 20704: 20699: 20694: 20684: 20673: 20671: 20667: 20666: 20664: 20663: 20658: 20653: 20648: 20643: 20638: 20633: 20628: 20622: 20620: 20611: 20601: 20600: 20588: 20587: 20584: 20583: 20580: 20579: 20577: 20576: 20571: 20566: 20561: 20555: 20553: 20549: 20548: 20546: 20545: 20540: 20535: 20530: 20525: 20520: 20514: 20512: 20504: 20503: 20501: 20500: 20495: 20489: 20484: 20479: 20470: 20460: 20450: 20445: 20440: 20430: 20425: 20420: 20419: 20418: 20413: 20403: 20392: 20390: 20384: 20383: 20381: 20380: 20370: 20365: 20360: 20355: 20350: 20345: 20340: 20330: 20325: 20320: 20315: 20310: 20305: 20300: 20295: 20290: 20285: 20280: 20275: 20270: 20265: 20260: 20255: 20250: 20245: 20235: 20230: 20224: 20222: 20214: 20213: 20201: 20200: 20197: 20196: 20193: 20192: 20190: 20189: 20187:Supreme Leader 20184: 20179: 20174: 20168: 20166: 20160: 20159: 20157: 20156: 20151: 20149:Local councils 20146: 20141: 20136: 20131: 20125: 20123: 20119: 20118: 20116: 20115: 20110: 20105: 20095: 20090: 20085: 20080: 20075: 20065: 20060: 20055: 20049: 20044: 20035: 20030: 20029: 20028: 20026:Women's rights 20023: 20018: 20008: 20003: 19998: 19988: 19983: 19973: 19967: 19965: 19957: 19956: 19944: 19943: 19940: 19939: 19937: 19936: 19931: 19926: 19921: 19916: 19911: 19906: 19901: 19896: 19891: 19886: 19881: 19880: 19879: 19877:Climate change 19869: 19864: 19863: 19862: 19857: 19847: 19841: 19838: 19837: 19825: 19824: 19821: 19820: 19817: 19816: 19814: 19813: 19808: 19803: 19798: 19793: 19788: 19783: 19778: 19773: 19768: 19763: 19761:Jiroft culture 19758: 19757: 19756: 19749:Iranic peoples 19746: 19745: 19744: 19743: 19742: 19737: 19725:Persianization 19722: 19717: 19711: 19709: 19705: 19704: 19701: 19700: 19698: 19697: 19692: 19687: 19682: 19677: 19672: 19667: 19662: 19661: 19660: 19650: 19645: 19640: 19635: 19630: 19625: 19617: 19612: 19607: 19599: 19594: 19586: 19581: 19576: 19571: 19566: 19561: 19553: 19551: 19541: 19540: 19538: 19537: 19529: 19524: 19519: 19514: 19509: 19504: 19495: 19493: 19486: 19482: 19481: 19478: 19477: 19475: 19474: 19469: 19464: 19459: 19454: 19449: 19441: 19433: 19425: 19417: 19409: 19401: 19393: 19384: 19382: 19378: 19377: 19375: 19374: 19366: 19358: 19350: 19343: 19335: 19332:(1135/36-1225) 19327: 19319: 19311: 19303: 19294: 19292: 19288: 19287: 19285: 19284: 19276: 19268: 19260: 19252: 19244: 19236: 19228: 19220: 19211: 19209: 19202: 19196: 19195: 19192: 19191: 19189: 19188: 19179: 19177: 19173: 19172: 19170: 19169: 19161: 19153: 19145: 19142:(c.295–220 BC) 19137: 19129: 19121: 19113: 19105: 19096: 19094: 19090: 19089: 19087: 19086: 19078: 19070: 19062: 19054: 19046: 19038: 19030: 19022: 19014: 19006: 19001:Proto-Elamite 18998: 18989: 18987: 18980: 18976: 18975: 18963: 18962: 18950: 18949: 18941: 18940: 18933: 18926: 18918: 18909: 18908: 18906: 18905: 18900: 18895: 18890: 18885: 18883:Assyriologists 18880: 18874: 18872: 18868: 18867: 18865: 18864: 18859: 18854: 18849: 18844: 18839: 18834: 18828: 18826: 18822: 18821: 18819: 18818: 18813: 18808: 18802: 18800: 18796: 18795: 18793: 18792: 18790:List of rulers 18787: 18782: 18777: 18772: 18767: 18762: 18757: 18752: 18747: 18742: 18737: 18732: 18727: 18722: 18717: 18712: 18706: 18704: 18700: 18699: 18697: 18696: 18691: 18686: 18681: 18679:Proto-Armenian 18676: 18671: 18666: 18664:Middle Persian 18661: 18656: 18651: 18646: 18641: 18636: 18631: 18626: 18621: 18616: 18611: 18605: 18603: 18597: 18596: 18593: 18592: 18590: 18589: 18584: 18579: 18574: 18569: 18564: 18559: 18554: 18552:Neo-Babylonian 18549: 18544: 18539: 18534: 18532:Old Babylonian 18529: 18524: 18519: 18514: 18509: 18504: 18502:Early Dynastic 18498: 18496: 18490: 18489: 18487: 18486: 18481: 18476: 18471: 18466: 18461: 18452: 18447: 18442: 18437: 18432: 18427: 18422: 18417: 18412: 18406: 18404: 18395: 18391: 18390: 18383: 18381: 18378: 18377: 18375: 18374: 18369: 18364: 18359: 18354: 18349: 18344: 18339: 18334: 18329: 18324: 18319: 18314: 18309: 18304: 18299: 18294: 18289: 18284: 18279: 18274: 18268: 18266: 18262: 18261: 18259: 18258: 18253: 18248: 18243: 18242: 18241: 18236: 18226: 18221: 18216: 18211: 18206: 18201: 18195: 18193: 18186: 18180: 18179: 18172: 18171: 18164: 18157: 18149: 18140: 18139: 18135: 18134: 18129: 18125: 18124: 18108: 18107:63 BCE–224 CE 18104: 18103: 18098: 18093: 18089: 18088: 18083: 18079: 18078: 18070:Ancient Greeks 18062: 18058: 18057: 18052: 18048: 18047: 18035: 18031: 18030: 18028: 18026: 18022: 18021: 18016: 18012: 18011: 17992: 17987: 17980: 17971: 17962: 17957: 17953: 17952: 17945: 17929: 17925: 17924: 17922:Middle Assyria 17919: 17917: 17912: 17908: 17907: 17895: 17883: 17879: 17878: 17868: 17863: 17859: 17858: 17842: 17837: 17825: 17821: 17820: 17815: 17811: 17810: 17803: 17799: 17798: 17793: 17789: 17788: 17775: 17772: 17768: 17767: 17762: 17757: 17752: 17747: 17744: 17743: 17735: 17734: 17727: 17720: 17712: 17703: 17702: 17697: 17696: 17693: 17692: 17689: 17688: 17681: 17658: 17641: 17634: 17611: 17604: 17590:Potts, Timothy 17580: 17566: 17544: 17534: 17533: 17530: 17529: 17519: 17508: 17507: 17500: 17493: 17486: 17482: 17481: 17476: 17471: 17462: 17456: 17455: 17414: 17407: 17403: 17402: 17384: 17363: 17359: 17358: 17353: 17348: 17339: 17333: 17332: 17325: 17321: 17320: 17315: 17310: 17305: 17299: 17298: 17291: 17287: 17286: 17269: 17265: 17264: 17157: 17153: 17152: 17129: 17124: 17119: 17115: 17114: 17109: 17100: 17096: 17095: 17090: 17085: 17073: 17072: 17065: 17064:30 BCE–116 CE 17061: 17060: 16998:Mithridates IV 16980:Mithridates II 16959: 16921: 16916:Aristobulus II 16889: 16885: 16884: 16809:Argead dynasty 16793: 16698:Argead dynasty 16694: 16690: 16689: 16681: 16680: 16660: 16659: 16651:Artaxerxes III 16614: 16612:Kings of Sidon 16601: 16588: 16584: 16583: 16560: 16555:Labashi-Marduk 16534: 16499: 16495: 16494: 16489: 16483: 16482: 16457:Nergal-ushezib 16412: 16393:Black Pharaohs 16375: 16371: 16370: 16338: 16311:Ninurta-apla-X 16272: 16270:Ashur-nirari V 16264:Shalmaneser IV 16254:Shamshi-Adad V 16242:Adad-nirari II 16233: 16223: 16132: 16128: 16127: 16097: 16093: 16092: 16086: 16043: 16026:Shalmaneser II 16014:Ashur-bel-kala 16002:Mutakkil-Nusku 15958:Middle Assyria 15954: 15947: 15922:Kings of Sidon 15905: 15829: 15828:1155–1025 BCE 15825: 15824: 15811:Elamite Empire 15807: 15774: 15773: 15765:Hittite Empire 15761: 15729: 15728: 15713: 15712: 15686: 15675:Meli-Shipak II 15645:Nazi-Maruttash 15609:Burnaburiash I 15588: 15560: 15559:1531–1155 BCE 15556: 15555: 15536: 15491: 15451: 15450: 15397: 15333: 15318:Enlil-Nasir II 15297:Ashur-nirari I 15291:Ishme-Dagan II 15282:Sharma-Adad II 15234:Ashur-apla-idi 15225:1735–1701 BCE) 15204:Ashur-apla-idi 15186:Shamshi-Adad I 15181:1808–1736 BCE) 15166: 15161:Yamhad dynasty 15151: 15149:Kings of Sidon 15128: 15115: 15114:1800–1595 BCE 15111: 15110: 15077: 15076: 15064: 14928: 14918:Puzur-Ashur II 14885: 14828: 14795: 14794: 14789:Mentuhotep III 14758: 14757: 14740: 14735: 14727: 14726:2025-1763 BCE 14723: 14722: 14694:Ur III dynasty 14690: 14671: 14668: 14664: 14663: 14651: 14640:Neferkare VIII 14628: 14624: 14623: 14616: 14615: 14587: 14573: 14571: 14558: 14544:Gutian dynasty 14540: 14516: 14515: 14507: 14502:Nebkaure Khety 14496:Meryibre Khety 14487: 14483: 14482: 14465: 14432: 14430: 14414: 14387: 14386: 14380: 14351: 14341: 14327:Neferkamin Anu 14300:Neferkare Neby 14273: 14269: 14268: 14264:Lugal-ushumgal 14261: 14246: 14242: 14241: 14220: 14201: 14200: 14192: 14190: 14186: 14185: 14171: 14158: 14156: 14152: 14151: 14146: 14137: 14132: 14124: 14111: 14106: 14102: 14101: 14097:Lugalannemundu 14087: 14052: 14048: 14047: 14042: 14028: 14011: 13992: 13983: 13974: 13969: 13953: 13940: 13936: 13935: 13918: 13913: 13909: 13908: 13897: 13888: 13887: 13878: 13869: 13864:Djedkare Isesi 13861:Menkauhor Kaiu 13833: 13829: 13828: 13805: 13788: 13764: 13762:Pabilgagaltuku 13751: 13746: 13732: 13721:Akshak dynasty 13717: 13708: 13660: 13654: 13650: 13649: 13636: 13587: 13583: 13582: 13580: 13561: 13546:Enun-dara-anna 13541: 13540: 13501: 13484: 13469: 13451: 13449: 13427: 13426: 13420: 13373: 13369: 13368: 13354: 13339: 13323: 13322: 13315: 13314: 13303: 13284: 13282: 13279: 13278: 13272: 13268: 13267: 13254: 13253: 13239: 13202: 13195: 13194: 13170:Kullassina-bel 13155: 13147: 13136: 13135: 13129: 13051: 13047: 13046: 13025: 13016: 13011: 12962:Narmer Palette 12944: 12943:3100–2900 BCE 12940: 12939: 12872: 12802: 12801: 12786: 12785:3200–3100 BCE 12782: 12781: 12768: 12736: 12735: 12730: 12724: 12719: 12700: 12699:4000–3200 BCE 12696: 12695: 12690: 12685: 12680: 12674: 12669: 12664: 12654: 12644: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12611: 12610: 12607: 12606: 12601:Rulers of the 12598: 12597: 12590: 12583: 12575: 12566: 12565: 12562: 12559: 12558: 12556: 12555: 12547: 12539: 12531: 12523: 12515: 12507: 12499: 12494:Parthamaspates 12491: 12483: 12475: 12467: 12459: 12451: 12443: 12435: 12427: 12419: 12411: 12403: 12395: 12387: 12379: 12371: 12363: 12355: 12347: 12339: 12331: 12323: 12315: 12310:Mithridates IV 12307: 12299: 12291: 12283: 12275: 12267: 12262:Mithridates II 12259: 12251: 12243: 12241:(165/4–132 BC) 12235: 12227: 12219: 12211: 12202: 12199: 12198: 12184: 12183: 12176: 12169: 12161: 12155: 12152: 12151: 12139: 12138: 12136: 12135: 12130: 12124: 12122: 12118: 12117: 12115: 12114: 12109: 12104: 12099: 12094: 12088: 12086: 12082: 12081: 12079: 12078: 12073: 12068: 12067: 12066: 12059: 12052: 12045: 12038: 12031: 12024: 12017: 12010: 12003: 11996: 11989: 11977: 11976: 11975: 11962: 11960: 11956: 11955: 11953: 11952: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11932: 11926: 11924: 11920: 11919: 11917: 11916: 11915: 11914: 11909: 11906: 11901: 11896: 11891: 11886: 11875: 11873: 11869: 11868: 11866: 11865: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11839: 11837: 11833: 11832: 11830: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11813: 11811: 11807: 11806: 11799: 11798: 11791: 11784: 11776: 11770: 11769: 11763: 11746: 11745:External links 11743: 11741: 11740: 11729: 11716: 11710: 11692: 11690: 11687: 11685: 11684: 11667: 11650: 11632: 11626: 11613: 11607: 11594: 11588: 11575: 11569: 11546: 11540: 11519: 11513: 11490: 11484: 11461: 11451: 11445: 11432: 11426: 11413: 11407: 11391: 11381:(3): 239–252, 11370: 11364: 11343: 11337: 11324: 11318: 11305: 11291: 11277: 11271: 11248: 11204: 11198: 11175: 11169: 11154: 11148:978-0199733309 11147: 11127: 11117: 11097: 11090: 11067: 11061: 11048: 11042: 11026: 11020: 11007: 11000: 10977: 10957:10.2307/300283 10940: 10934: 10911: 10900: 10895: 10883:Kennedy, David 10879: 10873: 10856: 10846: 10840: 10827: 10821: 10808: 10802: 10779: 10772: 10749: 10743: 10724: 10717: 10694: 10688: 10675: 10653: 10647: 10634: 10628: 10615: 10609: 10586: 10576: 10571:978-0520379206 10570: 10550: 10544: 10529: 10523: 10510: 10503: 10488: 10482: 10459: 10453: 10440: 10434: 10411: 10405: 10382: 10376: 10357: 10351: 10338: 10324: 10311: 10305: 10282: 10276: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10254: 10253: 10244: 10235: 10225: 10216: 10181: 10165: 10153: 10151:, p. 1151 10141: 10129: 10113: 10097: 10081: 10069: 10057: 10045: 10033: 10021: 10009: 10007:, p. 1049 9997: 9978: 9976:, p. 1049 9968:, p. 84; 9955: 9939: 9924: 9918:, p. 18; 9908: 9906:, p. 1053 9896: 9884: 9872: 9870:, p. 1051 9857: 9851:, p. 