1982:
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1030:, as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As the political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as
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858:
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in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I, the ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing a viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded.
2375:
2077:. It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the Stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These Stelae's are also called "Obelisk's," they are located in the Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under the surface of the site.
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1958:(approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to the coin after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument of
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905:. Excavations on Beta Giyorgis, a hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the 7th to 4th centuries BC. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area.
963:'s geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and a organized military.
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capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these
Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later
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1096:. Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king
1841:
a considerable impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout
Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity."
2050:
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959:, itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During the 2nd century AD,
2232:, the capital of Kush. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system.
1129:, who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as the coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia.
1860:, and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity. However, the Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into
1608:, as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power.
838:
suggested as the reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and through uncertain circumstances, the kingdom collapsed around 960. Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the
Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Late Middle Ages.
2270:, and reached crisis levels after 700. Additional socioeconomic contingencies presumably compounded the problem: these are traditionally reflected in a decline in maintenance, the deterioration and partial abandonment of marginal crop lands, shifts toward more destructive exploitation of pasture land—and ultimately wholesale, irreversible
1422:, but remained unanswered. She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem. Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by
940:. The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had a Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time. It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental
2161:, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded:
2215:
soon became the main port for the export of
African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of
1844:
Before converting to
Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit". Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was
1835:
argues that with
Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that
1280:
for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe
Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and their tributaries. While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the
1042:
described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the
Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides
3623:
According to Munro-Hay, "The arrival of
Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Geʽez and the
2262:
As international profits from the exchange network declined, Aksum lost control over its raw material sources, and that network collapsed. The persistent environmental pressure on a large population needing to maintain a high level of regional food production intensified, which resulted in a wave of
2207:
In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of the most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea
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Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and a parapet
1840:
BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had
1591:
A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played a crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East.
1066:
became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 AD. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural
913:
concludes that; "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'King-of-Kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There
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The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the 7th century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in the Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been
2069:
The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would
1997:
built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls
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from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence is considered to have been minor. The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their
5138:
The Encyclopædia Britannica: The New Volumes, Constituting, in Combination with the Twenty-nine Volumes of the Eleventh Edition, the Twelfth Edition of that Work, and Also Supplying a New, Distinctive, and Independent Library of Reference Dealing with Events and Developments of the Period 1910 to
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Askum was also located on a plateau 2,000 m (6,600 ft) feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung
2005:
Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases,
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and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for the decline of the culture. The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly
1757:
and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the 6th century literary translations into Geʿez were common. After the 7th century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely.
1604:, emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included the African oil crop,
908:
Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BC and 150 AD. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in the early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here
1853:. Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire. We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross.
1246:. Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in the early 8th century.
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measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank.
914:
is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it is quite possible that at the death of a King-of-Kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture."
2255:
improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without the aid of irrigation).
2274:. This decline was possibly accelerated by an apparent decline in the reliability of rainfall beginning between 730 and 760, presumably with the result that an abbreviated modern growing season was reestablished during the 9th century.
2188:. By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea from
978:
dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with the title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR
1083:
documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the
2195:
Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period.
2148:
The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat,
2259:
commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into the moister, more fertile, and naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of Aksumite power.
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1915:
migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither the Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. A
2032:
for an example). The largest of these structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger.
1183:, capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general
5515:
1657:. Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the
1359:" defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors.
1406:. Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area. Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly
2002:) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on the exterior and sometimes the interior.
4644:
Evetts, B.: "History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria", by Sawirus ibn al-Mukaffa', bishop of al-Ashmunien, Vol I, IV, Menas I to Joseph, PO X fasc. 5. pp 375-551, Paris, 1904
1568:, were situated in the Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea. According to
2172:. This change took place around the start of the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea was of secondary importance to the
3736:
Turchin, Peter and Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall: "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States", p. 222. Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol. XII, No. II, 2006
1210:
Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of
1501:
with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within the southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom. Aksum also had a sizeable
3624:
other Ethiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."
1160:
continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor
5758:
Late Antique Arabia Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar, Rehabilitation of a 'Decadent' Society, Excavations of the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg 1998–2010 in the Highlands of the Yemen
5699:
897:
The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from a modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at
1253:
nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the
1745:, was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian language
970:
and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings
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religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. In the
1449:. It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at
4016:
Derat, Marie-Laure (2020). "Before the Solomonids: Crisis, Renaissance and the Emergence of the Zagwe Dynasty (Seventh–Thirteenth Centuries)". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.).
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to orchestrate the pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in
2374:
826:. With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum was at its largest territorial extent, being around 2,500,000 km. However, the territory was lost in the
1528:
Aksumite settlements were distributed across a significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeastern
1824:
1191:, these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.
1005:, in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the
252:
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south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called
2434:
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1981:
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1092:. According to the inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the
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times. Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions.
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2180:. Starting around 1st century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the
756:
until a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance pushed them out. Aksum-Himyar conflicts persisted throughout the 3rd century. During the reign of
3410:
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explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to
2137:
and spices. Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African (
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2506:
1249:
The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the
4094:
Fritsch, Emmanuel; Kidane, Habtemichael (2020). "The Medieval Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Its Liturgy". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.).
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724:(c. 200–230), who was the first king to be involved In South Arabian affairs. His reign resulted in the control of much of western
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2093:) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various Islamic
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and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at
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1548:. In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near the
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1868:. Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in the
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highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the
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Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in
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ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her
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1309:(830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains. Under the reign of
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Keeper of the Ark (a Moses Trilogy): For the Love of Moses, for the Children of Moses, for the Children of God
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3664:"The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century"
3223:
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1917:
1715:
became the official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significant
1688:(granted autonomy from the Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the
1552:. Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to the
1141:
after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to
631:
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led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to
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is the ruler in the first book; he passes his sovereignty onto his son Gebre Meskal, who rules during the
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corridor. By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The
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Before the establishment of Axum, the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known as
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1038:, boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In the early 6th century,
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1313:, during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of
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3852:, The Cambridge World History, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 631–661,
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1556:, forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port of
1419:
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1137:("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named
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in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However,
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Maṭarā. — Deuxième, troisième et quatrième campagnes de fouilles. In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 6
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Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa (1981).
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2041:. Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof.
1999:
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note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be the
1454:
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891:
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believed that the word Aksum is of Semitic root and means a green and dense garden, full of grass.
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17:
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995:) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the
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under Ezana in 330 for a short period of time and inheriting from it the Greek exonym "Ethiopia".
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3243:
1363:
sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian
1289:
was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern
4427:
4194:
3907:
Butzer, Karl W. (1981). "Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation".
3850:
The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE
1540:
regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such as
7263:
7164:
7159:
6847:
6795:
6715:
6648:
6552:
6537:
6430:
6197:
6151:
5992:
5879:
3976:
3213:
3124:
2199:
2028:
surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see
1971:
1669:
1635:
1235:
1204:
622:
409:
75:
5327:
5223:
5167:
American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division; Irving Kaplan (1964).
4748:
4721:
4694:
4653:
Werner J. Lange, "History of the Southern Gonga (southwestern Ethiopia)", Steiner, 1982, p. 18
2554:
2542:
1218:. Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early
7194:
7154:
6967:
6842:
5906:
5896:
5855:
5826:
5384:
5300:
4667:
3576:
2901:
2054:
2007:
1924:
dated to the mid 9th century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum.
1639:
1494:
1415:
1039:
1002:
997:
7082:
2362:
928:, a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside
7287:
7117:
7087:
6962:
6893:
6864:
6783:
6117:
5955:
5945:
4406:
3032:
2283:
1865:
1857:
1689:
1645:
The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the
396:
7067:
3750:
8:
6979:
6859:
6825:
6727:
6547:
6542:
6354:
6073:
6009:
5884:
5869:
4961:. Research Reports: Daily Life in Ancient Times. Houghton Mifflin Company. Archived from
4394:
3566:
3488:
3449:
3313:
3263:
3004:
2872:
2780:
2776:
2669:
2348:
2240:
2211:
The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation.