84; 9837: 9825: 9809: 9788: 9769: 9753: 9741: 9729: 9723:, p. 67; 9713: 9693: 9687:, p. 45; 9685:Katouzian 2009 9677: 9665: 9653: 9633: 9618: 9606: 9594: 9590:Katouzian 2009 9579: 9567: 9551: 9539: 9533:, p. 85; 9523: 9508: 9496: 9494:, p. 1030 9484: 9482:, p. 1030 9464: 9449: 9437: 9431:, p. 85; 9421: 9417:Katouzian 2009 9405: 9393: 9381: 9365: 9353: 9338: 9311: 9299: 9280: 9274:, p. 78; 9260: 9240: 9224: 9205: 9193: 9178: 9162: 9146: 9134: 9105: 9093: 9081: 9069: 9057: 9045: 9030: 9018: 9006: 8994: 8978: 8966: 8964:, p. 1263 8962:Widengren 1983 8954: 8942: 8930: 8917: 8901: 8885: 8873: 8861: 8849: 8837: 8831:, p. 80; 8821: 8817:Widengren 1983 8806: 8802:Widengren 1983 8794: 8792:, p. 1264 8790:Widengren 1983 8782: 8778:Widengren 1983 8770: 8754: 8748:, p. 75; 8738: 8722: 8714:Widengren 1983 8706: 8698:Widengren 1983 8686: 8684:, p. 1265 8682:Widengren 1983 8674: 8672:, p. 1262 8670:Widengren 1983 8659: 8651:Widengren 1983 8649:, p. 67; 8639: 8627: 8615: 8613:, p. 1261 8611:Widengren 1983 8603: 8599:Yarshater 1983 8591: 8587:Widengren 1983 8579: 8559: 8539: 8527: 8515: 8511:Katouzian 2009 8488: 8484:Katouzian 2009 8472: 8463: 8451: 8434: 8430:Katouzian 2009 8428:, p. 94; 8424:, p. 13; 8410: 8404:, p. 13; 8394: 8378: 8366: 8354: 8342:Lightfoot 1990 8330: 8326:Lightfoot 1990 8318: 8298: 8286: 8280:, p. 13; 8276:, p. 91; 8266: 8258:Lightfoot 1990 8250: 8238: 8234:Katouzian 2009 8230:Lightfoot 1990 8228:, p. 81; 8214: 8207: 8179: 8167: 8159:Lightfoot 1990 8151: 8147:Lightfoot 1990 8145:, p. 13; 8141:, p. 88; 8131: 8119: 8107: 8095: 8083: 8067: 8055: 8043: 8031: 8015: 8003: 7991: 7979: 7967: 7961:, p. 82; 7951: 7935: 7923: 7909: 7903:, p. 38; 7899:, p. 29; 7889: 7873: 7857: 7833: 7818: 7806: 7794: 7782: 7770: 7757: 7745: 7733: 7721: 7709: 7693: 7683:, p. 68; 7673: 7667:, p. 67; 7657: 7637: 7625: 7621:Strugnell 2006 7609: 7597: 7593:Bringmann 2007 7581: 7569: 7554: 7542: 7530: 7520:, p. 80; 7506: 7494: 7478: 7466: 7462:Strugnell 2006 7456:, p. 96; 7452:, p. 58; 7442: 7436:, p. 96; 7430:Strugnell 2006 7415: 7403: 7391: 7383:Strugnell 2006 7381:, p. 57; 7366: 7362:Strugnell 2006 7350: 7334: 7322: 7306: 7291: 7275: 7265:, p. 79; 7259:Katouzian 2009 7251: 7231: 7216: 7204: 7180: 7176:Katouzian 2009 7164: 7152: 7136: 7132:Katouzian 2009 7120: 7110:, p. 47; 7100: 7088: 7072: 7060: 7048: 7033: 7021: 7017:Rezakhani 2013 7011:, p. 62; 7001: 6986: 6980:, p. 91; 6966: 6951: 6939: 6923: 6911: 6899: 6887: 6881:, p. 78; 6871: 6851: 6839: 6824: 6808: 6796: 6786:, p. 40; 6776: 6764: 6760:Katouzian 2009 6748: 6736: 6732:Katouzian 2009 6730:, p. 11; 6726:, p. 77; 6712: 6706:, p. 38; 6696: 6684: 6674:, p. 76; 6664: 6652: 6648:Katouzian 2009 6628: 6616: 6596: 6590:, p. 11; 6576: 6570:, p. 35; 6566:, p. 89; 6556: 6544: 6529: 6523:, p. 77; 6513: 6507:, p. 73; 6497: 6485: 6479:, p. 76; 6469: 6463:, p. 34; 6442: 6436:, p. 33; 6422: 6416:, p. 33; 6406: 6394: 6378: 6372:, p. 86; 6368:, p. 29; 6355: 6340: 6338:, p. 179. 6328: 6316: 6304: 6289: 6274: 6262: 6247: 6235: 6231:Katouzian 2009 6218: 6203: 6191: 6175: 6159: 6153:, p. 24; 6143: 6129:, p. 41; 6127:Katouzian 2009 6119: 6107: 6103:Bickerman 1983 6090: 6078: 6076:, p. 424. 6066: 6033: 5998: 5955: 5943: 5931: 5887: 5875: 5857:Middle Persian 5837: 5808: 5791: 5776: 5761: 5731: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5695: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5627: 5624: 5565: 5562: 5524:Parthian music 5511: 5508: 5500:Middle Persian 5473: 5470: 5395: 5392: 5323:Book of Esther 5264:Achaemenid art 5227:barrel vaulted 5212: 5209: 5146:Zoroastrianism 5062: 5059: 5011:Mount Behistun 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4886: 4883: 4832:composite bows 4811: 4810: 4801: 4794: 4793: 4785: 4778: 4777: 4766: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4756: 4755: 4726: 4723: 4715:House of Karen 4711:House of Suren 4633: 4630: 4542:Main article: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4249:British Museum 4234: 4233: 4224: 4223: 4215: 4214: 4213: 4212: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4202:Arab conquests 4079:deadly disease 4035:Roman-Parthian 4004:Roman province 3959:Lusius Quietus 3921:, most likely 3904:grand strategy 3705: 3702: 3662:Antoninus Pius 3321: 3318: 3270:Theodosiopolis 3263:invade Parthia 3109:Marcus Lepidus 3074:composite bows 2986:Aulus Gabinius 2808: 2791: 2788: 2778:, speaking an 2714:Following the 2658:Charax Spasinu 2612:Mithridates II 2560:Mithridates II 2525:Cleopatra Thea 2513:to Demetrius. 2401:Apamea Ragiana 2358:Main article: 2355: 2352: 2308:Roman Republic 2217:Roman Republic 2156:A. D. H. Bivar 2133:Middle Persian 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 1897:Roman Republic 1846:Arsacid rulers 1743:the region of 1735:, who led the 1689:Arsacid Empire 1650: 1649: 1647: 1646: 1639: 1632: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1603: 1602: 1598: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1570:Heads of state 1567: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1532: 1531: 1528: 1522: 1521: 1518: 1510: 1505: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1495: 1494: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1473: 1468: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1457: 1454: 1448: 1447: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1426: 1425: 1422: 1414: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1398: 1395: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1363:Timurid Empire 1359: 1358: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1345: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1329: 1328: 1325: 1319: 1318: 1315: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1299: 1298: 1295: 1289: 1288: 1285: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1269: 1268: 1265: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1239: 1238: 1235: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1179: 1178: 1175: 1169: 1168: 1165: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1153:Nasrid dynasty 1149: 1148: 1145: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1059: 1058: 1055: 1049: 1048: 1047:pre-879 – 1215 1045: 1043:Ghurid dynasty 1039: 1038: 1035: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1023:Samanid Empire 1019: 1018: 1015: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1003:Alid dynasties 999: 998: 995: 989: 988: 985: 979: 978: 975: 969: 968: 965: 959: 958: 955: 949: 948: 945: 939: 938: 935: 929: 928: 925: 912: 907: 906: 903: 902: 897: 896: 893: 887: 886: 883: 877: 876: 873: 867: 866: 863: 857: 856: 853: 847: 846: 843: 837: 836: 833: 827: 826: 823: 817: 816: 813: 807: 806: 803: 797: 796: 793: 787: 786: 783: 777: 776: 773: 767: 766: 757: 751: 750: 747: 741: 740: 737: 731: 730: 721: 715: 714: 711: 705: 704: 701: 695: 694: 691: 685: 684: 681: 673: 668: 667: 664: 663: 658: 657: 654: 648: 647: 644: 638: 637: 634: 628: 627: 624: 618: 617: 614: 608: 607: 601: 599:Avestan period 595: 594: 588: 582: 581: 578: 572: 571: 565: 559: 558: 552: 546: 545: 542: 536: 535: 529: 519: 518: 512: 510:Jiroft culture 506: 505: 502: 496: 495: 492: 484: 481:Ancient period 479: 478: 475: 474: 469: 468: 467:5th millennium 462: 456: 455: 454:6th millennium 449: 443: 442: 436: 430: 429: 423: 417: 416: 410: 397: 392: 391: 388: 387: 379: 378: 369: 368: 361: 354: 353: 350: 349: 346: 345: 338: 329: 326: 325: 320: 308: 307: 302: 292: 291: 286: 282: 281: 278: 274: 273: 269: 268: 265: 264: 261: 258: 255: 254: 251: 248: 245: 244: 241: 240: 235: 234:Historical era 231: 230: 225: 221: 220: 217: 216: 208: 205: 202: 201: 193: 190: 187: 186: 183: 182: 179: 173: 172: 164: 160: 159: 157: 156: 151: 146: 144:Zoroastrianism 140: 138: 134: 133: 131: 130: 118: 112: 105: 103: 99: 98: 69: 65: 64: 53:Mithridates II 50: 42: 41: 37: 36: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 22824: 22813: 22810: 22808: 22805: 22803: 22800: 22798: 22795: 22793: 22790: 22788: 22785: 22783: 22780: 22778: 22775: 22773: 22770: 22768: 22765: 22763: 22760: 22758: 22755: 22753: 22750: 22748: 22745: 22743: 22740: 22738: 22735: 22733: 22730: 22728: 22725: 22723: 22720: 22719: 22717: 22710: 22707: 22662: 22661:Soviet empire 22659: 22657: 22654: 22653: 22651: 22650: 22648: 22646:Miscellaneous 22644: 22638: 22635: 22633: 22630: 22628: 22625: 22623: 22620: 22618: 22615: 22611: 22608: 22607: 22606: 22603: 22602: 22600: 22596: 22586: 22583: 22581: 22578: 22576: 22573: 22571: 22568: 22564: 22561: 22560: 22559: 22556: 22554: 22551: 22549: 22546: 22544: 22541: 22539: 22536: 22534: 22531: 22529: 22526: 22524: 22521: 22519: 22516: 22514: 22511: 22507: 22504: 22502: 22499: 22498: 22497: 22494: 22492: 22489: 22487: 22484: 22483: 22481: 22479: 22475: 22467: 22464: 22462: 22459: 22457: 22454: 22452: 22449: 22447: 22444: 22443: 22442: 22439: 22437: 22434: 22430: 22427: 22426: 22425: 22422: 22420: 22417: 22413: 22410: 22408: 22405: 22403: 22400: 22399: 22398: 22395: 22393: 22390: 22386: 22383: 22381: 22378: 22377: 22376: 22373: 22369: 22366: 22364: 22361: 22359: 22356: 22354: 22351: 22349: 22346: 22345: 22344: 22341: 22337: 22334: 22332: 22329: 22328: 22327: 22324: 22322: 22319: 22317: 22314: 22312: 22309: 22305: 22302: 22300: 22297: 22295: 22292: 22290: 22287: 22285: 22282: 22281: 22280: 22277: 22273: 22270: 22268: 22265: 22264: 22263: 22260: 22258: 22255: 22251: 22248: 22246: 22245:German Empire 22243: 22242: 22241: 22238: 22234: 22231: 22229: 22226: 22225: 22224: 22221: 22217: 22214: 22212: 22209: 22208: 22207: 22204: 22202: 22199: 22195: 22192: 22190: 22187: 22185: 22182: 22180: 22177: 22175: 22172: 22171: 22170: 22167: 22165: 22162: 22158: 22155: 22153: 22150: 22149: 22147: 22145: 22142: 22140: 22137: 22135: 22132: 22130: 22127: 22125: 22122: 22121: 22119: 22117: 22113: 22107: 22104: 22102: 22099: 22097: 22094: 22090: 22087: 22085: 22082: 22080: 22077: 22075: 22072: 22070: 22067: 22065: 22062: 22060: 22057: 22056: 22055: 22052: 22050: 22047: 22043: 22040: 22038: 22035: 22033: 22030: 22028: 22025: 22023: 22020: 22018: 22015: 22014: 22013: 22010: 22006: 22003: 22001: 21998: 21996: 21993: 21991: 21988: 21987: 21986: 21985:Turco-Persian 21983: 21981: 21978: 21976: 21973: 21971: 21968: 21966: 21963: 21961: 21958: 21956: 21953: 21951: 21948: 21946: 21943: 21939: 21936: 21934: 21931: 21930: 21929: 21926: 21922: 21919: 21917: 21914: 21912: 21909: 21907: 21904: 21902: 21899: 21897: 21894: 21893: 21892: 21889: 21886: 21884: 21881: 21879: 21876: 21874: 21871: 21867: 21864: 21862: 21859: 21857: 21854: 21853: 21852: 21849: 21845: 21842: 21840: 21837: 21835: 21832: 21830: 21827: 21826: 21825: 21822: 21820: 21817: 21815: 21812: 21810: 21807: 21805: 21802: 21800: 21797: 21793: 21790: 21788: 21785: 21783: 21780: 21778: 21775: 21774: 21773: 21770: 21766: 21763: 21761: 21758: 21756: 21753: 21751: 21748: 21747: 21746: 21743: 21739: 21736: 21734: 21731: 21729: 21726: 21725: 21724: 21721: 21719: 21716: 21714: 21711: 21709: 21706: 21704: 21701: 21697: 21694: 21692: 21689: 21687: 21684: 21683: 21682: 21679: 21677: 21674: 21670: 21667: 21665: 21662: 21660: 21657: 21655: 21652: 21650: 21647: 21645: 21642: 21641: 21640: 21637: 21633: 21630: 21628: 21625: 21624: 21623: 21620: 21616: 21613: 21611: 21608: 21606: 21603: 21601: 21598: 21597: 21596: 21593: 21591: 21588: 21584: 21581: 21580: 21579: 21576: 21572: 21569: 21567: 21564: 