2073:
For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used called
1920:
consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on the
1605:
1423:
1376:
1277:
1161:
1006:
846:
658:
309:
6695:
6685:
5739:
Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300
5441:
Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300
4410:
3884:
Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300
1998:
were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like at
830:. Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 when Sumyafa Ashwa was deposed by
791:(320s – c. 360). Following their Christianization, the Aksumites ceased construction of
7092:
7072:
7055:
7006:
6871:
6680:
6631:
6564:
6482:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6369:
6339:
6231:
6129:
5997:
5972:
5651:
5643:
5551:
5543:
5413:
5276:
The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia: From the Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century
4440:
3932:
3924:
3663:
3476:
2725:
2584:
2038:
1921:
1861:
1486:
1215:
1101:
967:
898:
776:
753:
5796:
5225:
Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the northern Horn, 1000 BC – AD 1300
4375:
Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa
3647:
The Global Church---The First Eight Centuries From Pentecost Through the Rise of Islam
1445:
around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum,
1276:
Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the
7201:
7097:
7033:
7028:
6957:
6854:
6569:
6497:
6492:
6334:
6263:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6036:
5987:
5801:
5761:
5742:
5723:
5689:
5655:
5555:
5535:
5333:
5306:
5279:
5254:
5229:
5187:
5027:
4849:
4822:
4754:
4727:
4700:
4673:
4432:
4378:
4339:
4318:
4221:
4099:
4071:
4046:
4021:
3955:
3936:
3887:
3853:
3824:
3767:
3481:
3089:
2709:
2530:
2297:
2114:
1951:
1933:
1888:
1616:
1466:
1442:
1122:
1068:
1010:
815:
780:
765:
761:
593:
458:
336:
313:
231:
99:
47:
2168:
It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked
1474:
7050:
6837:
6832:
6788:
6775:
6705:
6673:
6668:
6532:
6527:
6509:
6470:
6403:
6386:
6327:
6312:
6253:
6209:
6179:
6139:
6122:
6105:
6068:
5819:
5635:
5598:
The effect of the Indian Ocean trading system on the rise of Aksum is described in
5527:
4444:
4422:
4414:
3988:
3916:
3607:
3158:
3134:
2931:
2922:
2860:
2697:
2413:
2271:
2122:
2089:
Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1st century AD (
1908:
1876:
1846:
1789:
1732:
1728:
1716:
1658:
1506:
1395:
1188:
1072:
933:
910:
709:
610:
61:
4245:
2085:
1331:
1199:
7268:
7236:
7109:
7077:
7060:
7016:
7011:
6989:
6984:
6942:
6935:
6910:
6770:
6765:
6606:
6487:
6381:
6376:
6344:
6169:
6159:
6053:
6046:
6041:
6026:
5982:
5864:
5850:
5790:
5606:
5420:
4253:
3807:
3611:
3603:
3168:
2764:
2217:
1572:, the integral regions of the Aksumite Kingdom included "much of the province of
1569:
1561:
1514:
1403:
1231:
1227:
1165:
1112:
1093:
1035:
952:
800:
353:
6690:
5781:
1754:
1646:
1620:
1149:
continued to govern Yemen through a tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum.
887:
7211:
7206:
7169:
7144:
7127:
7038:
7023:
6994:
6952:
6800:
6760:
6755:
6710:
6636:
6596:
6586:
6576:
6391:
6270:
6164:
6031:
5913:
3595:
3539:
2953:
2328:
2094:
1938:
1837:
1712:
1624:
1560:
on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements,
1430:
by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.
1056:
1021:
796:
717:
705:
519:
1355:
Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "
1343:
1020:
By the end of the 3rd century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet
7309:
7292:
7179:
6974:
6947:
6920:
6898:
6876:
6643:
6626:
6611:
6455:
6408:
6396:
6322:
6214:
6088:
6083:
6058:
5940:
5760:. Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 29, Wiesbaden, pp. 251–54.
5539:
5299:
Munro-Hay, Stuart (2010). Henry Louis Gates Jr., Kwame Anthony Appiah (ed.).
4436:
3771:
3746:
3553:
3079:
2752:
2681:
2344:
2313:
2011:
1946:, 227–235 AD. The right coin reads in Greek ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis".
1750:
1680:
religions around 325. The Axumite Coptic Church gave rise to the present day
1665:
1597:
1573:
1529:
1518:
1498:
1434:
1427:
1384:
1290:
1254:
1230:
persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey is known in
1118:
1063:
1052:
1048:
807:
788:
749:
505:
277:
6720:
6700:
4564:
Cambridge History of Africa: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh century
1809:
French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the Aksumites worshipped
737:
7184:
6925:
6915:
6881:
6810:
6805:
6732:
6522:
6504:
6465:
6460:
6440:
6435:
6307:
6300:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6174:
6112:
6093:
6078:
6014:
5209:
UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. II, Abridged Edition: Ancient Africa
3992:
3571:
2796:
2621:
2173:
2118:
1993:
In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop
1849:, who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modern
1796:
1775:
1673:
1577:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1446:
1438:
1407:
741:
713:
654:
567:
370:
294:
194:
4334:
Phillips, Jacke (2016). "Aksum, Kingdom of". In MacKenzie, John M. (ed.).
6903:
6888:
6737:
6450:
6359:
6349:
6275:
5923:
5918:
2301:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2126:
1954:, which bore legends in Geʽez and Greek. From the reign of Endubis up to
1818:
1810:
1779:
1771:
1545:
1533:
1522:
1490:
1391:
1390:
According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the
1380:
1367:. Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had a
1339:(also known as Queen of Sheba's Palace) in Aksum, Tigray Region, Ethiopia
1250:
1134:
1089:
1080:
1076:
701:
694:
689:
served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated to
650:
171:
3682:"Snowden Lectures: Stanley Burstein, When Greek was an African Language"
6930:
6747:
6621:
6581:
6514:
3420:
3323:
2309:
2305:
1959:
1697:
1693:
1364:
1310:
1286:
1262:
5647:
5621:"Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation"
5600:
State Formation in Ancient Northeast Africa and the Indian Ocean Trade
5547:
5516:"Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation"
3928:
6820:
6591:
6475:
6445:
6226:
6100:
5891:
5160:
4418:
3799:
2293:
1836:"The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of
1399:
1394:
king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from
1168:
1142:
1130:
1126:
1026:
1014:
951:
enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both
823:
697:
due to declining trade connections and recurring external invasions.
1742:
1470:
1059:, serving as victory monuments documenting the wars of these kings.
6221:
6004:
5962:
5901:
5806:
5639:
5531:
4270:
3920:
2102:
2025:
2015:
1950:
The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue
1880:
1450:
1239:
937:
878:
877:. Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced by
811:
674:
666:
557:
547:
281:
241:
4089:
4087:
2229:
1738:
1242:
sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, the
882:
influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of
685:
civilization, the kingdom was founded in 1st century. The city of
161:
6134:
6063:
6019:
5874:
5476:"A History of Christianity in the Middle East & North Africa"
5010:
Eritrea at a Crossroads A Narrative of Triumph, Betrayal and Hope
3668:
Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks, chapters 4 and 5
2892:
2393:
2340:
2336:
2130:
2106:
2058:
1943:
1912:
1904:
1892:
1795:
Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a
1701:
1654:
1601:
1565:
1433:
After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the
1372:
1301:
is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs
1297:; however, the exact location of this city is currently unknown.
1270:
1266:
1258:
1133:
was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named
1044:
960:
956:
806:
Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign of
757:
670:
552:
225:
103:
5935:
5478:. Jerusalem & Middle East Church Association. Archived from
5378:"The Rise of the Askum Obelisk is the Rise of Ethiopian History"
5049:
The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia
5046:
3042:
2637:
1107:
975:
874:
682:
492:
5967:
5842:
5100:
4803:
The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism: The Nation-state at Bay?
4084:
3599:
3561:
2397:
2245:
2212:
2177:
2158:
2150:
2029:
2021:
1814:
1800:
1746:
1724:
1677:
1557:
1537:
1510:
1478:
1368:
1336:
1298:
1219:
1184:
1176:
1153:
1146:
1138:
1031:
948:
929:
831:
745:
733:
729:
166:
5797:
Ethiopian Treasures – Queen of Sheba, Aksumite Kingdom – Aksum
5141:. Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Limited. 1911. p. 629.
4919:"The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum: Teachers' notes"
4916:
2165:. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.
2049:
1517:
groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time of
6601:
5802:
Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Meröe, Kush, and Axum
5787:
East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States
5206:
4981:
African Empires and Civilizations : Ancient and Medieval
3977:"Askumite Numismatics - A critical survey of recent Research"
2317:
2142:
2138:
2109:, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between the
1994:
1955:
1900:
1896:
1650:
1585:
1581:
1482:
1411:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1326:
1314:
1294:
1282:
1223:
1211:
1097:
988:
902:
862:
792:
725:
690:
678:
577:
572:
366:
349:
248:
135:
67:
4562:
E. Cerulli, "Ethiopia's Relations with the Muslim World" in
5079:
Pre-colonial Africa: Her Civilisations and Foreign Contacts
5061:
5012:. Strategic Book Publishing and Rights Company. p. 19.
4696:
Ark of God: The Incredible Power of the Ark of the Covenant
2221:
2220:, which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the
2162:
2154:
2134:
2062:
1720:
1684:(only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church in 1959) and
1593:
1085:
971:
721:
686:
636:
562:
130:
5811:
5200:
5124:
Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind, Volume 1
5055:
4220:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 61–62.
4156:. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 57. Archived from
4045:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 15–16.
3658:
3656:
1179:
to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the
1145:, following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him,
2080:
1576:, the whole of the Eritrean plateau" and the regions of
1441:, who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern
1410:, while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in
1175:. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander
5720:
Ancient Ethiopia. Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors
5007:
3749:; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006).
1497:
notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by King
1481:
inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants of
1414:, protected by Christians. He begged assistance from a
810:(514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine Emperor
604:
3653:
2339:
and his family take refuge in Aksum after the fall of
1828:
A Table of Hieroglyphics found at Axum c. 19th century
1164:, but having been denied, he decided to ally with the
7346:
States and territories established in the 1st century
5251:
UNESCO General History of Africa: Ancient Africa v. 2
5130:
5121:
5001:
4522:. Vol. II. Macmillan & Co. pp. 325–326.
4338:. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1–2.
4241:
4239:
4237:
4070:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 55.
3954:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 17.
3823:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 69.
2292:
The Aksumite Empire is portrayed as the main ally of
1493:
were also known to have lived within the kingdom, as
5409:
5407:
5405:
5186:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 5.
5026:, p. 114, Barnsley, Pen & Sword Military, 2012,
4912:
4910:
4908:
3529:
922:
The first historical mention of Axum comes from the
783:. Due to its ties with the Greco-Roman world, Aksum
700:
The Kingdom of Aksum was considered one of the four
5115:
4750:
Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture
4395:"The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes"
2324:and succeeded by his youngest son Eon bisi Dakuen.
5371:
5369:
4234:
3706:
1879:, when the first followers of the Islamic prophet
1214:in the early 7th century and the expansion of the
7351:States and territories disestablished in the 960s
5432:
5430:
5428:
5402:
5383:. Newark, USA: Rutgers University. Archived from
5319:
5151:
4905:
4265:
4263:
4261:
3844:Burstein, Stanley (2015), Benjamin, Craig (ed.),
2440:Aksumite water-spouts in the shape of lion heads.
2380:The largest Aksumite stele, broken where it fell.
7307:
5184:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity
5042:
5040:
4315:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity
4218:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity
4150:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity
4068:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity
4043:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity
3952:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity
3821:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity
3745:
3644:
2037:and water spout on the roof. Both were found in
1426:in 1137 AD, who ushered in the formation of the
1375:lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by
5366:
5253:. University of California Press. p. 221.
4987:
4805:, (University of Wisconsin Press: 1993), p. 160
3906:
3877:
3875:
3721:
2203:14 Roman Coins found in Matara in 2-3rd century
1783:
1469:-speaking groups, one of these groups were the
720:. Aksum continued to expand under the reign of
39:
5688:. EUT Edizioni Università di Trieste: 69–100.
5571:Ancient and medieval Ethiopian history to 1270
5507:
5425:
5351:
5349:
5211:. University of California Press. p. 234.
5171:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 34.
5145:
5126:. John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill. p. 284.
5076:
4776:Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270
4258:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4132:
4130:
4121:Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270
3638:
1875:Islam came in the 7th century at the reign of
5827:
5037:
4997:. University of California. 1975. p. 24.
4978:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4093:
3751:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"
3715:
3511:
2971:
2312:. The series takes place during the reign of
795:. The kingdom continued to expand throughout
53:
7284:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
5782:World History Encyclopedia – Kingdom of Axum
5568:
5091:
5085:
4693:Childress, David Hatcher (27 October 2015).
4096:A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea
4018:A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea
3872:
3709:The African American People A Global History
2316:, who in the series was assassinated by the
2244:Axumite Menhir in Balaw Kalaw (Metera) near
2235:
1465:The Aksumite population mainly consisted of
1075:, which regarded itself as the protector of
5346:
5332:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 171.
5111:. Heinemann Educational Books. p. 398.
5066:. American Numismatic Society. p. 165.
5047:Judith S. McKenzie; Francis Watson (2016).
4387:
4377:(New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44.
4127:
4112:
1649:, which was eventually modified to include
1505:population, which resided in the cities of
1013:, with their influence extending as far as
771:As the kingdom became a major power on the
450:2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi)
442:1,250,000 km (480,000 sq mi)
118:The Kingdom of Aksum during the 3rd century
5834:
5820:
5736:
5717:
5658:– via University of Texas at Austin.
5612:
5248:
5221:
5154:Introduction to Classical Ethiopic (Geʻez)
5070:
5016:
4972:
4939:
4773:
4011:
4009:
3915:(3). Cambridge University Press: 471–495.
3881:
3846:"Africa: states, empires, and connections"
3518:
3504:
2978:
2964:
1043:and back with inscriptions, attributed to
785:adopted Christianity as the state religion
704:of the 3rd century by the Persian prophet
112:
5325:
5298:
5181:
4814:
4692:
4426:
4215:
4209:
4181:
4146:
4065:
4040:
3949:
3818:
3700:
2263:soil erosion that began on a local scale
1845:converted to Christianity by his teacher
1071:. Aksum gained a political link with the
4746:
4333:
4118:
3886:. Woodbridge: James Currey. p. 48.
3843:
2239:
2198:
2084:
2048:
1980:
1937:
1823:
1765:
1731:, and other cities in the region during
1629:
1615:
1342:
1330:
1265:. They overran and pillaged much of the
1198:
1106:
856:
764:that have been excavated as far away as
7108:
5675:"Translations in Late Antique Ethiopia"
5305:. Oxford University press. p. 77.
5081:. Southern Book Publishers. p. 58.
4887:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 50.
4792:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 50.
4635:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 36.
4006:
2476:Entrance to the Tomb Of The False Door.
2101:Covering parts of what is now northern
14:
7308:
5618:
5583:
5513:
5436:
5273:
5207:Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār (1990).
4959:www.hmhco.com/ (formerly eduplace.com)
4917:The British Museum; The CarAf Centre.
4317:. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 40.
2500:Small stelae in the Gudit Stelae Field
1976:
1962:and a source of profit to the empire.
1203:14th century Islamic portrayal of the
1121:sent an expedition against the Jewish
27:Polity in Africa and Arabia before 960
5815:
5741:. Woodbridge, Suffolk: James Currey.
5672:
5024:The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean
4841:
4719:
4669:Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia
4665:
4661:
4659:
4015:
2081:Foreign relations, trade, and economy
5755:
5062:American Numismatic Society (1984).
4747:Mekonnen, Yohannes K. (April 2013).
4517:
3974:
1379:, resulting in the inception of the
983:of Aksum." Later in the century the
85:1st century – 960 AD
54:
5375:
3711:. Taylor & Francis. p. 13.
2428:Model of the Ta'akha Maryam palace.
1864:by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical
1856:Frumentius was in contact with the
1320:
1244:Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz
24:
5666:
5473:
4656:
3649:. Zondervan Academic. p. 146.
2157:. The people of Aksum also raised
1682:Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
942:trade route between Rome and India
773:trade route between Rome and India
200:Nicene and Miaphysite Christianity
25:
7372:
5807:Aksum: UNESCO World Heritage Site
5793: (archived February 22, 2007)
5775:
4896:
4868:
4821:. The Red Sea Press. p. 33.
4616:
4588:
4547:
4532:
4520:History of the Later Roman Empire
4502:
4487:
4472:
4457:
4358:
4298:
4283:
4187:"Let's Look Across the Red Sea I"
3759:Journal of World-Systems Research
2416:after being returned to Ethiopia.
614:
202:; official after mid-4th century)
5569:Sergew Hable, Sellassie (1972).
5008:Andebrhan Welde Giorgis (2014).
4842:Hatke, George (7 January 2013).
3781:from the original on 7 July 2020
3546:
3532:
3014:
2947:
2594:
2553:
2541:
2529:
2517:
2505:
2493:
2481:
2469:
2457:
2452:Aksumite jar with figural spout.
2445:
2433:
2421:
2405:
2385:
2373:
2361:
2277:
2176:and overland connections to the
1891:due to their persecution by the
1692:(451), it has been an important
1686:Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church
1457:shows heavy Aksumite influence.