21563: 21561: 21559: 21556: 21554: 21551: 21549: 21546: 21544: 21541: 21539: 21536: 21534: 21531: 21529: 21526: 21525: 21523: 21521: 21517: 21509: 21506: 21505: 21504: 21501: 21499: 21496: 21492: 21489: 21487: 21484: 21483: 21482: 21479: 21475: 21472: 21471: 21470: 21467: 21463: 21460: 21458: 21455: 21453: 21450: 21448: 21445: 21443: 21440: 21438: 21435: 21434: 21433: 21430: 21428: 21425: 21423: 21420: 21416: 21413: 21411: 21408: 21406: 21403: 21401: 21398: 21397: 21396: 21393: 21389: 21386: 21384: 21381: 21380: 21379: 21376: 21374: 21371: 21367: 21364: 21362: 21359: 21357: 21354: 21352: 21349: 21347: 21344: 21343: 21342: 21339: 21337: 21334: 21332: 21329: 21325: 21322: 21320: 21317: 21315: 21312: 21311: 21310: 21307: 21305: 21302: 21298: 21295: 21293: 21290: 21288: 21285: 21284: 21283: 21280: 21276: 21273: 21271: 21268: 21266: 21263: 21262: 21261: 21258: 21254: 21251: 21249: 21246: 21245: 21244: 21241: 21239: 21236: 21234: 21231: 21230: 21228: 21225: 21220: 21216: 21212: 21205: 21200: 21198: 21193: 21191: 21186: 21185: 21182: 21170: 21166: 21162: 21160: 21152: 21151: 21148: 21134: 21131: 21129: 21126: 21124: 21121: 21120: 21118: 21114: 21104: 21103: 21099: 21097: 21094: 21092: 21089: 21087: 21084: 21082: 21079: 21077: 21074: 21072: 21069: 21068: 21066: 21064: 21060: 21053: 21049: 21046: 21044: 21041: 21039: 21036: 21034: 21031: 21029: 21026: 21024: 21021: 21019: 21016: 21013: 21009: 21006: 21004: 21001: 20999: 20996: 20993: 20990: 20987: 20983: 20982:news agencies 20979: 20976: 20974: 20971: 20968: 20964: 20961: 20959: 20956: 20954: 20951: 20949: 20946: 20944: 20941: 20938: 20934: 20931: 20929: 20926: 20924: 20921: 20919: 20916: 20913: 20911: 20905: 20902: 20900: 20897: 20895: 20892: 20889: 20885: 20882: 20879: 20876: 20874: 20870: 20867: 20866: 20863: 20860: 20858: 20854: 20844: 20841: 20839: 20836: 20834: 20831: 20829: 20826: 20823: 20820: 20818: 20815: 20813: 20810: 20808: 20804: 20801: 20799: 20796: 20794: 20791: 20790: 20788: 20784: 20778: 20775: 20772: 20768: 20765: 20763: 20760: 20757: 20753: 20750: 20748: 20745: 20744: 20742: 20740: 20736: 20728: 20725: 20723: 20720: 20718: 20715: 20713: 20710: 20708: 20705: 20703: 20700: 20698: 20695: 20693: 20690: 20689: 20688: 20685: 20682: 20678: 20675: 20674: 20672: 20668: 20662: 20659: 20657: 20654: 20652: 20649: 20647: 20644: 20642: 20639: 20637: 20634: 20632: 20629: 20627: 20624: 20623: 20621: 20619: 20615: 20612: 20610: 20606: 20602: 20598: 20593: 20589: 20575: 20572: 20570: 20567: 20565: 20562: 20560: 20557: 20556: 20554: 20550: 20544: 20541: 20539: 20536: 20534: 20531: 20529: 20526: 20524: 20521: 20519: 20516: 20515: 20513: 20511: 20505: 20499: 20496: 20493: 20490: 20488: 20485: 20483: 20480: 20478: 20474: 20471: 20468: 20464: 20461: 20458: 20454: 20451: 20449: 20446: 20444: 20441: 20438: 20434: 20431: 20429: 20426: 20424: 20421: 20417: 20414: 20412: 20409: 20408: 20407: 20404: 20401: 20397: 20394: 20393: 20391: 20389: 20385: 20378: 20374: 20371: 20369: 20366: 20364: 20361: 20359: 20356: 20354: 20351: 20349: 20346: 20344: 20343:Privatization 20341: 20338: 20334: 20331: 20329: 20326: 20324: 20321: 20319: 20316: 20314: 20311: 20309: 20306: 20304: 20301: 20299: 20296: 20294: 20291: 20289: 20286: 20284: 20281: 20279: 20276: 20274: 20271: 20269: 20266: 20264: 20261: 20259: 20256: 20254: 20251: 20249: 20246: 20243: 20239: 20236: 20234: 20231: 20229: 20226: 20225: 20223: 20219: 20215: 20211: 20206: 20202: 20188: 20185: 20183: 20180: 20178: 20175: 20173: 20170: 20169: 20167: 20165: 20161: 20155: 20152: 20150: 20147: 20145: 20142: 20140: 20137: 20135: 20132: 20130: 20127: 20126: 20124: 20120: 20114: 20111: 20109: 20106: 20103: 20099: 20096: 20094: 20091: 20089: 20086: 20084: 20081: 20079: 20076: 20073: 20069: 20066: 20064: 20061: 20059: 20056: 20053: 20050: 20048: 20045: 20043: 20039: 20036: 20034: 20031: 20027: 20024: 20022: 20019: 20017: 20014: 20013: 20012: 20009: 20007: 20004: 20002: 19999: 19996: 19992: 19989: 19987: 19984: 19981: 19977: 19974: 19972: 19969: 19968: 19966: 19962: 19958: 19954: 19949: 19945: 19935: 19932: 19930: 19927: 19925: 19922: 19920: 19917: 19915: 19912: 19910: 19907: 19905: 19902: 19900: 19897: 19895: 19892: 19890: 19887: 19885: 19882: 19878: 19875: 19874: 19873: 19870: 19868: 19865: 19861: 19858: 19856: 19853: 19852: 19851: 19848: 19846: 19843: 19842: 19839: 19835: 19830: 19826: 19812: 19811:Years in Iran 19809: 19807: 19804: 19802: 19799: 19797: 19794: 19792: 19789: 19787: 19784: 19782: 19779: 19777: 19774: 19772: 19769: 19767: 19764: 19762: 19759: 19755: 19752: 19751: 19750: 19747: 19741: 19738: 19736: 19735:Turco-Persian 19733: 19732: 19731: 19728: 19727: 19726: 19723: 19721: 19718: 19716: 19713: 19712: 19710: 19706: 19696: 19693: 19691: 19688: 19686: 19683: 19681: 19678: 19676: 19673: 19671: 19668: 19666: 19663: 19659: 19656: 19655: 19654: 19651: 19649: 19646: 19644: 19641: 19639: 19636: 19634: 19631: 19629: 19626: 19624: 19618: 19616: 19613: 19611: 19608: 19606: 19604:War (1980–88) 19600: 19598: 19595: 19593: 19587: 19585: 19582: 19580: 19577: 19575: 19572: 19570: 19567: 19565: 19562: 19560: 19555: 19554: 19552: 19547: 19542: 19536: 19530: 19528: 19525: 19523: 19520: 19518: 19515: 19513: 19510: 19508: 19505: 19503: 19497: 19496: 19494: 19490: 19487: 19483: 19473: 19470: 19468: 19465: 19463: 19460: 19458: 19455: 19453: 19450: 19448: 19442: 19440: 19434: 19432: 19426: 19424: 19418: 19416: 19410: 19408: 19402: 19400: 19396:Qara Qoyunlu 19394: 19392: 19386: 19385: 19383: 19379: 19373: 19367: 19365: 19359: 19357: 19351: 19349: 19344: 19342: 19336: 19334: 19328: 19326: 19320: 19318: 19312: 19310: 19304: 19302: 19296: 19295: 19293: 19289: 19283: 19277: 19275: 19269: 19267: 19261: 19259: 19253: 19251: 19245: 19243: 19237: 19235: 19229: 19227: 19221: 19219: 19213: 19212: 19210: 19206: 19203: 19197: 19187: 19181: 19180: 19178: 19174: 19168: 19162: 19160: 19154: 19152: 19146: 19144: 19138: 19136: 19130: 19128: 19122: 19120: 19114: 19112: 19106: 19104: 19098: 19097: 19095: 19093:550 BC–AD 224 19091: 19085: 19079: 19077: 19071: 19069: 19063: 19061: 19055: 19053: 19049:Neo-Assyrian 19047: 19045: 19039: 19037: 19031: 19029: 19023: 19021: 19015: 19013: 19007: 19005: 18999: 18997: 18991: 18990: 18988: 18984: 18981: 18977: 18973: 18968: 18964: 18960: 18955: 18951: 18946: 18939: 18934: 18932: 18927: 18925: 18920: 18919: 18916: 18904: 18901: 18899: 18896: 18894: 18891: 18889: 18886: 18884: 18881: 18879: 18876: 18875: 18873: 18869: 18863: 18860: 18858: 18855: 18853: 18850: 18848: 18845: 18843: 18840: 18838: 18835: 18833: 18830: 18829: 18827: 18823: 18817: 18814: 18812: 18809: 18807: 18804: 18803: 18801: 18797: 18791: 18788: 18786: 18783: 18781: 18778: 18776: 18773: 18771: 18768: 18766: 18763: 18761: 18758: 18756: 18753: 18751: 18748: 18746: 18743: 18741: 18738: 18736: 18733: 18731: 18728: 18726: 18723: 18721: 18718: 18716: 18713: 18711: 18708: 18707: 18705: 18701: 18695: 18692: 18690: 18687: 18685: 18682: 18680: 18677: 18675: 18672: 18670: 18667: 18665: 18662: 18660: 18657: 18655: 18652: 18650: 18647: 18645: 18642: 18640: 18637: 18635: 18632: 18630: 18627: 18625: 18622: 18620: 18617: 18615: 18612: 18610: 18607: 18606: 18604: 18602: 18598: 18588: 18585: 18583: 18580: 18578: 18575: 18573: 18570: 18568: 18565: 18563: 18560: 18558: 18555: 18553: 18550: 18548: 18545: 18543: 18540: 18538: 18535: 18533: 18530: 18528: 18525: 18523: 18520: 18518: 18515: 18513: 18510: 18508: 18505: 18503: 18500: 18499: 18497: 18495: 18491: 18485: 18482: 18480: 18477: 18475: 18472: 18470: 18467: 18465: 18462: 18460: 18456: 18453: 18451: 18448: 18446: 18443: 18441: 18438: 18436: 18433: 18431: 18428: 18426: 18423: 18421: 18418: 18416: 18413: 18411: 18408: 18407: 18405: 18403: 18399: 18396: 18392: 18387: 18373: 18370: 18368: 18365: 18363: 18360: 18358: 18355: 18353: 18350: 18348: 18345: 18343: 18340: 18338: 18335: 18333: 18330: 18328: 18325: 18323: 18320: 18318: 18315: 18313: 18310: 18308: 18305: 18303: 18300: 18298: 18295: 18293: 18290: 18288: 18285: 18283: 18280: 18278: 18275: 18273: 18270: 18269: 18267: 18263: 18257: 18254: 18252: 18249: 18247: 18244: 18240: 18237: 18235: 18232: 18231: 18230: 18227: 18225: 18222: 18220: 18219:Syrian Desert 18217: 18215: 18212: 18210: 18207: 18205: 18202: 18200: 18197: 18196: 18194: 18190: 18187: 18185: 18181: 18177: 18170: 18165: 18163: 18158: 18156: 18151: 18150: 18147: 18133: 18126: 18122: 18121: 18116: 18112: 18105: 18102: 18097: 18090: 18087: 18080: 18076: 18075: 18071: 18066: 18060: 18059: 18056: 18050: 18049: 18045: 18044: 18039: 18033: 18032: 18024: 18023: 18020: 18014: 18013: 18010: 18009: 18004: 18003: 17998: 17997: 17991: 17986: 17985: 17979: 17975: 17970: 17966: 17961: 17955: 17954: 17951: 17950: 17946: 17943: 17941: 17935: 17934: 17927: 17926: 17923: 17918: 17916: 17910: 17909: 17905: 17904: 17899: 17893: 17892: 17887: 17881: 17880: 17876: 17872: 17867: 17861: 17860: 17857: 17855: 17850: 17846: 17841: 17836: 17834: 17829: 17823: 17822: 17819: 17813: 17812: 17809: 17808: 17801: 17800: 17797: 17791: 17790: 17787: 17783: 17779: 17770: 17769: 17766: 17761: 17756: 17751: 17750: 17745: 17741: 17733: 17728: 17726: 17721: 17719: 17714: 17713: 17710: 17684: 17678: 17674: 17673: 17668: 17662: 17656: 17650: 17648: 17646: 17637: 17631: 17627: 17626: 17621: 17620:Roux, Georges 17615: 17607: 17601: 17597: 17596: 17591: 17584: 17576: 17570: 17562: 17558: 17554: 17548: 17539: 17535: 17531: 17528: 17524: 17518: 17514: 17509: 17506: 17505: 17499: 17498: 17492: 17491: 17484: 17483: 17480: 17475: 17470: 17466: 17461: 17457: 17454: 17451: 17448: 17447:Yazdegerd III 17445: 17442: 17439: 17436: 17433: 17430: 17427: 17424: 17421: 17418: 17413: 17412: 17404: 17401: 17398: 17394: 17390: 17389: 17383: 17380: 17379:Sahralanyozan 17377: 17373: 17368: 17361: 17360: 17357: 17352: 17347: 17343: 17338: 17334: 17331: 17330: 17322: 17319: 17314: 17309: 17304: 17300: 17297: 17296: 17288: 17285: 17282: 17279: 17275: 17274: 17267: 17266: 17263: 17260: 17257: 17254: 17251: 17248: 17245: 17242: 17239: 17236: 17233: 17230: 17227: 17224: 17221: 17218: 17215: 17212: 17209: 17206: 17203: 17200: 17197: 17194: 17191: 17188: 17185: 17182: 17179: 17172: 17167: 17163: 17162: 17155: 17154: 17151: 17148: 17145: 17142: 17139: 17136: 17135:Mithridates V 17133: 17132:Sinatruces II 17128: 17123: 17117: 17116: 17113: 17108: 17104: 17097: 17094: 17089: 17084: 17079: 17074: 17071: 17070: 17062: 17059: 17056: 17055:Artabanus III 17053: 17050: 17047: 17044: 17041: 17038: 17035: 17032: 17029: 17026: 17025:Tiridates III 17023: 17020: 17017: 17014: 17011: 17008: 17005: 17002: 16999: 16996: 16993: 16990: 16987: 16984: 16981: 16978: 16975: 16972: 16969: 16968:Mithridates I 16965: 16964: 16958: 16955: 16952: 16949: 16946: 16943: 16940: 16937: 16934: 16931: 16928: 16925: 16920: 16917: 16914: 16911: 16908: 16905: 16904:Aristobulus I 16902: 16901:John Hyrcanus 16899: 16895: 16894: 16887: 16886: 16883: 16880: 16877: 16874: 16871: 16870:Alexander III 16868: 16865: 16862: 16859: 16856: 16855:Antiochus III 16853: 16850: 16847: 16844: 16841: 16837: 16836: 16831: 16827: 16826: 16821: 16818: 16815: 16814:Alexander III 16811: 16810: 16802: 16797: 16792: 16789: 16786: 16783: 16780: 16777: 16774: 16771: 16768: 16765: 16762: 16759: 16756: 16753: 16750: 16749:Cleopatra III 16747: 16744: 16741: 16738: 16735: 16732: 16729: 16726: 16723: 16720: 16717: 16714: 