917:
868:
665:, based in what is now northern
524:
510:
485:
92:
5592:
5577:
5562:
5494:
5467:
5292:
5267:
5242:
5215:
5175:
5109:Ancient Civilizations of Africa
4890:
4877:
4862:
4835:
4808:
4795:
4782:
4767:
4740:
4713:
4686:
4647:
4638:
4625:
4610:
4597:
4582:
4569:
4556:
4541:
4526:
4511:
4496:
4481:
4466:
4451:
4367:
4352:
4327:
4307:
4292:
4277:
4175:
4119:Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972).
4059:
4034:
3968:
3943:
3900:
3837:
3812:
3800:The Cultural Heritage of Aksum.
3686:The Center for Hellenic Studies
3617:
2809:British Military Administration
2719:Late 13th century–18th century)
2192:to the Arabian Sea and India.
2024:usually consisted of a central
1965:
1870:Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion
822:perpetrated by the Jewish king
760:(270–310), Aksum began minting
337:Early south Arabian involvement
5122:James Cowles Prichard (1826).
5064:Museum Notes, Volumes 29 to 31
4505:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N
4428:2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t07w6zm1b
4405:(2127): 133–134. August 1910.
4098:. Leiden: Brill. p. 169.
3793:
3739:
3730:
3674:
3589:
2512:Another stelae field in Aksum.
2464:Tombs beneath the stele field.
2226:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
2091:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1872:by Menelik I for safekeeping.
1261:plateau through the valley of
925:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
787:in the mid-4th century, under
13:
1:
5737:Phillipson, David W. (2012).
5718:Phillipson, David W. (1998).
5682:Egitto Crocevia di Traduzioni
5514:Butzer, Karl W. (July 1981).
5439:"Review: Phillipson, (2012).
5437:Záhoří, Jan (February 2014).
5326:Adejumobi, Saheed A. (2007).
5302:Encyclopedia of Africa Vol. I
5278:. New York University Press.
4899:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4871:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4619:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4591:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4550:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4535:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4490:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4475:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4460:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4361:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4301:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4286:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
4020:. Leiden: Brill. p. 34.
3882:Phillipson, David W. (2012).
3631:
2716:
2688:
2660:
2644:
2628:
2264:
1088:", and the other against the
936:as lying within the realm of
818:in Yemen in order to end the
744:(until c. 230), and parts of
268:
140:
7341:Countries in medieval Africa
7331:Political history of Eritrea
5722:. The British Museum Press.
5357:"GoBlues - Asheville School"
5228:. James Currey. p. 91.
4885:Church and State in Ethiopia
4790:Church and State in Ethiopia
4633:Church and State in Ethiopia
2848:Eritrean War of Independence
2524:Istifanos Monastery in Hayk.
1079:. Three inscriptions on the
884:Ancient South Arabian script
841:
681:. Emerging from the earlier
637:
605:
7:
7336:Countries in ancient Africa
7326:Former monarchies of Africa
5841:
5756:Yule, Paul A., ed. (2013).
5096:. Lucent Books. p. 28.
4815:Pankhrust, Richard (1997).
4720:Jewel, Lady (August 2012).
3707:Molefi Kete Asante (2013).
2565:
2129:, tortoise shell, gold and
1761:
1719:communities established in
1707:
1532:, Ethiopia, as well as the
781:Greco-Roman cultural sphere
673:, and spanning present-day
384:Aksumite invasion of Himyar
10:
7377:
5673:Bausi, Alessandro (2018).
5573:. Addis Ababa. p. 79.
5222:Phillipson, David (2012).
5182:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991).
5169:Area Handbook for Ethiopia
5152:Thomas O. Lambdin (2018).
4336:The Encyclopedia of Empire
4216:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991).
4147:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991).
4066:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991).
4041:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991).
3950:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991).
3819:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991).
3254:Second Italo–Ethiopian War
2354:
2281:
2170:the Roman Empire and India
1969:
1931:
1927:
1784:
1611:
1485:and its surroundings. The
1460:
1324:
1194:
1100:carved on the wall of the
1017:and the borders of Egypt.
947:The Aksumite control over
852:
626:
597:
68:
40:
7277:
7229:
6746:
6150:
5849:
5609:, by Stanley M. Burstein.
5139:1921 Inclusive, Volume 24
4818:The Ethiopian Borderlands
3645:Donald Fairbairn (2021).
3304:Eritrean Independence War
3224:First Italo–Ethiopian War
2488:The Stelae Park in Aksum.
2236:Climate change hypothesis
2105:and southern and eastern
2044:
1911:, arguing that the early
1851:Ethiopian Orthodox Church
1806:General History of Africa
1704:continue to be in Geʽez.
901:, two kilometers west of
820:persecution of Christians
775:and gained a monopoly of
540:
464:
454:
446:
438:
433:
429:
419:
406:
393:
380:
363:
346:
333:
323:
319:
305:
301:
288:
265:
261:
247:
237:
224:
187:
154:
123:
111:
89:
84:
34:
7321:Former empires in Africa
5619:Butzer, Karl W. (1981).
5588:(in French). p. 69.
5584:Anfray, Francis (1965).
5249:G. Mokhtar, ed. (1990).
5051:. NYU Press. p. 18.
4983:. Routledge. p. 71.
4774:Hable Selassie, Sergew.
4183:Pankhurst, Richard K. P.
3726:. Routledge. p. 71.
3722:Vincent Khapoya (2015).
3582:
3411:Ethiopian civil conflict
3361:Eritrean border conflict
2836:Autonomy within Ethiopia
2368:Reconstruction of Dungur
2288:Ethiopian historiography
2000:Yemrehana Krestos Church
1899:tribal confederation of
1790:Morning and Evening Star
1455:Yemrehana Krestos Church
1166:Sassanid Persian Emperor
892:Ancient Semitic religion
284:(according to tradition)
216:Ancient Semitic religion
7356:Former Christian states
5329:The History of Ethiopia
5077:F. J. Nöthling (1989).
4995:Abba Salama Volumes 6-8
4672:. Hurst & Company.
4666:Henze, Paul B. (2000).
4313:S. C. Munro-Hay (1991)
3975:Hahn, Wolfgang (2000).
3294:Federation with Eritrea
3179:Ottoman border conflict
3100:Amda Seyon's Expansions
2216:Africa was that of the
1672:in place of its former
1477:, the commenter of the
886:, which developed into
5274:Kaplan, Steve (1994).
4979:George O. Cox (2015).
3993:10.3406/numi.2000.2289
3724:The African Experience
3614:, and other languages.
3351:Eritrean–Ethiopian War
3090:Early Solomonic period
2911:Eritrean–Ethiopian War
2560:Aksum stelle in desert
2548:Aksum stelle and ruins
2248:
2204:
2145:), and Indian states.
2098:
2066:
1990:
1985:An Axumite Cathedral,
1972:Ethiopian architecture
1947:
1829:
1792:
1788:), Semitic god of the
1749:. In the 4th century,
1642:
1636:illuminated manuscript
1627:
1544:are located as far as
1352:
1340:
1207:
1115:
985:mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns
934:Ptolemais of the Hunts
865:
410:Early Muslim conquests
290:• 917 or 940-960
7254:Medieval great powers
5500:Trimingham, Spencer,
5092:Louise Minks (1995).
4952:"Daily Life in Aksum"
4603:Trimingham, Spencer,
4575:Trimingham, Spencer,
3577:Monumentum Adulitanum
3284:Italian guerrilla war
2793:East African Campaign
2282:Further information:
2243:
2202:
2088:
2052:
1984:
1941:
1827:
1769:
1633:
1619:
1592:These crops included
1495:Cosmas Indicopleustes
1346:
1334:
1202:
1173:Aksumite–Persian wars
1110:
1040:Cosmas Indicopleustes
1003:Cosmas Indicopleustes
998:Monumentum Adulitanum
860:
828:Aksumite–Persian wars
768:and southern India.
230:Aksumite, Ethiopian,
155:Common languages
69:Βασιλεία τῶν Ἀξωμιτῶν
7264:European colonialism
7249:Ancient great powers
4753:. New Africa Press.
4699:. SCB Distributors.
4518:Bury, J. B. (1923).
3117:Early modern history
2536:Aksumite gold coins.
2284:Ethiopian literature
1866:Council of Chalcedon
1858:Church of Alexandria
1690:Council of Chalcedon
641:) also known as the
397:Year of the Elephant
7259:Modern great powers
5705:on 4 September 2018
5156:. Brill. p. 1.
4935:on 4 November 2019.
4411:1910Natur..84..133.
4185:(17 January 2003).
3567:History of Ethiopia
3391:East Africa drought
3314:Ethiopian Civil War
3264:Italian East Africa
3214:Menelik's Invasions
2873:Ethiopian Civil War
2781:Italian East Africa
2777:Eritrea Governorate
2670:Sultanate of Dahlak
2349:Plague of Justinian
2111:Indian subcontinent
2097:leagued against it.
1977:Palace architecture
1883:(also known as the
1670:Coptic Christianity
1606:Guizotia abyssinica
1473:or the speakers of
1424:Mara Tekla Haymanot
1377:Mara Takla Haymanot
1162:Justinian the Great
1007:Ethiopian Highlands
987:(kings of Habashat
847:Carlo Conti Rossini
659:classical antiquity
649:, was a kingdom in
325:• Established
310:Classical antiquity
207:Aksumite polytheism
5628:American Antiquity
5605:2009-01-14 at the
5520:American Antiquity
5482:on 3 February 2014
5419:2020-09-25 at the
5094:Traditional Africa
5022:Raoul McLaughlin,
4252:2018-03-29 at the
4163:on 23 January 2013
3981:Revue Numismatique
3909:American Antiquity
3806:2023-10-08 at the
3465:Army of the Empire
3152:1557 – 17th cent.
3140:1543 – 17th cent.
3125:Ethiopian–Adal War
2954:Eritrea portal
2859:Annexation as the
2726:Sultanate of Aussa
2249:
2205:
2099:
2067:
2055:King Ezana's Stela
2008:rock hewn churches
1991:
1948:
1922:Dahlak Archipelago
1862:Oriental Orthodoxy
1830:
1793:
1778:, associated with
1741:, the language of
1643:
1628:
1353:
1341:
1285:. The Arab writer
1216:Rashidun Caliphate
1208:
1156:'s death, his son
1116:
1102:Temple of Kalabsha
866:
777:Indian Ocean trade
178:(from 1st century)
7303:
7302:
7225:
7224:
7190:Polish–Lithuanian
6365:Gurjara-Pratihara
5767:978-3-447-06935-9
5748:978-1-84701-088-9
5729:978-0-7141-2763-7
5695:978-88-8303-937-9
5502:Islam in Ethiopia
5455:on 7 January 2017
5390:on 7 January 2017
5339:978-0-313-32273-0
4968:on 3 August 2020.
4926:BritishMuseum.org
4897:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4883:Taddesse Tamrat,
4869:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4788:Taddesse Tamrat,
4760:978-9987-16-024-2
4733:978-1-4497-5061-9
4726:. WestBow Press.
4706:978-1-939149-60-2
4679:978-1-85065-393-6
4631:Taddesse Tamrat,
4617:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4605:Islam in Ethiopia
4589:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4577:Islam in Ethiopia
4548:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4533:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4503:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4488:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4473:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4458:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4359:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4299:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4284:Uhlig, Siegbert.
4197:on 9 January 2006
4105:978-90-04-41958-2
4027:978-90-04-41958-2
3893:978-1-84701-041-4
3859:978-1-139-05925-1
3688:. 2 November 2020
3528:
3527:
3429:
3428:
3332:
3331:
3187:
3186:
3108:
3107:
3051:
3050:
2988:
2987:
2939:
2938:
2883:
2882:
2819:
2818:
2736:
2735:
2710:Dankali Sultanate
2298:Belisarius series
2075:nepheline syenite
1987:Lady Mary of Zion
1934:Aksumite currency
1443:Solomonic dynasty
1171:, triggering the
1011:Arabian Peninsula
816:Himyarite Kingdom
779:, it entered the
748:territory around
635:
603:
586:
585:
536:
535:
532:
531:
498:
497:
459:Aksumite currency
369:'s conversion to
314:Early Middle Ages
203:
147:
100:Aksumite currency
16:(Redirected from
7368:
7316:Kingdom of Aksum
7106:
7105:
6771:Austro-Hungarian
6471:Chagatai Khanate
5836:
5829:
5822:
5813:
5812:
5771:
5752:
5733:
5714:
5712:
5710:
5704:
5698:. Archived from
5679:
5660:
5659:
5625:
5616:
5610:
5596:
5590:
5589:
5581:
5575:
5574:
5566:
5560:
5559:
5511:
5505:
5498:
5492:
5491:
5489:
5487:
5471:
5465:
5464:
5462:
5460:
5454:
5448:. Archived from
5447:
5434:
5423:
5411:
5400:
5399:
5397:
5395:
5389:
5382:
5376:Bekerie, Ayele.
5373:
5364:
5363:
5361:
5353:
5344:
5343:
5323:
5317:
5316:
5296:
5290:
5289:
5271:
5265:
5264:
5246:
5240:
5239:
5219:
5213:
5212:
5204:
5198:
5197:
5179:
5173:
5172:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5149:
5143:
5142:
5134:
5128:
5127:
5119:
5113:
5112:
5104:
5098:
5097:
5089:
5083:
5082:
5074:
5068:
5067:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5044:
5035:
5032:9781-78346-381-7
5020:
5014:
5013:
5005:
4999:
4998:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4976:
4970:
4969:
4967:
4956:
4948:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4928:. Archived from
4923:
4914:
4903:
4902:
4894:
4888:
4881:
4875:
4874:
4866:
4860:
4859:
4839:
4833:
4832:
4812:
4806:
4801:Crawford Young,
4799:
4793:
4786:
4780:
4779:
4771:
4765:
4764:
4744:
4738:
4737:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4663:
4654:
4651:
4645:
4642:
4636:
4629:
4623:
4622:
4614:
4608:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4586:
4580:
4573:
4567:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4545:
4539:
4538:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4485:
4479:
4478:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4430:
4419:10.1038/084133a0
4391:
4385:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4356:
4350:
4349:
4331:
4325:
4311:
4305:
4304:
4296:
4290:
4289:
4281:
4275:
4274:
4267:
4256:
4243:
4232:
4231:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4193:. Archived from
4179:
4173:
4172:
4170:
4168:
4162:
4155:
4144:
4125:
4124:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4091:
4082:
4081:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4013:
4004:
4003:
4001:
3999:
3987:(155): 281–311.
3972:
3966:
3965:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3879:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3816:
3810:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3788:
3786:
3780:
3755:
3743:
3737:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3719:
3713:
3712:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3693:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3660:
3651:
3650:
3642:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3593:
3556:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3542:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3520:
3513:
3506:
3445:Economic history
3347:
3346:
3200:
3199:
3159:Gondarine period
3153:
3141:
3135:Oromo migrations
3121:
3120:
3066:
3065:
3029:
3028:
3018:
3008:
2990:
2989:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2932:2010s in Eritrea
2923:2000s in Eritrea
2917:
2902:1990s in Eritrea
2898:
2897:
2893:State of Eritrea
2879:
2867:
2861:Eritrea Province
2854:
2842:
2832:
2831:
2815:
2803:
2787:
2771:
2759:
2749:
2748:
2732:
2720:
2718:
2704:
2698:Ethiopian Empire
2692:
2690:
2676:
2664:
2662:
2648:
2646:
2638:Kingdom of Dəmot
2632:
2630:
2609:
2608:
2598:
2588:
2570:
2569:
2557:
2545:
2533:
2521:
2509:
2497:
2485:
2473:
2461:
2449:
2437:
2425:
2414:Obelisk of Aksum
2409:
2389:
2377:
2365:
2333:The Lion Hunters
2272:land degradation
2269:
2266:
2133:, and importing
1918:second migration
1909:Ashama ibn-Abjar
1907:appealed to the
1887:) migrated from
1877:Ashama ibn-Abjar
1787:
1786:
1770:A stela with an
1729:Ptolemais Theron
1696:church, and its
1668:, Aksum adopted
1659:Obelisk of Aksum
1640:Holy Mother Mary
1507:Ptolemais Theron
1396:Semien Mountains
1321:Gudit's invasion
1273:ports was lost.
1189:Stuart Munro-Hay
1073:Byzantine Empire
911:Stuart Munro-Hay
752:in the northern
640:
630:
628:
620:
608:
602:romanized:
601:
599:
590:Kingdom of Aksum
528:
527:
514:
513:
502:
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466:
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421:• Collapse
273:
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145:
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116:
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79:
71:
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56:
51:
43:
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36:Kingdom of Aksum
32:
31:
21:
7376:
7375:
7371:
7370:
7369:
7367:
7366:
7365:
7361:Former kingdoms
7306:
7305:
7304:
7299:
7288:American Empire
7273:
7269:African empires
7221:
7104:
6796:Central African
6742:
6560:Romano-Germanic
6146:
5880:Middle Assyrian
5853:
5845:
5840:
5791:Wayback Machine
5778:
5768:
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5730:
5708:
5706:
5702:
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5669:
5667:Further reading
5664:
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5607:Wayback Machine
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5421:Wayback Machine
5414:Kingdom of Axum
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4845:Aksum and Nubia
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4542:
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4527:
4516:
4512:
4507:. p. 1193.