16711: 16708: 16704: 16703: 16699: 16692: 16691: 16688: 16687: 16682: 16679: 16678: 16673: 16672: 16667: 16666: 16661: 16658: 16655: 16654:Artaxerxes IV 16652: 16649: 16648:Artaxerxes II 16646: 16643: 16640: 16637: 16634: 16631: 16627: 16626: 16619: 16613: 16609: 16608:Kings of Tyre 16605: 16599: 16594: 16593: 16585: 16582: 16579: 16576: 16573: 16570: 16566: 16565: 16564:Median Empire 16559: 16556: 16553: 16550: 16547: 16544: 16540: 16539: 16533: 16530: 16527: 16524: 16521: 16518: 16515: 16511: 16510: 16505: 16504: 16497: 16496: 16493: 16488: 16484: 16481: 16479: 16476: 16473: 16472:Sinsharishkun 16470: 16467: 16464: 16461: 16458: 16455: 16452: 16449: 16446: 16443: 16440: 16437: 16434: 16431: 16427: 16425: 16418: 16417: 16411: 16408: 16405: 16402: 16399: 16394: 16386: 16381: 16380: 16372: 16369: 16365: 16361: 16357: 16353: 16349: 16344: 16343: 16336: 16333: 16330: 16327: 16324: 16321: 16318: 16315: 16312: 16309:(five kings) 16308: 16305: 16302: 16299: 16296: 16293: 16290: 16287: 16283: 16277: 16271: 16268: 16267:Ashur-Dan III 16265: 16262: 16258: 16255: 16252: 16249: 16246: 16243: 16239: 16238: 16232: 16227: 16222: 16221: 16218: 16214: 16213: 16207: 16204: 16201: 16198: 16195: 16192: 16189: 16186: 16182: 16181: 16174: 16171: 16170: 16166: 16163: 16160: 16157: 16154: 16151: 16148: 16145: 16142: 16138: 16137: 16130: 16129: 16126: 16123: 16120: 16117: 16114: 16111: 16108: 16107:Ea-mukin-zeri 16105: 16104:Simbar-shipak 16101: 16096:1025–934 BCE 16095: 16094: 16090: 16085: 16082: 16079: 16076: 16073: 16070: 16067: 16064: 16061: 16058: 16055: 16051: 16049: 16042: 16039: 16036: 16033: 16032:Ashur-rabi II 16030: 16027: 16024: 16021: 16018: 16017:Eriba-Adad II 16015: 16012: 16009: 16006: 16003: 16000: 15997: 15994: 15991: 15988: 15985: 15982: 15979: 15978:Shalmaneser I 15976: 15975:Adad-nirari I 15973: 15970: 15967: 15964: 15960: 15959: 15953: 15952: 15946: 15942: 15938: 15934: 15930: 15929: 15923: 15919: 15918:Kings of Tyre 15915: 15911: 15910: 15904: 15903: 15900: 15897: 15894: 15891: 15888: 15885: 15881: 15880: 15874: 15873: 15867: 15864: 15861: 15858: 15857:Ramesses VIII 15855: 15852: 15849: 15846: 15843: 15840: 15835: 15834: 15827: 15826: 15823: 15819: 15818: 15813: 15812: 15806: 15803: 15800: 15797: 15794: 15791: 15788: 15785: 15781: 15780: 15775: 15772: 15767: 15766: 15760: 15757: 15754: 15751: 15748: 15747: 15743: 15740: 15739:Amenhotep III 15737: 15734: 15730: 15727: 15724: 15721: 15718: 15714: 15711: 15708: 15704: 15703: 15698: 15697: 15690: 15685: 15682: 15679: 15676: 15673: 15670: 15667: 15664: 15661: 15658: 15655: 15652: 15649: 15646: 15643: 15640: 15637: 15634: 15631: 15628: 15625: 15622: 15619: 15616: 15613: 15610: 15607: 15603: 15601: 15593: 15587: 15584: 15580: 15579: 15574: 15573: 15565: 15557: 15554: 15551: 15548: 15542: 15541: 15535: 15532: 15529: 15526: 15523: 15522: 15518: 15517: 15508: 15502: 15497: 15496: 15490: 15489: 15485: 15484: 15479: 15475: 15474: 15469: 15465: 15464: 15459: 15458: 15452: 15449: 15446: 15445:Melamkurkurra 15443: 15439: 15438:Ayadaragalama 15436: 15433: 15429: 15426: 15423: 15419: 15416: 15415:Itti-ili-nibi 15413: 15409: 15407: 15396: 15391: 15388: 15385: 15382: 15379: 15376: 15373: 15370: 15367: 15364: 15361: 15358: 15354: 15352: 15345: 15338: 15332: 15331: 15328: 15325: 15322: 15319: 15316: 15313: 15310: 15309:Ashur-shaduni 15307: 15304: 15303:Enlil-nasir I 15301: 15298: 15295: 15292: 15289: 15286: 15283: 15280: 15277: 15274: 15271: 15268: 15267:Sharma-Adad I 15265: 15262: 15258:1700–722 BCE) 15256: 15250: 15247: 15244: 15241: 15238: 15235: 15232: 15229: 15220: 15217: 15214: 15211: 15208: 15205: 15202: 15199: 15196: 15193: 15190: 15189:Ishme-Dagan I 15187: 15178: 15172: 15171: 15162: 15157: 15156: 15150: 15146: 15145:Kings of Tyre 15142: 15137: 15132: 15127: 15126: 15121: 15120: 15112: 15109: 15106: 15103: 15102:Amenemhat III 15100: 15097: 15094: 15091: 15088: 15084: 15083: 15078: 15075: 15070: 15069: 15062: 15058: 15054: 15050: 15046: 15043: 15040: 15037: 15034: 15031: 15028: 15025: 15022: 15019: 15016: 15013: 15010: 15007: 15003: 14999: 14996: 14993: 14990: 14987: 14984: 14981: 14978: 14975: 14972: 14969: 14966: 14963: 14960: 14957: 14953: 14952: 14945: 14939: 14934: 14933: 14927: 14923: 14919: 14915: 14911: 14907: 14903: 14899: 14895: 14894:Puzur-Ashur I 14891: 14890: 14883: 14879: 14876: 14873: 14870: 14865: 14860: 14859: 14853: 14845: 14841: 14836: 14833: 14827: 14824: 14819: 14814: 14809: 14804: 14801: 14800:Third Eblaite 14796: 14793: 14792:Mentuhotep IV 14790: 14787: 14786:Mentuhotep II 14784: 14781: 14778: 14775: 14771: 14770: 14765: 14764: 14759: 14755: 14751: 14747: 14745: 14739: 14734: 14732: 14724: 14721: 14718: 14715: 14712: 14707: 14702: 14696: 14695: 14687: 14683: 14679: 14675: 14666: 14665: 14662: 14658: 14656: 14650: 14647: 14644: 14643:Wahkare Khety 14641: 14638: 14634: 14633: 14626: 14625: 14622: 14617: 14614: 14610: 14606: 14599: 14595: 14591: 14584: 14580: 14578: 14570: 14566: 14562: 14557: 14553: 14546: 14545: 14539: 14535: 14530: 14525: 14521: 14517: 14514: 14512: 14511:Ur III period 14506: 14503: 14500: 14499:Neferkare VII 14497: 14493: 14492: 14484: 14481: 14477: 14473: 14469: 14463: 14459: 14455: 14451: 14447: 14446:Ur-Ningirsu I 14443: 14439: 14437: 14429: 14425: 14421: 14419: 14413: 14409: 14404: 14400: 14396: 14392: 14388: 14385: 14377: 14373: 14369: 14362: 14357: 14356: 14350: 14347: 14340: 14337: 14334: 14331: 14328: 14325: 14322: 14319: 14316: 14313: 14310: 14307: 14304: 14301: 14298: 14295: 14291: 14290: 14285: 14284: 14279: 14278: 14270: 14265: 14259: 14254: 14250: 14244: 14243: 14240: 14236: 14232: 14228: 14224: 14219: 14216: 14213: 14208: 14207: 14202: 14199: 14197: 14191: 14187: 14182: 14178: 14176: 14170: 14166: 14162: 14159: 14157: 14154: 14153: 14150: 14145: 14141: 14136: 14129: 14123: 14119: 14115: 14110: 14104: 14103: 14098: 14094: 14092: 14085: 14080: 14077: 14074: 14071: 14068: 14065: 14062: 14058: 14057: 14050: 14049: 14046: 14043: 14041: 14035: 14033: 14029: 14027: 14023: 14019: 14015: 14012: 14009: 14004: 14000: 13996: 13993: 13991: 13987: 13984: 13982: 13981:Lugal-kisalsi 13978: 13975: 13973: 13970: 13968: 13964: 13960: 13958: 13954: 13952: 13948: 13944: 13941: 13938: 13937: 13931: 13926: 13922: 13917: 13914: 13911: 13910: 13907: 13903: 13893: 13890: 13889: 13886: 13882: 13877: 13873: 13868: 13865: 13862: 13859: 13856: 13853: 13850: 13847: 13844: 13839: 13838: 13830: 13827: 13823: 13819: 13815: 13811: 13810: 13804: 13800: 13796: 13792: 13787: 13781: 13776: 13771: 13769: 13763: 13758: 13756: 13750: 13745: 13739: 13737: 13731: 13727: 13723: 13722: 13716: 13712: 13707: 13703: 13699: 13695: 13691: 13687: 13680: 13675: 13671: 13666: 13665: 13658: 13652: 13651: 13646: 13642: 13641: 13635: 13634: 13630: 13627: 13624: 13623: 13619: 13616: 13611: 13606: 13603: 13599: 13598: 13593: 13592: 13585: 13584: 13579: 13575: 13571: 13567: 13566: 13560: 13559: 13555: 13551: 13547: 13542: 13539: 13534: 13529: 13524: 13519: 13515: 13511: 13507: 13506: 13500: 13494: 13490: 13489: 13483: 13482: 13478: 13474: 13468: 13464: 13458: 13456: 13448: 13444: 13440: 13436: 13432: 13428: 13424: 13419: 13416: 13415: 13411: 13408: 13407: 13403: 13400: 13395: 13389: 13384: 13379: 13378: 13370: 13367: 13360: 13359: 13352: 13347: 13343: 13337: 13332: 13328: 13324: 13320: 13316: 13313: 13312: 13308: 13302: 13301: 13297: 13293: 13289: 13280: 13276: 13269: 13266: 13264: 13260: 13255: 13252: 13251: 13246: 13244: 13238: 13237: 13234: 13230: 13227: 13223: 13220: 13217: 13213: 13210: 13207: 13201: 13196: 13193: 13192: 13188: 13184: 13180: 13175: 13174:Nangishlishma 13171: 13167: 13162: 13160: 13153: 13152: 13145: 13142: 13141:First Eblaite 13137: 13133: 13127: 13122: 13119: 13118: 13114: 13113: 13109: 13108: 13104: 13101: 13100:Seth-Peribsen 13098: 13097: 13093: 13092: 13088: 13087: 13083: 13082: 13078: 13077: 13073: 13072: 13068: 13065: 13062: 13061:Hotepsekhemwy 13057: 13056: 13048: 13042: 13037: 13036: 13031: 13030: 13029:Proto-Elamite 13022: 13021: 13015: 13010: 13009: 13005: 13004: 13000: 12997: 12994: 12991: 12987: 12984: 12981: 12978: 12974: 12971: 12968: 12960: 12956: 12955: 12950: 12949: 12941: 12937: 12936: 12932: 12931:Double Falcon 12929: 12928: 12924: 12923: 12919: 12918: 12914: 12913: 12909: 12908: 12904: 12903: 12899: 12898: 12894: 12893: 12889: 12888: 12884: 12883: 12878: 12877: 12871: 12867: 12864: 12863: 12859: 12856: 12853: 12852: 12848: 12847: 12843: 12842: 12838: 12837: 12833: 12832: 12828: 12825: 12824: 12820: 12819: 12815: 12814: 12809: 12808: 12803: 12797: 12792: 12791: 12783: 12777: 12772: 12764: 12758: 12752: 12744: 12743: 12737: 12734: 12728: 12723: 12717: 12712: 12711: 12706: 12705: 12697: 12694: 12691: 12689: 12686: 12684: 12681: 12678: 12675: 12673: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12663: 12658: 12655: 12653: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12619: 12618: 12615: 12614: 12608: 12604: 12596: 12591: 12589: 12584: 12582: 12577: 12576: 12573: 12560: 12551: 12548: 12543: 12540: 12535: 12532: 12527: 12524: 12519: 12516: 12511: 12510:Mithridates V 12508: 12503: 12502:Sinatruces II 12500: 12495: 12492: 12487: 12486:Vologases III 12484: 12479: 12476: 12471: 12470:Artabanus III 12468: 12463: 12460: 12455: 12452: 12447: 12444: 12439: 12436: 12431: 12428: 12423: 12420: 12415: 12412: 12407: 12404: 12401:(36–38/41 AD) 12399: 12396: 12391: 12390:Tiridates III 12388: 12383: 12380: 12375: 12372: 12367: 12364: 12359: 12356: 12351: 12348: 12343: 12340: 12335: 12332: 12327: 12324: 12319: 12316: 12311: 12308: 12303: 12300: 12295: 12292: 12287: 12284: 12279: 12276: 12273:(91–87/80 BC) 12271: 12268: 12263: 12260: 12255: 12252: 12247: 12244: 12239: 12238:Mithridates I 12236: 12231: 12228: 12223: 12220: 12215: 12212: 12207: 12204: 12203: 12200: 12193: 12189: 12182: 12177: 12175: 12170: 12168: 12163: 12162: 12159: 12153: 12146: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12126: 12125: 12123: 12119: 12113: 12110: 12108: 12107:Parthian shot 12105: 12103: 12100: 12098: 12097:Parthian army 12095: 12093: 12090: 12089: 12087: 12083: 12077: 12074: 12072: 12069: 12064: 12060: 12057: 12053: 12050: 12046: 12043: 12039: 12036: 12032: 12029: 12025: 12022: 12018: 12015: 12011: 12008: 12004: 12001: 11997: 11994: 11990: 11987: 11983: 11982: 11981: 11978: 11973: 11969: 11968: 11967: 11964: 11963: 11961: 11957: 11951: 11948: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11931: 11928: 11927: 11925: 11921: 11913: 11910: 11907: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11897: 11895: 11892: 11890: 11887: 11885: 11882: 11881: 11880: 11877: 11876: 11874: 11870: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11840: 11838: 11834: 11828: 11825: 11823: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11814: 11812: 11808: 11804: 11797: 11792: 11790: 11785: 11783: 11778: 11777: 11774: 11767: 11764: 11761: 11760:Parthian Army 11757: 11753: 11749: 11748: 11737: 11736: 11730: 11726: 11722: 11717: 11713: 11707: 11703: 11699: 11694: 11693: 11680: 11676: 11672: 11668: 11658:on 2019-01-01 11657: 11653: 11647: 11643: 11642: 11637: 11633: 11629: 11623: 11619: 11614: 11610: 11604: 11600: 11595: 11591: 11585: 11581: 11576: 11572: 11570:0-521-20092-X 11566: 11562: 11559:. Cambridge: 11558: 11557: 11552: 11547: 11543: 11537: 11533: 11528: 11527: 11520: 11516: 11514:0-521-24693-8 11510: 11506: 11503:. Cambridge: 11502: 11501: 11496: 11491: 11487: 11485:0-521-20092-X 11481: 11477: 11474:. Cambridge: 11473: 11472: 11467: 11462: 11457: 11452: 11448: 11442: 11438: 11433: 11429: 11423: 11419: 11414: 11410: 11404: 11400: 11396: 11392: 11388: 11384: 11380: 11376: 11371: 11367: 11361: 11357: 11353: 11349: 11344: 11340: 11334: 11330: 11325: 11321: 11315: 11311: 11306: 11301: 11297: 11292: 11287: 11283: 11278: 11274: 11272:0-521-20092-X 11268: 11264: 11261:. Cambridge: 11260: 11259: 11254: 11249: 11245: 11238: 11234: 11230: 11226: 11222: 11218: 11214: 11210: 11205: 11201: 11199:0-521-24693-8 11195: 11191: 11188:. Cambridge: 11187: 11186: 11181: 11176: 11172: 11166: 11162: 11161: 11155: 11150: 11144: 11140: 11136: 11132: 11128: 11123: 11118: 11113: 11109: 11104: 11098: 11093: 11091:0-521-24693-8 11087: 11083: 11080:. Cambridge: 11079: 11078: 11073: 11068: 11064: 11058: 11054: 11049: 11045: 11039: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11023: 11017: 11013: 11008: 11003: 11001:0-521-24693-8 10997: 10993: 10990:. Cambridge: 10989: 10988: 10983: 10978: 10974: 10970: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10941: 10937: 10935:0-521-20092-X 10931: 10927: 10924:. Cambridge: 10923: 10922: 10917: 10912: 10908: 10907: 10901: 10898: 10892: 10888: 10884: 10880: 10876: 10870: 10866: 10862: 10857: 10852: 10847: 10843: 10837: 10833: 10828: 10824: 10818: 10814: 10809: 10805: 10803:0-521-20092-X 10799: 10795: 10792:. Cambridge: 10791: 10790: 10785: 10780: 10775: 10773:0-521-24693-8 10769: 10765: 10762:. Cambridge: 10761: 10760: 10755: 10750: 10746: 10740: 10736: 10733:, Cambridge: 10732: 10731: 10725: 10720: 10718:0-521-24693-8 10714: 10710: 10707:. Cambridge: 10706: 10705: 10700: 10695: 10691: 10685: 10681: 10676: 10671: 10667: 10663: 10659: 10654: 10650: 10644: 10640: 10635: 10631: 10625: 10621: 10616: 10612: 10610:0-521-24693-8 10606: 10602: 10599:. Cambridge: 10598: 10597: 10592: 10587: 10582: 10577: 10573: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10547: 10541: 10537: 10536: 10530: 10526: 10520: 10516: 10511: 10506: 10500: 10496: 10495: 10489: 10485: 10483:0-521-24693-8 10479: 10475: 10472:. Cambridge: 10471: 10470: 10465: 10460: 10456: 10450: 10446: 10441: 10437: 10435:0-521-20092-X 10431: 10427: 10424:. Cambridge: 10423: 10422: 10417: 10412: 10408: 10406:0-521-20092-X 10402: 10398: 10395:. Cambridge: 10394: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10379: 10373: 10369: 10365: 10364: 10358: 10354: 10348: 10344: 10339: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10321: 10317: 10312: 10308: 10306:0-521-24693-8 10302: 10298: 10295:. Cambridge: 10294: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10279: 10273: 10269: 10264: 10263: 10248: 10239: 10229: 10220: 10214: 10210: 10207: 10200: 10198: 10196: 10194: 10192: 10190: 10188: 10186: 10178: 10174: 10169: 10162: 10157: 10150: 10145: 10139:, p. 106 10138: 10133: 10126: 10122: 10117: 10110: 10106: 10101: 10094: 10093:Sellwood 1983 10090: 10085: 10079:, p. 101 10078: 10073: 10066: 10061: 10054: 10049: 10042: 10037: 10030: 10025: 10018: 10013: 10006: 10001: 9994: 9989: 9987: 9985: 9983: 9975: 9971: 9967: 9962: 9960: 9952: 9948: 9943: 9936: 9931: 9929: 9921: 9917: 9912: 9905: 9900: 9893: 9888: 9881: 9876: 9869: 9864: 9862: 9854: 9850: 9846: 9841: 9834: 9829: 9822: 9818: 9813: 9807:, p. 128 9806: 9801: 9799: 9797: 9795: 9793: 9786:, p. 127 9785: 9780: 9778: 9776: 9774: 9766: 9762: 9757: 9751:, p. 957 9750: 9749:Emmerick 1983 9745: 9738: 9733: 9726: 9725:Asmussen 1983 9722: 9717: 9711:, p. 867 9710: 9706: 9702: 9697: 9690: 9686: 9681: 9675:, p. 844 9674: 9669: 9662: 9657: 9651:, p. 125 9650: 9646: 9642: 9637: 9631:, p. 125 9630: 9625: 9623: 9615: 9614:Asmussen 1983 9610: 9603: 9598: 9591: 9586: 9584: 9576: 9571: 9565:, p. 525 9564: 9563:Shahbazi 1987 9560: 9555: 9549:, p. 697 9548: 9543: 9536: 9532: 9527: 9521:, p. 525 9520: 9519:Shahbazi 1987 9515: 9513: 9505: 9500: 9493: 9488: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9468: 9461: 9456: 9454: 9446: 9441: 9434: 9430: 9425: 9418: 9414: 9409: 9403:, p. 282 9402: 9401:Sellwood 1983 9397: 9391:, p. 280 9390: 9389:Sellwood 1983 9385: 9378: 9377:Sellwood 1983 9374: 9369: 9362: 9357: 9350: 9345: 9343: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9322: 9315: 9309:, p. 122 9308: 9303: 9296: 9295:Shahbazi 1986 9291: 9289: 9287: 9285: 9278:, p. 561 9277: 9273: 9269: 9264: 9257: 9253: 9249: 9244: 9237: 9233: 9228: 9221: 9217: 9212: 9210: 9202: 9197: 9190: 9185: 9183: 9175: 9171: 9166: 9160:, p. 104 9159: 9155: 9150: 9143: 9138: 9123: 9119: 9115: 9109: 9102: 9097: 9090: 9085: 9078: 9073: 9066: 9061: 9055:, p. 119 9054: 9049: 9042: 9037: 9035: 9027: 9022: 9015: 9010: 9003: 8998: 8991: 8987: 8982: 8976:, p. 701 8975: 8970: 8963: 8958: 8951: 8946: 8939: 8934: 8927: 8921: 8914: 8910: 8905: 8898: 8894: 8889: 8882: 8877: 8870: 8865: 8858: 8853: 8847:, p. 358 8846: 8841: 8835:, p. 363 8834: 8830: 8825: 8818: 8813: 8811: 8803: 8798: 8791: 8786: 8779: 8774: 8767: 8763: 8758: 8751: 8747: 8742: 8735: 8731: 8726: 8719: 8715: 8710: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8690: 8683: 8678: 8671: 8666: 8664: 8656: 8652: 8648: 8643: 8636: 8631: 8624: 8619: 8612: 8607: 8601:, p. 359 8600: 8595: 8588: 8583: 8577: 8576:0-7546-5740-X 8573: 8569: 8563: 8557: 8556:0-8276-1155-2 8553: 8549: 8543: 8536: 8531: 8524: 8519: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8495: 8493: 8485: 8481: 8476: 8467: 8461:, p. 35. 8460: 8455: 8448: 8443: 8441: 8439: 8431: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8414: 8407: 8403: 8398: 8391: 8387: 8382: 8375: 8370: 8363: 8358: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8334: 8327: 8322: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8302: 8295: 8290: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8270: 8263: 8259: 8254: 8247: 8242: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8218: 8210: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8191: 8183: 8176: 8171: 8164: 8160: 8155: 8149:, p. 117 8148: 8144: 8140: 8135: 8128: 8123: 8117:, p. 96. 8116: 8115:Olbrycht 2016 8111: 8104: 8099: 8092: 8087: 8080: 8076: 8071: 8064: 8059: 8052: 8047: 8040: 8035: 8028: 8024: 8019: 8012: 8007: 8000: 7995: 7988: 7983: 7976: 7971: 7964: 7960: 7955: 7948: 7944: 7939: 7932: 7927: 7919: 7913: 7907:, p. 153 7906: 7902: 7898: 7893: 7887:, p. 600 7886: 7882: 7877: 7870: 7866: 7861: 7855:, p. 101 7854: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7837: 7830: 7825: 7823: 7815: 7810: 7803: 7798: 7791: 7786: 7779: 7774: 7767: 7761: 7754: 7749: 7742: 7737: 7730: 7725: 7718: 7713: 7706: 7702: 7697: 7690: 7686: 7682: 7677: 7670: 7666: 7661: 7654: 7650: 7646: 7641: 7634: 7629: 7622: 7618: 7613: 7606: 7601: 7594: 7590: 7585: 7578: 7573: 7566: 7561: 7559: 7551: 7550:Burstein 2004 7546: 7539: 7534: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7510: 7503: 7498: 7491: 7487: 7482: 7475: 7470: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7446: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7422: 7420: 7412: 7407: 7400: 7395: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7375: 7373: 7371: 7364:, p. 243 7363: 7359: 7354: 7347: 7343: 7338: 7331: 7326: 7319: 7315: 7310: 7303: 7298: 7296: 7288: 7284: 7279: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7255: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7235: 7228: 7223: 7221: 7213: 7208: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7184: 7177: 7173: 7168: 7161: 7156: 7149: 7145: 7140: 7133: 7129: 7124: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7104: 7097: 7092: 7085: 7081: 7076: 7069: 7064: 7057: 7052: 7045: 7044:Sellwood 1976 7040: 7038: 7030: 7029:Shayegan 2011 7025: 7019:, p. 770 7018: 7014: 7013:Shayegan 2011 7010: 7005: 6998: 6993: 6991: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6970: 6963: 6958: 6956: 6949:, p. 133 6948: 6943: 6936: 6932: 6927: 6921:, p. 560 6920: 6915: 6908: 6903: 6896: 6891: 6884: 6880: 6875: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6855: 6848: 6843: 6836: 6831: 6829: 6821: 6817: 6812: 6805: 6800: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6780: 6773: 6768: 6761: 6757: 6752: 6745: 6740: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6716: 6709: 6705: 6700: 6693: 6688: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6668: 6661: 6656: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6632: 6625: 6624:Shayegan 2011 6620: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6600: 6593: 6592:Shayegan 2011 6589: 6585: 6580: 6573: 6572:Shayegan 2007 6569: 6565: 6560: 6553: 6548: 6542:, p. 103 6541: 6536: 6534: 6526: 6522: 6517: 6510: 6506: 6501: 6494: 6489: 6482: 6478: 6473: 6467:, p. 76; 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6449: 6447: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6426: 6419: 6415: 6410: 6403: 6398: 6391: 6387: 6382: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6362: 6360: 6352: 6347: 6345: 6337: 6332: 6325: 6320: 6313: 6308: 6301: 6296: 6294: 6286: 6281: 6279: 6271: 6266: 6259: 6254: 6252: 6244: 6239: 6232: 6227: 6225: 6223: 6215: 6210: 6208: 6200: 6195: 6188: 6184: 6179: 6172: 6168: 6163: 6156: 6152: 6147: 6140: 6136: 6133:, p. 7; 6132: 6128: 6123: 6117:, p. 155 6116: 6111: 6104: 6100: 6094: 6087: 6082: 6075: 6070: 6063: 6055: 6051: 6043: 6037: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6002: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5959: 5953:, p. 231 5952: 5947: 5940: 5935: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5909:the city-god 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5891: 5884: 5879: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5840: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5812: 5805: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5788: 5783: 5781: 5773: 5768: 5766: 5758: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5715: 5707: 5703: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5608:queen regnant 5605: 5601: 5595: 5591: 5588: 5584: 5578: 5576: 5572: 5561: 5559: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5545: 5544:Vis and Rāmin 5539: 5535: 5531: 5525: 5516: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5492: 5491:lingua franca 5488:remained the 5487: 5483: 5479: 5469: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5446: 5444: 5439: 5437: 5433: 5428: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5409: 5405: 5400: 5391: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5372:barrel vaults 5369: 5368: 5362: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5343: 5341: 5337: 5328: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5312: 5306: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5265: 5261: 5253: 5248: 5241: 5238:, modern-day 5237: 5233: 5232: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5208: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5185:Kushan Empire 5182: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5161: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5142: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5067: 5058: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4985:Greek theatre 4977: 4973: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4962: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4943:Greek culture 4936: 4932: 4928: 4923: 4909: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4897:Greek drachma 4892: 4882: 4878: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4859:war elephants 4856: 4851: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4836:Parthian shot 4833: 4829: 4828:horse archers 4825: 4821: 4805: 4804:Zahhak Castle 4798: 4789: 4782: 4774: 4770: 4763: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4737:standing army 4732: 4731:Parthian army 4722: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4688: 4684: 4682: 4678: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4639: 4629: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4574:decentralized 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4473: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4459: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4439: 4435: 4434: 4428: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4372: 4367: 4363: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4305:Geo Widengren 4302: 4293: 4289: 4287: 4283: 4278: 4274: 4273:Yazdegerd III 4270: 4269: 4268:Khwaday-Namag 4265:of Iran, the 4264: 4260: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4239:(near modern 4238: 4228: 4219: 4205: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4165:, Iran) from 4164: 4163:Fars Province 4160: 4156: 4151: 4149: 4148: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4106: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3928: 3924: 3923:Vologases III 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3896: 3891: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3862:on his head. 