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3371:Police massacre
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3169:Zemene Mesafint
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2765:Italian Eritrea
2757:
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2702:
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2654:Aksumite Empire
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2218:Kingdom of Kush
2083:
2047:
1979:
1974:
1968:
1936:
1930:
1764:
1717:Ethiopian Greek
1710:
1614:
1570:Taddesse Tamrat
1503:Ethiopian Greek
1463:
1329:
1323:
1232:Islamic history
1197:
1181:Siege of Sana'a
1113:Obelisk of Axum
1094:Kingdom of Kush
953:Pliny the Elder
920:
871:
855:
844:
647:Aksumite Empire
643:Kingdom of Axum
618:
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6152:Post-classical
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5953:
5951:Middle Kingdom
5948:
5938:
5933:
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5926:
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5911:
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5909:
5907:Neo-Babylonian
5904:
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5897:Old Babylonian
5889:
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5861:
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5777:
5776:External links
5774:
5773:
5772:
5766:
5753:
5747:
5734:
5728:
5715:
5694:
5668:
5665:
5662:
5661:
5640:10.2307/280596
5634:(3): 471–495.
5611:
5591:
5576:
5561:
5532:10.2307/280596
5526:(3): 471–495.
5506:
5493:
5474:Wybrew, Hugh.
5466:
5424:
5401:
5365:
5362:. 16 May 2023.
5345:
5338:
5318:
5312:978-0195337709
5311:
5291:
5285:978-0814746646
5284:
5266:
5260:978-0520066977
5259:
5241:
5235:978-1847010414
5234:
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5199:
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5069:
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5000:
4986:
4971:
4938:
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4901:. p. 187.
4889:
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4873:. p. 187.
4861:
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4637:
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4621:. p. 178.
4609:
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4593:. p. 178.
4581:
4568:
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4552:. p. 178.
4540:
4537:. p. 178.
4525:
4510:
4495:
4492:. p. 177.
4480:
4477:. p. 176.
4465:
4462:. p. 175.
4450:
4386:
4373:George Hatke,
4366:
4363:. p. 174.
4351:
4344:
4326:
4306:
4303:. p. 181.
4291:
4288:. p. 173.
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3942:
3921:10.2307/280596
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3871:
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3811:
3792:
3747:Turchin, Peter
3738:
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3540:Eritrea portal
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3381:War in Somalia
3377:
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3342:Recent history
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3196:Modern history
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2663:150 BC–AD 960)
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2329:Elizabeth Wein
2322:Ta'akha Maryam
2320:in 532 at the
2279:
2276:
2252:Climate change
2237:
2234:
2186:southern India
2082:
2079:
2057:, an Aksumite
2046:
2043:
1978:
1975:
1970:Main article:
1967:
1964:
1942:Coins of king
1932:Main article:
1929:
1926:
1838:Queen of Sheba
1763:
1760:
1723:, the port of
1709:
1706:
1664:Under Emperor
1653:, becoming an
1625:Garima Gospels
1613:
1610:
1462:
1459:
1420:Moses Georgios
1351:, 330–360 AD.
1347:Coins of King
1325:Main article:
1322:
1319:
1305:(819–830) and
1196:
1193:
1067:link with the
1055:, and his son
919:
916:
870:
867:
854:
851:
843:
840:
814:, invaded the
797:late antiquity
728:, such as the
584:
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520:Sasanian Yemen
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352:Conquest's of
347:
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330:
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321:
320:
317:
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307:
306:Historical era
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191:
189:
185:
184:
175:
174:
169:
164:
158:
156:
152:
151:
149:
148:
133:
127:
125:
121:
120:
117:
109:
108:
98:
91:
90:
87:
86:
82:
81:
38:
35:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7373:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7313:
7311:
7294:
7293:Soviet empire
7291:
7289:
7286:
7285:
7283:
7282:
7280:
7278:Miscellaneous
7276:
7270:
7267:
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7260:
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7255:
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7121:
7119:
7116:
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7107:
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7076:
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7059:
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7018:
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6902:
6900:
6897:
6896:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6877:German Empire
6875:
6874:
6873:
6870:
6866:
6863:
6861:
6858:
6857:
6856:
6853:
6849:
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6809:
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6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6646:
6645:
6642:
6638:
6635:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6620:
6619:
6618:
6617:Turco-Persian
6615:
6613:
6610:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6600:
6598:
6595:
6593:
6590:
6588:
6585:
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6380:
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6297:
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6279:
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6260:
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6114:
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6030:
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6028:
6025:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5974:
5971:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
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5930:
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5912:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5894:
5893:
5890:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5877:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5837:
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5825:
5823:
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5808:
5805:
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5800:
5798:
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5792:
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5779:
5769:
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5676:
5671:
5670:
5657:
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5641:
5637:
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5604:
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5481:
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5341:
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5331:
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5308:
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5303:
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5270:
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5237:
5231:
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5050:
5043:
5041:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5019:
5011:
5004:
4996:
4990:
4982:
4975:
4964:
4960:
4953:
4947:
4945:
4943:
4931:
4927:
4920:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4900:
4893:
4886:
4880:
4872:
4865:
4857:
4855:9780814762837
4851:
4848:. NYU Press.
4847:
4846:
4838:
4830:
4828:9780932415196
4824:
4820:
4819:
4811:
4804:
4798:
4791:
4785:
4778:. p. 27.
4777:
4770:
4762:
4756:
4752:
4751:
4743:
4735:
4729:
4725:
4724:
4716:
4708:
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4689:
4681:
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4671:
4670:
4662:
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4641:
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4606:
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4592:
4585:
4578:
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4565:
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4544:
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4529:
4521:
4514:
4506:
4499:
4491:
4484:
4476:
4469:
4461:
4454:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4390:
4384:
4383:0-7486-0106-6
4380:
4376:
4370:
4362:
4355:
4347:
4345:9781118455074
4341:
4337:
4330:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4310:
4302:
4295:
4287:
4280:
4272:
4266:
4264:
4262:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4246:Archived copy
4242:
4240:
4238:
4229:
4223:
4219:
4212:
4196:
4192:
4191:Addis Tribune
4188:
4184:
4178:
4159:
4152:
4151:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4133:
4131:
4123:. p. 68.