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3757: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3728:Roman Armenia 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3701: 3699: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3680: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3656:Roman golden 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3615:Roman embassy 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3506:taken at the 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3484: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3459:(near modern 3458: 3454: 3449: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3353: 3352:Roman emperor 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3317: 3315: 3309: 3307: 3303: 3302:Cleopatra VII 3299: 3295: 3294:Roman triumph 3289: 3287: 3286:battering ram 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3266: 3264: 3256: 3255:King of Kings 3252: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3111:in 43 BC 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3083: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3070:Parthian shot 3067: 3063: 3062:Roman legions 3059: 3058:horse archers 3055: 3050: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3025:, one of the 3024: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3001: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2910: 2906: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2836: 2835:Kushan Empire 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2595: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2569: 2568:King of Kings 2565: 2561: 2556: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2467: 2465: 2461: 2458:and occupied 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2406: 2405:Mithridates I 2402: 2399:and occupied 2398: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2373:Mithridates I 2370: 2366: 2361: 2351: 2335: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2273: 2269: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2152: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2093:Central Asian 2091:, an ancient 2090: 2086: 2080: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1933:counterattack 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1850:King of Kings 1848:were titled " 1847: 1843: 1839: 1838:Greek culture 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1766: 1765:Mithridates I 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1720: 1690: 1684: 1657: 1645: 1640: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1626: 1625: 1623: 1622: 1619: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1550: 1549: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1523: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1502: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1471: 1470:Modern period 1466: 1465: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1442:Afsharid Iran 1440: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1431:Hotak dynasty 1428: 1427: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1406: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1390: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1340: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1200: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1176: 1174: 1173:Seljuk Empire 1171: 1170: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1150: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1140: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1130: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1094: 1093:Buyid dynasty 1091: 1090: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1056: 1054: 1053:Sajid dynasty 1051: 1050: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1001: 1000: 996: 994: 991: 990: 986: 984: 981: 980: 976: 974: 971: 970: 966: 964: 961: 960: 956: 954: 951: 950: 946: 944: 941: 940: 936: 934: 931: 930: 926: 924: 921: 920: 917: 916: 910: 905: 904: 894: 892: 889: 888: 884: 882: 879: 878: 874: 872: 869: 868: 864: 862: 859: 858: 854: 852: 849: 848: 845:132 BC–224 AD 844: 842: 839: 838: 835:141 BC–222 AD 834: 832: 829: 828: 825:147 BC–224 AD 824: 822: 819: 818: 815:247 BC–224 AD 814: 812: 809: 808: 804: 802: 799: 798: 794: 792: 789: 788: 784: 782: 779: 778: 775:320s BC–17 AD 774: 772: 769: 768: 763: 323 BC 758: 756: 753: 752: 749:331 BC–428 AD 748: 746: 743: 742: 739:550 BC–330 BC 738: 736: 733: 732: 722: 720: 717: 716: 713:626 BC–539 BC 712: 710: 707: 706: 703:635 BC–550 BC 702: 700: 697: 696: 692: 690: 687: 686: 682: 680: 679:Median Empire 677: 676: 671: 666: 665: 655: 653: 650: 649: 645: 643: 640: 639: 635: 633: 630: 629: 625: 623: 620: 619: 615: 613: 610: 609: 602: 600: 597: 596: 589: 587: 584: 583: 579: 577: 574: 573: 566: 564: 561: 560: 553: 551: 548: 547: 543: 541: 538: 537: 530: 528: 524: 521: 520: 513: 511: 508: 507: 503: 501: 500:Proto-Elamite 498: 497: 493: 491: 488: 487: 482: 477: 476: 463: 461: 460:Dalma culture 458: 457: 450: 448: 445: 444: 437: 435: 432: 431: 428:20,000–10,000 424: 422: 419: 418: 415:36,000–18,000 411: 409: 406: 405: 402: 401: 395: 390: 389: 385: 381: 380: 377: 371: 370: 365: 360: 359: 339: 337: 334: 333: 330: 324: 321: 314: 313: 310: 309: 306: 303: 301: 298: 297: 293: 290: 287: 283: 279: 275: 270: 266: 262: 256: 252: 246: 242: 239: 236: 232: 229: 226: 222: 218: 212: 209: 203: 197: 194: 188: 184: 180: 178: 174: 171: 168: 165: 161: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 141: 139: 135: 128: 127: 126:lingua franca 122: 119: 116: 113: 110: 107: 106: 104: 100: 97: 93: 89: 88:Mithradatkirt 85: 81: 77: 73: 70: 66: 54: 48: 43: 40:247 BC–224 AD 38: 31: 19: 22679: 22412:Contemporary 22262:Indo-Persian 22250:Nazi Germany 22194:Contemporary 22096:Vijayanagara 21995:Great Seljuk 21906:Thessalonica 21834:Golden Horde 21474:Carthaginian 21409: 21253:Neo-Assyrian 21238:Neo-Sumerian 21116:Other topics 21100: 21028:Persian name 20967:Islamization 20909: 20869:Architecture 20822:universities 20767:Zoroastrians 20762:Christianity 20752:Baháʼí Faith 20702:Azerbaijanis 20609:Demographics 20423:Construction 20411:Central Bank 20353:Space Agency 20248:Child labour 20083:Principlists 20063:Cyberwarfare 20011:Human rights 19976:Constitution 19771:Azerbaijanis 19740:Indo-Persian 19720:Greater Iran 19591:siege (1980) 19550:1979–present 19201:early modern 19199:Medieval and 19155: 18993:Kura-Araxes 18785:Royal titles 18710:Architecture 18571: 18547:Neo-Assyrian 18394:(Pre)history 18214:Persian Gulf 18118: 18111:Ancient Rome 18100: 18082:311–129 BCE 18068: 18061:336–301 BCE 18051:539–331 BCE 18041: 18034:626–539 BCE 18025:729–609 BCE 18015:911–729 BCE 18006: 18000: 17994: 17982: 17947: 17937: 17931: 17901: 17889: 17874: 17851: 17830: 17805: 17764: 17759: 17754: 17738:Timeline of 17671: 17661: 17625:Ancient Iraq 17624: 17614: 17594: 17583: 17569: 17560: 17547: 17538: 17502: 17495: 17488: 17417:Ardashir III 17409: 17386: 17327: 17295:Roman Empire 17293: 17271: 17229:Yazdegerd II 17159: 17150:Artabanus IV 17147:Vologases VI 17138:Vologases IV 17069:Roman Empire 17067: 17052:Vologases II 17028:Artabanus II 17022:Artabanus II 17007:Tiridates II 16995:Phraates III 16962: 16961: 16898:Simon Thassi 16891: 16873:Demetrius II 16861:Antiochus IV 16852:Seleucus III 16846:Antiochus II 16833: 16823: 16820:Alexander IV 16807: 16795: 16779:Ptolemy XIII 16761:Berenice III 16755:Cleopatra IV 16696: 16693:331–141 BCE 16684: 16675: 16669: 16663: 16642:Artaxerxes I 16623: 16590: 16587:539–331 BCE 16562: 16543:Nabopolassar 16536: 16507: 16501: 16498:626–539 BCE 16466:Ashurbanipal 16421: 16420: 16414: 16377: 16374:745–609 BCE 16340: 16320:Eriba-Marduk 16281: 16235: 16210: 16178: 16177: 16167: 16156:Shoshenq III 16134: 16131:911–745 BCE 16099: 16081:Marduk-zer-X 16045: 16041:Ashur-dan II 15972:Arik-den-ili 15969:Enlil-nirari 15963:Eriba-Adad I 15956: 15949: 15926: 15907: 15902:Psusennes II 15877: 15876: 15870: 15854:Ramesses VII 15842:Ramesses III 15831: 15815: 15809: 15777: 15763: 15744: 15733:Amenhotep II 15726:Thutmose III 15700: 15694: 15691: 15642:Kurigalzu II 15636:Kara-hardash 15606:Agum-Kakrime 15597: 15576: 15570: 15538: 15521:'Aper-'Anati 15519: 15514: 15493: 15487: 15481: 15477: 15471: 15467: 15461: 15455: 15454: 15418:Damqi-ilishu 15401: 15390:Samsu-Ditana 15372:Sin-muballit 15363:Sin-muballit 15342: 15312:Ashur-rabi I 15177:Shamshi-Adad 15174: 15168: 15153: 15123: 15117: 15105:Amenemhat IV 15099:Senusret III 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history 1540:1979–present 1489:Pahlavi Iran 1452:Zand dynasty 1420:Safavid Iran 1383:Qara Qoyunlu 1273:Kurt dynasty 1113:Hasanwayhids 913: 891:Qarinvandids 810: 795:281 BC–62 BC 785:312 BC–63 BC 398: 305:Succeeded by 304: 299: 211:Artabanus IV 124: 80:Hecatompylos 22701: / 22000:Khwarezmian 21933:Carolingian 21738:Rashtrakuta 21442:Shaishunaga 21341:Hellenistic 21324:New Kingdom 21314:Old Kingdom 21133:Tehrangeles 21096:Traditional 20833:Nationality 20771:persecution 20756:persecution 20707:Circassians 20656:Neo-Aramaic 20636:Azerbaijani 20508:State-owned 20433:Health care 20396:Agriculture 20233:Brain drain 20172:Ambassadors 19867:Earthquakes 19404:Aq Qoyunlu 19353:Muzaffarid 19330:Eldiguzids 19322:Anushtegin 19148:Kingdom of 19124:Kingdom of 19116:Kingdom of 19108:Atropatene 19100:Achaemenid 19041:Kingdom of 18986:3400–539 BC 18888:Hittitology 18878:Assyriology 18799:Archaeology 18669:Old Persian 18479:Jemdet Nasr 18128:224–mid 7C 18092:129–63 BCE 18074:Macedonians 17969:city-states 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15866:Ramesses XI 15860:Ramesses IX 15851:Ramesses VI 15845:Ramesses