4122:
4115:
4107:
4101:
4097:
4090:
4088:
4079:
4073:
4069:
4062:
4054:
4048:
4044:
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4023:
4019:
4012:
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3990:
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3957:
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3930:
3926:
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3903:
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3889:
3885:
3878:
3876:
3861:
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3822:
3815:
3809:
3805:
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3601:
3597:
3592:
3588:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3554:Africa portal
3544:
3541:
3530:
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3507:
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3498:
3490:
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3369:
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3322:
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3297:
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3262:
3261:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3235:
3234:Modernization
3232:
3231:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3193:
3192:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3150:
3148:
3147:Habesh Eyalet
3145:
3144:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3114:
3113:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3081:
3080:Zagwe dynasty
3078:
3077:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3056:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3025:Early history
3022:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2991:
2981:
2976:
2974:
2969:
2967:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2955:
2945:
2944:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2888:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2828:Post-Colonial
2825:
2824:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2742:
2741:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2685:
2683:
2682:Zagwe Dynasty
2680:
2679:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2639:
2636:
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2620:
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2601:
2597:
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2582:
2577:
2572:
2571:
2556:
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2527:
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2508:
2503:
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2484:
2479:
2472:
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2448:
2443:
2436:
2431:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2392:Aksumite-era
2388:
2383:
2376:
2371:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2352:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2308:published by
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2285:
2278:In literature
2275:
2273:
2260:
2256:
2253:
2247:
2242:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2201:
2197:
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2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2125:), exporting
2124:
2120:
2116:
2115:Mediterranean
2112:
2108:
2104:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2078:
2076:
2071:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2042:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1996:
1988:
1983:
1973:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1952:its own coins
1945:
1940:
1935:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1895:, the ruling
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1759:
1756:
1753:promoted the
1752:
1751:Ezana of Axum
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1705:
1703:
1699:
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1679:
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1667:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1598:finger millet
1595:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1499:Kaleb of Axum
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1435:Zagwe dynasty
1431:
1429:
1428:Zagwe dynasty
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1386:
1385:Zagwe dynasty
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1345:
1338:
1333:
1328:
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1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:Masruq Abraha
1155:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1069:Mediterranean
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1023:
1018:
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986:
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964:
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950:
945:
943:
939:
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931:
927:
926:
918:Rise of Aksum
915:
912:
906:
904:
900:
895:
893:
889:
885:
880:
876:
869:Early history
864:
859:
850:
848:
839:
835:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:Kaleb of Axum
804:
802:
799:, conquering
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
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723:
719:
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688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
639:
633:
624:
623:Ancient Greek
616:
612:
607:
595:
591:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
545:
543:
541:Today part of
539:
523:
521:
518:
517:
509:
507:
506:Zagwe dynasty
504:
503:
500:
494:
491:
484:
483:
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318:
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311:
308:
304:
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296:
293:
287:
283:
279:
278:Bazen of Axum
276:
272: 100 AD
264:
260:
256:
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253:Negusa Nagast
250:
246:
243:
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236:
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217:
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196:
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137:
134:
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128:
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115:
110:
105:
101:
95:
88:
83:
77:
76:Ancient Greek
63:
49:
33:
30:
19:
7044:Contemporary
6894:Indo-Persian
6882:Nazi Germany
6826:Contemporary
6728:Vijayanagara
6627:Great Seljuk
6538:Thessalonica
6466:Golden Horde
6317:
6106:Carthaginian
5885:Neo-Assyrian
5870:Neo-Sumerian
5757:
5738:
5719:
5707:. Retrieved
5700:the original
5685:
5681:
5631:
5627:
5614:
5594:
5585:
5579:
5570:
5564:
5523:
5519:
5509:
5501:
5496:
5484:. Retrieved
5480:the original
5469:
5457:. Retrieved
5450:the original
5440:
5392:. Retrieved
5385:the original
5328:
5321:
5301:
5294:
5275:
5269:
5250:
5244:
5224:
5217:
5208:
5202:
5183:
5177:
5168:
5162:
5153:
5147:
5137:
5132:
5123:
5117:
5108:
5102:
5093:
5087:
5078:
5072:
5063:
5057:
5048:
5023:
5018:
5009:
5003:
4994:
4989:
4980:
4974:
4963:the original
4958:
4930:the original
4925:
4898:
4892:
4884:
4879:
4870:
4864:
4844:
4837:
4817:
4810:
4802:
4797:
4789:
4784:
4775:
4769:
4749:
4742:
4722:
4715:
4695:
4688:
4668:
4649:
4640:
4632:
4627:
4618:
4612:
4604:
4599:
4590:
4584:
4576:
4571:
4563:
4558:
4549:
4543:
4534:
4528:
4519:
4513:
4504:
4498:
4489:
4483:
4474:
4468:
4459:
4453:
4402:
4398:
4389:
4374:
4369:
4360:
4354:
4335:
4329:
4314:
4309:
4300:
4294:
4285:
4279:
4217:
4211:
4199:. Retrieved
4195:the original
4190:
4177:
4165:. Retrieved
4158:the original
4149:
4120:
4114:
4095:
4067:
4061:
4042:
4036:
4017:
3996:. Retrieved
3984:
3980:
3970:
3951:
3945:
3912:
3908:
3902:
3883:
3863:, retrieved
3849:
3839:
3820:
3814:
3795:
3783:. Retrieved
3763:
3757:
3741:
3732:
3723:
3717:
3708:
3702:
3690:. Retrieved
3685:
3676:
3667:
3646:
3640:
3619:
3591:
3572:Mifsas Bahri
3415:2018–present
3274:World War II
3074:100 – 940 AD
3069:
3047:980 – 400 BC
2797:World War II
2653:
2631:2500–980 BC)
2622:Land of Punt
2605:Pre-colonial
2332:
2326:
2291:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2225:
2210:
2206:
2194:
2184:directly to
2174:Persian Gulf
2167:
2147:
2141:), Arabian (
2100:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2035:
2020:
2004:
1992:
1966:Architecture
1949:
1874:
1855:
1843:
1833:Steve Kaplan
1831:
1804:
1797:polytheistic
1794:
1776:Arabian oryx
1755:Geʽez script
1737:
1711:
1674:polytheistic
1663:
1647:Geʽez script
1644:
1621:Geʽez script
1590:
1554:Gulf of Zula
1550:Gulf of Zula
1542:Tchika Beret
1527:
1464:
1439:Yekuno Amlak
1432:
1418:ruler, King
1416:Nubian Greek
1389:
1354:
1275:
1257:entered the
1248:
1236:First Hijrah
1209:
1205:First Hijrah
1151:
1117:
1061:
1025:
1019:
1001:recorded by
996:
984:
980:
965:
946:
923:
921:
907:
896:
888:Geʽez script
872:
845:
836:
805:
770:
708:, alongside
702:great powers
699:
655:South Arabia
646:
642:
589:
587:
568:Saudi Arabia
475:Succeeded by
474:
469:
371:Christianity
350:King Ezana's
218:(before 350)
209:(before 350)
195:Christianity
181:
104:King Endubis
29:
6632:Khwarezmian
6565:Carolingian
6370:Rashtrakuta
6074:Shaishunaga
5973:Hellenistic
5956:New Kingdom
5946:Old Kingdom
5709:4 September
5486:25 February
3998:9 September
3865:19 February
3692:23 February
3455:Aristocracy
3244:World War I
3204:Unification
3061:Middle Ages
3005:History of
2916:(1998–2000)
2878:(1974–1991)
2866:(1962–1993)
2853:(1961–1991)
2841:(1952–1962)
2814:(1941–1952)
2802:(1940–1941)
2786:(1936–1941)
2770:(1882–1936)
2758:(1554–1872)
2731:(1734–1936)
2703:(1270–1974)
2647:980–400 BC)
2585:History of
2302:David Drake
2190:Roman Egypt
2182:Arabian Sea
1813:, his son,
1546:South Wollo
1534:Akele Guzai
1491:Agaw people
1392:Beta Israel
1135:Esimiphaios
1081:Ezana Stone
1077:Christendom
861:An Axumite
695:9th century
663:Middle Ages
651:East Africa
470:Preceded by
415:7th century
342:3rd century
329:1st century
172:Koine Greek
7310:Categories
7202:Portuguese
7083:Revival Le
7073:Vietnamese
6716:Later Tran
6686:Vietnamese
6582:Singhasari
6570:Holy Roman
6194:Bulgarian
6130:Satavahana
6101:Phoenician
6037:Achaemenid
5998:Indo-Greek
5978:Macedonian
5892:Babylonian
5193:0748601066
4323:0748601066
4227:0748601066
4201:1 February
4167:1 February
4077:0748601066
4052:0748601066
3961:0748601066
3830:0748601066
3766:(2): 222.
3632:References
3421:Tigray war
3324:Ogaden War
3033:Prehistory
2691:1137–1270)
2675:(960–1557)
2613:Prehistory
2310:Baen Books
2306:Eric Flint
2268: 650
2065:, Ethiopia
1960:propaganda
1847:Frumentius
1803:sponsored
1774:and three
1698:scriptures
1694:Miaphysite
1489:-speaking
1365:iconoclasm
1311:Degna Djan
1263:Gash-Barka
1238:. In 630,
1119:King Kaleb
376:325 or 328
238:Government
232:Abyssinian
226:Demonym(s)
144: 800
102:depicting
41:መንግሥተ አክሱም
7195:Couronian
6833:Ethiopian
6821:Manchukuo
6776:Brazilian
6622:Ghaznavid
6592:Srivijaya
6543:Trebizond
6528:Byzantine
6510:North Sea
6505:Norwegian
6493:Almoravid
6476:Ilkhanate
6446:Majapahit
6419:Muromachi
6328:Solomonic
6313:Ethiopian
6227:Caliphate
6160:Aragonese
5988:Ptolemaic
5656:162374800
5556:162374800
5540:0002-7316
5459:6 January
5394:6 January
4566:, p. 575.