IV 15790:Ramesses II 15753:Tutankhamun 15736:Thutmose IV 15720:Thutmose II 15654:Kudur-Enlil 15639:Nazi-Bugash 15627:Kurigalzu I 15615:Ulamburiash 15586:Amenhotep I 15567:Tutankhamun 15553:Parshatatar 15550:Shuttarna I 15483:Seventeenth 15412:Ilum-ma-ili 15387:Ammi-saduqa 15384:Ammi-ditana 15378:Samsu-iluna 15285:Erishum III 15246:Adad-salulu 15243:Ipqi-Ishtar 15231:Ashur-dugul 15216:Adad-salulu 15213:Ipqi-Ishtar 15201:Ashur-dugul 15170:Old Assyria 15165:(Amorites) 15108:Sobekneferu 15096:Senusret II 15087:Amenemhat I 15059:Sîn-iribam 15036:Sin-Iqisham 15030:Sin-Iddinam 14980:Erra-imitti 14977:Lipit-Enlil 14965:Ishme-Dagan 14962:Iddin-Dagan 14898:Shalim-ahum 14889:Old Assyria 14875:Yasmah-Adad 14852:Lim Dynasty 14844:Hanun-Dagan 14840:Hitial-Erra 14605:Ur-Ningirsu 14561:Kuda (Uruk) 14534:Ishgum-Addu 14524:Ishtup-Ilum 14376:Ishma-Dagan 14361:Shakkanakku 14339:Neferirkare 14336:Neferkauhor 14239:Ili-ishmani 14218:Manishtushu 14181:Lugalzagesi 14177:III dynasty 14161:Puzur-Nirah 13876:Ishar-Malik 13855:Shepseskare 13645:Mesannepada 13570:Nin-kisalsi 13558:Lugal-kitun 13528:Meskalamdug 13514:Ur-Pabilsag 13327:Aga of Kish 13236:Barsal-nuna 13121:Khasekhemwy 13107:Neferkara I 13086:Weneg-Nebty 13064:Nebra/Raneb 12876:Lower Egypt 12862:Scorpion II 12807:Upper Egypt 12759:, 4000 BCE) 12742:Uruk period 12534:Vologases V 12457:(78–110 AD) 12446:Vardanes II 12438:Vologases I 12414:Gotarzes II 12361:(2 BC–4 AD) 12353:(2 BC–4 AD) 12334:Phraates IV 12265:(124–91 BC) 12254:Artabanus I 12246:Phraates II 11884:Ispahbudhan 11872:Noble clans 11766:Parthia.com 10951:: 115–126, 10560:. Oakland: 10125:Curtis 2007 10111:, p. 9 10109:Curtis 2007 10089:Curtis 2007 10053:Curtis 2007 10041:Curtis 2007 9916:Curtis 2007 9880:Curtis 2007 9476:Curtis 2007 9460:Curtis 2007 9445:Curtis 2007 9433:Curtis 2007 9413:Curtis 2007 9373:Curtis 2007 9361:Curtis 2007 8990:Curtis 2007 8857:Watson 1983 8507:Curtis 2007 8422:Curtis 2007 8402:Curtis 2007 8314:Curtis 2007 8278:Curtis 2007 8143:Curtis 2007 7841:Watson 1983 7829:Watson 1983 7653:Curtis 2007 7589:Roller 2010 7577:Roller 2010 7538:Roller 2010 7522:Curtis 2007 7200:Curtis 2007 7112:Cassius Dio 6947:Howard 2012 6863:Watson 1983 6804:Curtis 2007 6788:Curtis 2007 6728:Curtis 2007 6660:Torday 1997 6612:Curtis 2007 6588:Curtis 2007 6453:Curtis 2007 6430:Curtis 2007 6287:, p. 8 6285:Curtis 2007 6216:, p. 7 6214:Curtis 2007 6183:Curtis 2007 6131:Curtis 2007 6074:Waters 1974 5869:Khwarezmian 5829:Eisenbrauns 5787:Canepa 2018 5616:Phraates II 5458:pointy hats 5298:portraiture 5281:, and even 5275:investiture 5169:Manichaeism 5099:Ahura Mazda 4990:The Bacchae 4949:during the 4935:philhellene 4905:royal mints 4901:tetradrachm 4873:during the 4871:Vologases I 4867:Cassius Dio 4820:cataphracts 4745:mercenaries 4703:Poseidonius 4698:Geographica 4670:is said by 4490:Hou Han shu 4404:Cassius Dio 3915:Rock relief 3900:cataphracts 3785:Rhadamistus 3765:Verethragna 3540:Gotarzes II 3523:Mithridates 3385:breastplate 3370:breastplate 3314:Artaxias II 3247:Phraates IV 3245:Drachma of 3232:Phraates IV 3215:(in modern 3186:Hyrcanus II 3151:Mark Antony 3099:(left) and 3097:Mark Antony 3054:cataphracts 2982:Roman Syria 2959:client king 2833:The Yuezhi 2654:Hyspaosines 2626:Han dynasty 2604:Artabanus I 2558:Drachma of 2529:Phraates II 2464:Indus River 2448:investiture 2440:Mesopotamia 2389:Philhellene 2385:Verethragna 2253:Diodotus II 2051:The silver 2022:, but also 1947:, ruler of 1929:Mark Antony 1905:tributaries 1834:Hellenistic 1811:Han dynasty 1795:Afghanistan 1787:Mesopotamia 1263:Mihrabanids 1223:Hazaraspids 983:Baduspanids 861:Paratarajas 855:19 AD–224/5 373:History of 300:Preceded by 228:Megisthanes 224:Legislature 22716:Categories 22689:44°34′51″E 22686:33°05′37″N 22570:Portuguese 22451:Revival Le 22441:Vietnamese 22084:Later Tran 22054:Vietnamese 21950:Singhasari 21938:Holy Roman 21562:Bulgarian 21498:Satavahana 21469:Phoenician 21405:Achaemenid 21366:Indo-Greek 21346:Macedonian 21260:Babylonian 21033:Philosophy 20992:newspapers 20973:Literature 20878:architects 20873:Achaemenid 20793:Corruption 20253:Corruption 20093:Reformists 20088:Propaganda 19986:Corruption 19971:Censorship 19914:Lake Urmia 19602:Iran–Iraq 19298:Ghaznavid 19176:AD 224–651 19140:Frataraka 18972:Prehistory 18852:Divination 18562:Achaemenid 18527:Isin-Larsa 18420:Trialetian 18415:Mousterian 18402:Prehistory 17852:and other 17831:and other 17441:Khosrow IV 17438:Hormizd VI 17420:Shahrbaraz 17397:Khosrow II 17382:Shahrbaraz 17376:Shahrbaraz 17256:Khosrow II 17253:Hormizd IV 17211:Shapur III 17199:Hormizd II 17193:Bahram III 17178:Ardashir I 17049:Pacorus II 17040:Vonones II 17037:Meherdates 17031:Vardanes I 17016:Orodes III 17013:Phraates V 16992:Sinatruces 16840:Seleucus I 16817:Philip III 16791:Arsinoe IV 16716:Arsinoe II 16657:Darius III 16523:Psamtik II 16463:Esarhaddon 16356:Ummanigash 16326:Nabonassar 16220:Bakenranef 16191:Pedubast I 16188:Takelot II 16185:Harsiese A 16173:Osorkon IV 16165:Shoshenq V 16153:Osorkon II 16141:Shoshenq I 15887:Amenemnisu 15863:Ramesses X 15848:Ramesses V 15796:Amenmesses 15784:Ramesses I 15746:Smenkhkare 15723:Hatshepsut 15717:Thutmose I 15621:Karaindash 15360:Sumu-la-El 15192:Mut-Ashkur 15183:(Amorites) 15090:Senusret I 15049:Rim-Sin II 15039:Silli-Adad 15033:Sin-Eribam 14995:Suen-magir 14992:Ur-du-kuga 14989:Iter-pisha 14983:Enlil-bani 14971:Ur-Ninurta 14959:Shu-Ilishu 14956:Ishbi-Erra 14926:Erishum II 14872:Yahdun-Lim 14869:Yaggid-Lim 14682:Tura-Dagan 14661:Utu-hengal 14637:Meryhathor 14613:Nam-mahani 14579:II dynasty 14548:(21 kings) 14442:Puzer-Mama 14438:II dynasty 14420:IV dynasty 14333:Neferkaure 14330:Qakare Ibi 14321:Neferkahor 14312:Neferkamin 14231:Ilshu-rabi 14122:Ishqi-Mari 14118:Ikun-Ishar 14114:Enna-Dagan 14034:II dynasty 14008:Bara-irnun 13963:Puzur-Suen 13959:IV dynasty 13951:Irkab-Damu 13896:(3 kings) 13822:Ukkutahesh 13795:Meskiagnun 13791:A'annepada 13738:II dynasty 13633:Thamphthis 13629:Shepseskaf 13578:Lugal-dalu 13477:Udulkalama 13457:II dynasty 13399:Sekhemkhet 13307:Lugalbanda 13233:Melem-Kish 13229:En-me-nuna 13014:Canaanites 13008:Horus Bird 12973:Neithhotep 12846:Scorpion I 12796:Naqada III 12473:(79–81 AD) 12465:(78–80 AD) 12454:Pacorus II 12449:(55–58 AD) 12441:(51–78 AD) 12430:Vonones II 12425:(49–51 AD) 12422:Meherdates 12417:(40–51 AD) 12409:(40–46 AD) 12406:Vardanes I 12393:(35–36 AD) 12385:(12–35 AD) 12366:Orodes III 12358:Phraates V 12321:(57–38 BC) 12313:(57–54 BC) 12305:(69–57 BC) 12297:(75–69 BC) 12294:Sinatruces 12289:(80–75 BC) 12281:(87–80 BC) 12270:Gotarzes I 12230:Phraates I 12222:Priapatius 12214:Arsaces II 11899:Spandiyadh 11662:2019-02-10 10173:Boyce 1983 10161:Boyce 1983 10149:Boyce 1983 10029:Bivar 1983 9765:Zhang 2002 9737:Bivar 1983 9701:Bivar 1983 9673:Colpe 1983 9645:Colpe 1983 9504:Bivar 1983 9128:2017-09-11 8845:Posch 1998 8833:Posch 1998 8750:Bivar 1983 8734:Bivar 1983 8635:Boyce 1983 8523:Bivar 1983 8503:Bivar 1983 8447:Bivar 1983 8426:Bivar 1983 8406:Bivar 1983 8390:Bivar 1983 8374:Bivar 1983 8362:Bivar 1983 8350:Bivar 1983 8306:Bivar 1983 8274:Bivar 1983 8262:Bivar 1983 8246:Bivar 1983 8222:Bivar 1983 8175:Bivar 1983 8163:Bivar 1983 8139:Bivar 1983 8127:Bivar 1983 8039:Bivar 1983 8027:Bivar 1983 8011:Bivar 1983 7999:Bivar 1983 7987:Bivar 1983 7963:Bivar 1983 7943:Bivar 1983 7931:Bivar 1983 7901:Mawer 2013 7897:Young 2001 7814:Bivar 1983 7802:Bivar 1983 7790:Bivar 1983 7778:Bivar 1983 7753:Bivar 1983 7741:Bivar 1983 7729:Bivar 1983 7717:Bivar 1983 7701:Bivar 1983 7681:Bivar 1983 7665:Bivar 1983 7649:Bivar 1983 7633:Bivar 1983 7605:Bivar 1983 7565:Bivar 1983 7514:Bivar 1983 7502:Bivar 1983 7486:Bivar 1983 7450:Bivar 1983 7426:Bivar 1983 7411:Bivar 1983 7379:Bivar 1983 7358:Bivar 1983 7346:Bivar 1983 7314:Bivar 1983 7283:Bivar 1983 7267:Bivar 1983 7239:Bivar 1983 7227:Bivar 1983 7212:Bivar 1983 7188:Bivar 1983 7172:Bivar 1983 7160:Bivar 1983 7144:Bivar 1983 7128:Bivar 1983 7108:Bivar 1983 7096:Bivar 1983 7080:Bivar 1983 7068:Bivar 1983 7009:Assar 2006 6931:Ebrey 1999 6847:Bivar 1983 6835:Bivar 2007 6820:Bivar 1983 6784:Bivar 1983 6756:Bivar 1983 6744:Bivar 1983 6720:Bivar 1983 6704:Bivar 1983 6676:Bivar 1983 6636:Bivar 1983 6608:Bivar 1983 6584:Bivar 1983 6568:Bivar 1983 6552:Bivar 1983 6525:Bivar 1983 6481:Bivar 1983 6461:Bivar 1983 6434:Bivar 1983 6414:Bivar 1983 6402:Bivar 1983 6386:Bivar 1983 6366:Bivar 1983 6324:Bivar 1983 6312:Bivar 1983 6270:Bivar 1983 6199:Bivar 1983 6167:Bivar 1983 6151:Bivar 1983 6135:Bivar 1983 5975:(2): 223. 5897:, p. 5804:Green 1992 5721:. p. 5602:and queen 5573:and their 5549:epic cycle 5462:Persepolis 5347:Achaemenid 5087:Christians 5085:and early 4999:stage-prop 4788:cataphract 4668:Queen Musa 4664:polygamous 4598:Atropatene 4556:, king of 4487:, and the 4436:(Chinese: 4190:Khosrau II 4159:Ardashir I 4081:(possibly 3963:Meharaspes 3895:sagittarii 3884:Nabataeans 3779:After the 3658:medallions 3632:(northern 3628:by way of 3583:Pacorus II 3552:Meherdates 3536:Vardanes I 3422:Phraates V 3338:after the 3326:Pax Romana 3298:Alexandria 3274:Atropatene 3011:, who was 2905:Sinatruces 2886:Gotarzes I 2732:Han Empire 2720:Zhang Qian 2701:Vardanes I 2666:suzerainty 2491:coronation 2483:Gotarzes I 2346: 176 2334:Phraates I 2328: 191 2316:Priapatius 2245:Diodotus I 2160:Andragoras 2145:Babylonian 2069: 247 1996:Achaemenid 1945:Ardashir I 1925:the Romans 1876:(south of 1872:along the 1777: 171 1757:Andragoras 1741:conquering 1479:Qajar Iran 1393:Aq Qoyunlu 1377:1370s–1592 1213:Salghurids 1193:Eldiguzids 1163:Shabankara 1137:990/1–1117 881:Zarmihrids 801:Fratarakas 755:Atropatene 693:652–625 BC 683:678–550 BC 163:Government 117:(official) 22563:Couronian 22201:Ethiopian 22189:Manchukuo 22144:Brazilian 21990:Ghaznavid 21960:Srivijaya 21911:Trebizond 21896:Byzantine 21878:North Sea 21873:Norwegian 21861:Almoravid 21844:Ilkhanate 21814:Majapahit 21787:Muromachi 21696:Solomonic 21681:Ethiopian 21595:Caliphate 21528:Aragonese 21356:Ptolemaic 20998:Mythology 20904:Calendars 20894:Astronomy 20803:Education 20712:Georgians 20697:Assyrians 20692:Armenians 20618:Languages 20510:companies 20473:Transport 20453:Petroleum 20238:Companies 20177:President 20164:Officials 20098:Terrorism 20047:Air Force 19991:Elections 19929:Provinces 19924:Mountains 19834:Geography 19754:languages 19492:1925–1979 19420:Afsharid 19381:1370–1925 19369:Chobanid 19263:Saffarid 19215:Rashidun 19183:Sasanian 19164:Kings of 19156:Parthian 19132:Seleucid 19073:Scythian 19033:Kassites 19017:Akkadian 18725:Cuneiform 18601:Languages 18410:Acheulean 18297:Babylonia 18234:Euphrates 18184:Geography 18043:Chaldeans 17960:Phoenicia 17898:Karduniaš 17553:Hallo, W. 17450:Peroz III 17284:Antiochus 17250:Khosrow I 17220:Shapur IV 17214:Bahram IV 17205:Shapur II 17190:Bahram II 17184:Hormizd I 17141:Osroes II 17019:Vonones I 17001:Orodes II 16977:Artabanus 16645:Darius II 16572:Phraortes 16558:Nabonidus 16529:Ahmose II 16517:Psamtik I 16410:Tanutamun 16259:(regent) 16150:Takelot I 16144:Osorkon I 15909:Phoenicia 15893:Amenemope 15839:Setnakhte 15793:Merneptah 15742:Akhenaten 15525:Sakir-Har 15463:Sixteenth 15442:Akurduana 15428:Gulkishar 15425:Shushushi 15381:Abi-eshuh 15375:Hammurabi 15357:Sumu-abum 15279:Shu-Ninua 15270:Iptar-Sin 15240:Sin-namir 15237:Nasir-Sin 15228:Puzur-Sin 15210:Sin-namir 15207:Nasir-Sin 15061:Sîn-gāmil 15057:Sîn-kāšid 15045:Rim-Sin I 15042:Warad-Sin 14922:Naram-Sin 14906:Erishum I 14902:Ilu-shuma 14878:Zimri-Lim 14826:Indilimma 14813:Ibbit-Lim 14783:Intef III 14746:invasions 14733:invasions 14678:Ili-Ishar 14674:Iddi-ilum 14667:2100 BCE 14657:V dynasty 14627:2125 BCE 14565:Puzur-ili 14552:La-erabum 14486:2150 BCE 14412:Shu-turul 14405:(3 years) 14372:Shu-Dagan 14272:2200 BCE 14249:Naram-Sin 14245:2250 BCE 14189:2340 BCE 14155:2350 BCE 14149:Luh-ishan 14144:Urukagina 14140:Lugalanda 14109:Isar-Damu 14105:2370 BCE 14051:2380 BCE 14026:Enentarzi 14014:Enannatum 14003:Gishakidu 13967:Ur-Zababa 13943:Adub-Damu 13939:2400 BCE 13912:2425 BCE 13906:Napilhush 13894:invasions 13872:Enar-Damu 13852:Neferefre 13832:2450 BCE 13775:Ur-Nanshe 13770:I dynasty 13757:I dynasty 13698:Ikun-Mari 13657:Phoenicia 13653:2500 BCE 13586:2575 BCE 13554:Melamanna 13538:Akalamdug 13510:A-Imdugud 13473:Ur-Nungal 13460:(5 kings) 13447:Baba-Damu 13443:Ibbi-Damu 13372:2600 BCE 13342:Gilgamesh 13300:Iltasadum 13271:2700 BCE 13245:I dynasty 13198:2800 BCE 13161:I dynasty 13117:Hudjefa I 13050:2900 BCE 12996:Semerkhet 12988:(regent) 12975:(regent) 12882:Hedju Hor 12710:Naqada II 12526:Osroes II 12377:(6–12 AD) 12374:Vonones I 12337:(37–2 BC) 12326:Pacorus I 12318:Orodes II 12206:Arsaces I 11397:(2002) , 11237:161619682 11114:: 91–106. 