4437:0028-0836
3937:162374800
3802:, UNESCO
3772:1076-156X
3472:Expansion
3425:2020–2022
3405:2014–2016
3395:2011–2012
3385:2006–2009
3365:1998–2018
3355:1998–2000
3328:1977–1978
3318:1974–1991
3308:1961–1991
3298:1952–1962
3288:1941–1943
3268:1936–1941
3258:1935–1936
3248:1914–1918
3238:1913–1974
3228:1895–1896
3218:1878–1904
3208:1855–1913
3183:1832–1848
3173:1769–1855
3163:1632–1769
3129:1527–1543
3104:1314–1344
3094:1270–1529
2294:Byzantium
2123:Byzantium
1733:Ptolemaic
1447:Dil Na'od
1408:Dil Na'od
1400:Lake Tana
1335:Ruins of
1278:highlands
1169:Khosrow I
1143:Procopius
1131:Dhu Nuwas
1127:Dhu Nuwas
1123:Himyarite
1027:Kephalaia
1015:Lake Tana
968:Al-Maafer
842:Etymology
824:Dhu Nuwas
754:highlands
645:, or the
632:romanized
295:Dil Na'od
188:Religion
7175:Japanese
7138:Scottish
7118:American
7110:Colonial
7039:Imperial
7007:Moroccan
6943:Japanese
6921:Afsharid
6780:Burmese
6766:Austrian
6721:Later Le
6696:Early Le
6681:Venetian
6607:Tiwanaku
6520:Hellenic
6483:Moroccan
6414:Kamakura
6404:Japanese
6387:Saffarid
6340:Georgian
6254:Chalukya
6232:Rashidun
6222:Calakmul
6190:Bruneian
6069:Haryanka
6047:Sasanian
6042:Parthian
5993:Bactrian
5983:Seleucid
5963:Goguryeo
5941:Egyptian
5875:Assyrian
5865:Akkadian
5856:Colonies
5603:Archived
5504:, p. 47.
5417:Archived
4607:, p. 49.
4579:, p. 46.
4250:Archived
4248:ufl.edu
3804:Archived
3776:Archived
3482:Aksumite
3477:Currency
3460:Military
3084:900–1270
3007:Ethiopia
2996:a series
2994:Part of
2745:Colonial
2576:a series
2574:Part of
2566:See also
2131:emeralds
2121:, later
2113:and the
2103:Ethiopia
2026:pavilion
2016:Lalibela
1881:Muhammad
1762:Religion
1708:Language
1487:Cushitic
1471:Agʿazian
1451:Lalibela
1267:Eritrean
1259:Eritrean
1240:Muhammad
1228:Qurayshi
1226:fleeing
1009:and the
938:Zoskales
879:Sabaeans
812:Justin I
766:Caesarea
675:Djibouti
667:Ethiopia
638:Axōmítēs
627:Ἀξωμίτης
615:𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣
558:Ethiopia
548:Djibouti
455:Currency
282:Ethiopis
242:Monarchy
55:𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣
18:Axumites
7242:largest
7237:Empires
7217:Swedish
7212:Spanish
7207:Russian
7170:Italian
7145:Chinese
7133:English
7128:British
7123:Belgian
7098:Vietnam
7088:Tay son
7034:Tsarist
7029:Russian
7024:Ottoman
6990:Dzungar
6985:Khoshut
6958:Mexican
6953:Maratha
6936:Pahlavi
6916:Safavid
6911:Iranian
6838:Haitian
6801:Chinese
6761:Ashanti
6733:Wagadou
6659:Eastern
6654:Western
6637:Timurid
6597:Tibetan
6587:Songhai
6577:Serbian
6498:Almohad
6488:Idrisid
6392:Samanid
6382:Tahirid
6377:Iranian
6355:Kannauj
6335:Genoese
6271:Chinese
6264:Eastern
6259:Western
6247:Fatimid
6242:Abbasid
6237:Umayyad
6210:Burmese
6170:Ayyubid
6165:Angevin
6135:Xianbei
6123:Eastern
6118:Western
6064:Magadha
6027:Iranian
6020:Xiongnu
6005:Hittite
5914:Chinese
5902:Kassite
5851:Ancient
5843:Empires
5789:at the
4445:3942233
4407:Bibcode
4271:"Aksum"
3608:Persian
3489:Famines
3450:Emperor
3037:
2587:Eritrea
2394:Amphora
2355:Gallery
2341:Camelot
2337:Mordred
2331:series
2327:In the
2296:in the
2107:Eritrea
2059:obelisk
2039:Hawelti
2022:Palaces
1944:Endybis
1928:Coinage
1905:Quraysh
1893:Quraysh
1885:Sahabah
1702:liturgy
1655:abugida
1623:in the
1612:Culture
1602:sorghum
1566:Qohaito
1515:Nilotic
1467:Semitic
1461:Society
1373:dynasty
1287:Ya'qubi
1271:Red Sea
1255:Zanafaj
1234:as the
1220:Muslims
1195:Decline
1045:Ousanas
1024:in the
961:Ptolemy
899:Gobedra
853:History
758:Endubis
738:Maʿafir
730:Tihāmah
693:in the
671:Eritrea
661:to the
634::
611:Sabaean
553:Eritrea
408:•
395:•
382:•
365:•
348:•
335:•
267:•
182:Various
139:(after
124:Capital
62:Sabaean
7180:Mongol
7165:German
7160:French
7150:Danish
7093:Dainam
7068:Tongan
7056:Somali
7051:Sokoto
7017:'Alawi
6995:Kalmyk
6975:Mongol
6968:Second
6948:Korean
6899:Mughal
6889:Indian
6872:German
6865:Second
6855:French
6848:Second
6784:Second
6756:Afghan
6748:Modern
6674:Kyrgyz
6669:Uighur
6664:Second
6644:Turkic
6612:Toltec
6548:Epirus
6533:Nicaea
6456:Mongol
6409:Yamato
6345:Huetar
6203:Second
6140:Rouran
6089:Shunga
6084:Maurya
6059:Kushan
6032:Median
6010:Hunnic
5968:Harsha
5764:
5745:
5726:
5692:
5654:
5648:280596
5646:
5554:
5548:280596
5546:
5538:
5336:
5309:
5282:
5257:
5232:
5190:
5030:
4852:
4825:
4757:
4730:
4703:
4676:
4443:
4435:
4399:Nature
4381:
4342:
4321:
4224:
4102:
4074:
4049:
4024:
3958:
3935:
3929:280596
3927:
3890:
3856:
3827:
3785:5 June
3770:
3612:Nubian
3604:Coptic
3600:Arabic
3562:Abraha
3438:Topics
2998:on the
2578:on the
2398:Asmara
2246:Senafe
2213:Adulis
2178:Levant
2159:cattle
2151:barley
2095:powers
2045:Stelae
2030:Dungur
2012:Tigray
1913:Muslim
1903:. The
1889:Arabia
1817:, and
1815:Mahrem
1801:UNESCO
1747:Sabaic
1743:Agʿazi
1725:Adulis
1678:Judaic
1651:vowels
1562:Matara
1558:Adulis
1538:Seraye
1530:Tigray
1511:Adulis
1479:Adulis
1404:Tigray
1369:Jewish
1337:Dungur
1307:Joseph
1299:Famine
1291:Tigray
1185:Vahrez
1177:Vahrez
1154:Abraha
1152:After
1147:Abraha
1139:Abraha
1057:Wazeba
1036:Matara
1032:Adulis
949:Adulis
930:Adulis
890:, and
832:Abraha
793:stelae
746:Hashid
722:Gedara
716:, and
710:Persia
606:ʾÄksum
425:960 AD
297:(last)
257:
167:Sabaic
72:
58:
44:
7230:Lists
7185:Omani
7155:Dutch
7061:Isaaq
7012:Saadi
6980:Oirat
6963:First
6931:Qajar
6860:First
6843:First
6816:China
6789:Third
6649:First
6602:Tikal
6553:Morea
6523:Roman
6441:Latin
6436:Khmer
6431:Kanem
6397:Buyid
6323:Zagwe
6318:Aksum
6308:Chola
6215:First
6198:First
6185:Bornu
6180:Benin
6175:Aztec
6113:Roman
6094:Gupta
6079:Nanda
6015:White
5703:(PDF)
5678:(PDF)
5652:S2CID
5644:JSTOR
5624:(PDF)
5552:S2CID
5544:JSTOR
5453:(PDF)
5446:(PDF)
5388:(PDF)
5381:(PDF)
5360:(PDF)
4966:(PDF)
4955:(PDF)
4933:(PDF)
4922:(PDF)
4441:S2CID
4161:(PDF)
4154:(PDF)
3933:S2CID
3925:JSTOR
3779:(PDF)
3754:(PDF)
3596:Latin
3583:Notes
3070:Aksum
2396:from
2345:Kaleb
2318:Malwa
2314:Kaleb
2230:Meroë
2143:Yemen
2139:Nubia
2127:ivory
1995:podia
1956:Armah
1901:Mecca
1819:Beher
1811:Astar
1780:Astar
1739:Geʿez
1713:Greek
1666:Ezana
1586:Angot
1582:Lasta
1574:Tigre
1523:Naras
1519:Ezana
1483:Aksum
1475:Geʽez
1412:Shewa
1383:-led
1361:Gudit
1357:Gudit
1349:Ezana
1327:Gudit
1315:Angot
1303:James
1295:Angot
1283:Kubar
1224:Mecca
1222:from
1212:Islam
1125:King
1098:Silko
1064:Ezana
1062:King
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