11032:(2004) , 10973:162863957 10834:, Brill, 10664:: 17–27. 10334:1128-6342 9276:Kurz 1983 9201:Wang 2007 8913:Wang 2007 8893:Wang 2007 8881:Wang 2007 8869:Wang 2007 8762:Kurz 1983 8535:Frye 1983 8079:Kurz 1983 7905:Ball 2016 7865:Wood 2002 7853:Wang 2007 7399:Syme 2002 6919:Kurz 1983 6907:Wang 2007 6115:Ball 2016 5981:1076-156X 5747:Ctesiphon 5739:Parthians 5480:as their 5340:Mithraeum 5189:An Shigao 5183:from the 5163:Although 5150:Zoroaster 5111:Aphrodite 5041:" of the 4995:Euripides 4947:Near East 4941:Although 4786:Parthian 4767:Parthian 4695:, in his 4507:Han court 4467:Sima Qian 4317:parchment 4309:cuneiform 4247:) in the 4198:Heraclius 4122:Caracalla 3996:Eutropius 3992:Parthicus 3880:Euphrates 3697:Geography 3674:Cattigara 3477:Aramaeans 3438:Vonones I 3332:Cleopatra 3027:triumvirs 2894:Orodes II 2856:Euphrates 2844:proconsul 2740:Silk Road 2650:Characene 2642:Silk Road 2634:Mawangdui 2537:Great Zab 2475:Ctesiphon 2456:Characene 2436:Babylonia 2432:Timarchus 2416:eparchies 2294:victories 2268:Apasiacae 2095:tribe of 2085:Arsaces I 2057:Arsaces I 2012:parchment 2000:cuneiform 1903:as their 1889:Scythians 1885:Seleucids 1870:Ctesiphon 1799:Silk Road 1791:Euphrates 1739:tribe in 1733:Arsaces I 1493:1925–1979 1483:1789–1925 1456:1751–1794 1446:1736–1796 1436:1722–1729 1424:1501–1736 1397:1468–1508 1387:1406–1468 1367:1370–1507 1357:1359–1596 1353:Mar'ashis 1347:1349–1504 1337:1335–1357 1327:1337–1376 1323:Sarbadars 1317:1337–1376 1307:1335–1393 1297:1335–1357 1287:1256–1335 1277:1244–1396 1267:1236–1537 1257:1223-1306 1247:1184-1597 1237:1155–1231 1227:1155–1424 1217:1148–1282 1207:1141–1319 1197:1135–1225 1187:1077–1231 1177:1037–1194 1167:1030–1355 1157:1029–1236 1147:1008–1141 993:Justanids 963:Bavandids 831:Characene 593:1500–1155 580:2400–2150 570:2400–1700 557:2550-2020 517:3100–2200 504:3200–2700 494:3400–2000 441:6000–5000 196:Arsaces I 137:Religion 72:Ctesiphon 22543:Japanese 22506:Scottish 22486:American 22478:Colonial 22407:Imperial 22375:Moroccan 22311:Japanese 22289:Afsharid 22148:Burmese 22134:Austrian 22089:Later Le 22064:Early Le 22049:Venetian 21975:Tiwanaku 21888:Hellenic 21851:Moroccan 21782:Kamakura 21772:Japanese 21755:Saffarid 21708:Georgian 21622:Chalukya 21600:Rashidun 21590:Calakmul 21558:Bruneian 21437:Haryanka 21415:Sasanian 21410:Parthian 21361:Bactrian 21351:Seleucid 21331:Goguryeo 21309:Egyptian 21243:Assyrian 21233:Akkadian 21224:Colonies 21159:Category 21052:football 21043:Scouting 20953:Iranians 20943:Folklore 20739:Religion 20651:Georgian 20631:Armenian 20492:shipping 20487:railways 20477:airlines 20443:Industry 20308:Taxation 20122:Councils 20038:Military 19953:Politics 19934:Wildlife 19899:Caucasus 19781:Persians 19708:See also 19532:Iranian 19499:Pahlavi 19412:Safavid 19388:Timurid 19291:977–1432 19271:Ziyarid 19247:Tahirid 19239:Samanid 19231:Abbasid 19223:Umayyad 19208:632–1090 19025:Lullubi 19009:Elamite 18871:Academia 18825:Religion 18694:Urartian 18689:Sumerian 18674:Parthian 18609:Akkadian 18582:Sasanian 18572:Parthian 18567:Seleucid 18517:Simurrum 18507:Akkadian 18440:Khiamian 18430:Natufian 18342:Simurrum 18327:Kassites 18322:Hittites 18277:Adiabene 17984:Arameans 17978:Damascus 17949:Arameans 17903:Kassites 17891:Hurrians 17669:(2014). 17622:(1992). 17592:(2020). 17559:(1971). 17400:Kavad II 17226:Bahram V 17187:Bahram I 17181:Shapur I 17058:Osroes I 16989:Orodes I 16983:Gotarzes 16971:Phraates 16636:Darius I 16633:Cambyses 16581:Astyages 16578:Cyaxares 16520:Necho II 16451:Bel-ibni 16401:Shebitku 16364:Indabibi 16217:Tefnakht 15759:Horemheb 15618:Agum III 15600:Kassites 15583:Ahmose I 15448:Ea-gamil 15432:DIŠ+U-EN 15422:Ishkibal 15369:Apil-Sin 15351:Amorites 15261:Bel-bani 15136:Biblical 15027:Nur-Adad 15018:Gungunum 15006:Naplanum 14974:Bur-Suen 14938:Amorites 14914:Sargon I 14864:Amorites 14808:Amorites 14780:Intef II 14750:Kindattu 14738:Ibbi-Sin 14717:Amar-Sin 14711:Ur-Nammu 14646:Merykare 14538:Apil-kin 14450:Pirig-me 14428:Ur-gigir 14424:Ur-nigin 14364:dynasty) 14309:Merenhor 14235:Epirmupi 14064:Userkare 14018:Entemena 13995:Ur-Lumma 13990:Meskigal 13921:Eannatum 13916:Kun-Damu 13900:Shushun- 13885:Enakalle 13744:kushanna 13730:Undalulu 13702:Iblul-Il 13626:Menkaure 13622:Bikheris 13615:Djedefre 13574:Me-durba 13499:shaengur 13493:En-hegal 13481:Labashum 13439:Agur-lim 13435:Abur-lim 13414:Qahedjet 13259:Enmerkar 13091:Wadjenes 13081:Horus Sa 13076:Nubnefer 13067:Nynetjer 13041:Susa III 13003:Sneferka 12986:Merneith 12704:Naqada I 12529:(191 AD) 12505:(116 AD) 12478:Osroes I 12369:(4–6 AD) 12286:Orodes I 11945:Language 11858:Chosroid 11673:(1986). 11638:(2012). 11302:: 83–103 11229:25203669 11108:Anabasis 10670:24049232 10556:(2018). 10209:Archived 9122:Archived 7116:Plutarch 6099:Khurasan 6058:𐭀𐭓𐭔𐭊 6054:Parthian 5985:Archived 5921:, while 5861:Parthian 5819:(1997). 5626:See also 5587:hetairas 5530:minstrel 5504:Akkadian 5484:, while 5472:Language 5454:kyrbasia 5452:(Greek: 5311:de facto 5283:graffiti 5181:Buddhism 5173:Mandaean 5061:Religion 5013:, where 5003:Pentheus 5001:head of 4970:language 4931:omphalos 4925:Coin of 4885:Currency 4725:Military 4719:Plutarch 4713:and the 4672:Josephus 4632:Nobility 4606:Adiabene 4602:Gordyene 4560:(modern 4552:Coin of 4527:Aghbania 4485:Ban Zhao 4477:Ban Biao 4420:Herodian 4412:Josephus 4400:Plutarch 4353:, Iran, 4347:oil lamp 4138:Macrinus 4083:smallpox 3947:Axidares 3943:Sanatruk 3919:Behistun 3809:Georgian 3761:Herakles 3654:Antonine 3579:Gan Ying 3571:Ban Chao 3564:Adiabene 3544:Claudius 3515:Tiberius 3496:Augustus 3492:denarius 3461:Fallujah 3457:Nehardea 3430:Josephus 3399:lost by 3393:Augustus 3344:Augustus 3276:(modern 3162:Anatolia 3155:Octavian 3101:Octavian 3033:(modern 2963:Corduene 2951:Artaxata 2928:Lucullus 2852:Orobazus 2628:Chinese 2616:Sakastan 2469:Whereas 2444:Seleucia 2428:Ecbatana 2381:Heracles 2303:basileus 2225:Hyrcania 2129:Parthian 1992:Sasanian 1984:Parthian 1941:Seleucia 1809:and the 1607:Timeline 1565:Monarchs 1143:Kakuyids 1133:Annazids 1127:977–1186 1117:959–1095 1107:955–1070 1097:934–1062 1083:Ilyasids 1077:930–1090 1067:919–1062 1037:861–1003 987:665–1598 967:651–1349 953:Dabuyids 947:750–1258 606:1500–500 586:Kassites 544:2700–539 534:3100-675 400:BCE / BC 364:a series 362:Part of 285:Currency 170:monarchy 154:Buddhism 109:Parthian 76:Ecbatana 22610:largest 22605:Empires 22585:Swedish 22580:Spanish 22575:Russian 22538:Italian 22513:Chinese 22501:English 22496:British 22491:Belgian 22466:Vietnam 22456:Tay son 22402:Tsarist 22397:Russian 22392:Ottoman 22358:Dzungar 22353:Khoshut 22326:Mexican 22321:Maratha 22304:Pahlavi 22284:Safavid 22279:Iranian 22206:Haitian 22169:Chinese 22129:Ashanti 22101:Wagadou 22027:Eastern 22022:Western 22005:Timurid 21965:Tibetan 21955:Songhai 21945:Serbian 21866:Almohad 21856:Idrisid 21760:Samanid 21750:Tahirid 21745:Iranian 21723:Kannauj 21703:Genoese 21639:Chinese 21632:Eastern 21627:Western 21615:Fatimid 21610:Abbasid 21605:Umayyad 21578:Burmese 21538:Ayyubid 21533:Angevin 21503:Xianbei 21491:Eastern 21486:Western 21432:Magadha 21395:Iranian 21388:Xiongnu 21373:Hittite 21282:Chinese 21270:Kassite 21219:Ancient 21211:Empires 21102:Ey Iran 21050: ( 21010: ( 20986:student 20984: ( 20980: ( 20965: ( 20933:Cuisine 20918:Fashion 20906: ( 20886: ( 20871: ( 20857:Culture 20805: ( 20769: ( 20754: ( 20727:Turkmen 20679: ( 20670:Peoples 20641:Kurdish 20597:Society 20498:Tourism 20475: ( 20465: ( 20455: ( 20435: ( 20428:Defense 20398: ( 20388:Sectors 20375: ( 20335: ( 20240: ( 20221:General 20210:Economy 20100: ( 20070: ( 20040: ( 19993: ( 19978: ( 19964:General 19919:Islands 19855:largest 19845:Borders 19314:Seljuk 19306:Ghurid 19255:Alavid 19065:Median 19057:Urartu 18979:Ancient 18959:History 18857:Prayers 18842:Deities 18806:Looting 18649:Kassite 18644:Hurrian 18639:Hittite 18629:Elamite 18624:Eblaite 18619:Aramaic 18614:Amorite 18537:Kassite 18512:Gutians 18494:History 18459:Samarra 18455:Hassuna 18425:Zarzian 18347:Subartu 18337:Mitanni 18302:Chaldea 18292:Assyria 18265:Ancient 17886:Mitanni 17854:Amorite 17833:Amorite 17807:Gutians 17453:Narsieh 17281:Zenobia 17262:Vistahm 17247:Kavad I 17241:Kavad I 17235:Peroz I 17223:Khosrow 16569:Deioces 16526:Wahibre 16514:Necho I 16407:Taharqa 16404:Shabaka 16388:Taharqa 16352:Teumman 16203:Rudamun 15945:Solomon 15884:Smendes 15805:Twosret 15799:Seti II 15540:Mitanni 15534:Khamudi 15488:Dynasty 15478:Dynasty 15468:Dynasty 15306:Nur-ili 15276:Lullaya 15179:dynasty 15131:Abraham 15021:Abisare 14986:Zambiya 14880:(Queen 14832:Amorite 14803:Kingdom 14777:Intef I 14744:Elamite 14731:Amorite 14720:Shu-Sin 14621:Tirigan 14590:Ur-Baba 14520:Nûr-Mêr 14458:Lu-gula 14454:Lu-Baba 14368:Ididish 14349:Kingdom 14346:Eblaite 14344:Second 14294:Menkare 14169:Shu-Sin 14165:Ishu-Il 14093:dynasty 14073:Pepi II 14006:(Queen 13892:Elamite 13843:Userkaf 13786:Akurgal 13715:Ku-Baba 13531:(Queen 13467:Mesilim 13402:Sanakht 13392:(First 13209:Zuqaqip 13206:Kalumum 13191:Kalibum 13187:Puannum 13144:Kingdom 12993:Anedjib 12977:Hor-Aha 12922:Nat-Hor 12855:Iry-Hor 12851:Shendjw 12823:Pen-Abu 12771:Susa II 12433:(51 AD) 12345:(32 BC) 12329:(39 BC) 12190:of the 12092:Parthia 12085:Related 11935:Coinage 11923:Culture 11843:Armenia 11836:Dynasty 11810:Origins 11727:: 40–59 11553:(ed.). 11497:(ed.). 11468:(ed.). 11354:(ed.). 11255:(ed.). 11182:(ed.). 11074:(ed.). 10984:(ed.). 10918:(ed.). 10786:(ed.). 10756:(ed.). 10701:(ed.). 10593:(ed.). 10466:(ed.). 10418:(ed.). 10389:(ed.). 10289:(ed.). 7881:Yü 1986 7845:Yü 1986 6935:An 2002 6052:, from 6050:Arsakēs 6046:Ἀρσάκης 6028:1170959 5927:Shamash 5907:Babylon 5865:Sogdian 5853:scripts 5849:Aramaic 5749:on the 5743:nomadic 5647:Parthia 5551:of the 5486:Aramaic 5450:bashlyk 5436:Palmyra 5325:at the 5291:plaster 5279:frescos 5269:Common 5205:Chinese 5193:Luoyang 5135:Shamash 5119:Anahita 5079:Iranian 4863:Tacitus 4656:Palmyra 4622:Elymais 4594:Armenia 4586:eparchy 4582:satrapy 4578:marzbān 4558:Elymais 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