Battle of Cannae - Knowledge

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that the cavalry would have been inadequate to prevent the Roman infantry escaping to the rear. He doubts that Hannibal even wanted a high death toll, as much of the army consisted of Italians whom Hannibal hoped to win as allies. Micheal Clodfelter also doubts the casualties of the Romans, citing the scarcity and unreliability of ancient sources, with him expressing that "are we really supposed to believe that Hannibal’s 50,000 Carthaginians slaughtered 48,000–70,000 Romans on a single afternoon on the field of Cannae, even if the battle did degenerate into a massacre in its final stages?".

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cavalry got the upper hand, they cut down their Roman opponents without giving quarter. On the other flank the Numidians engaged in a way that merely kept the Roman allied cavalry occupied. Hasdrubal kept his victorious Hispanic and Gallic cavalry under control and did not chase the retreating Roman right wing. Instead, he led them to the other side of the field to attack the socii cavalry still fighting the Numidians. Assailed from both sides, the allied cavalry broke before Hasdrubal could charge into contact and the Numidians pursued them off the field.

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crescent of Hispanic and Gallic troops buckled inwards as they gradually withdrew step by step. Knowing the superiority of the Roman infantry, Hannibal had instructed his infantry to withdraw deliberately, creating an even tighter semicircle around the attacking Roman forces. By doing so, he had turned the strength of the Roman infantry into a weakness. While the front ranks were gradually advancing, the bulk of the Roman troops began to lose their cohesion, as troops from the reserve lines advanced into the growing gaps.

2053: 4923: 2174: 1477: 1802: 1320: 1270: 2003: 2353:... was first held there and then withdrawn step by step, until it had reached the converse position... is a simple masterpiece of battle tactics. The advance at the proper moment of the African infantry, and its wheel right and left upon the flanks of the disordered and crowded Roman legionaries, is far beyond praise. The whole battle, from the Carthaginian standpoint, is a consummate piece of art, having no superior, few equal, examples in the history of war. 5303: 2191: 1598: 1810:

companies, but gradually falling off, so as to produce a crescent-shaped formation, the line of the flanking companies growing thinner as it was prolonged, his object being to employ the Africans as a reserve force and to begin the action with the Hispanics and Celts." Polybius described the weak Carthaginian center as deployed in a crescent, curving out toward the Romans in the middle with the African troops on their flanks in

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was not one wound upon another which was announced, but a multiplied disaster, the loss of two consular armies, together with the two consuls: and that now there was neither any Roman camp, nor general nor soldiery: that Apulia and Samnium, and now almost the whole of Italy, were in the possession of Hannibal. No other nation surely would not have been overwhelmed by such an accumulation of misfortune.

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enemy. Despite what these tactics might suggest, the center was not commanded by either of the two consuls, but by Geminus Servilius. The consuls commanded the two wings, Terentius Varro the left and Aemilius Paullus the right. Hannibal understood that the Romans fought their battles like this, and he took his outnumbered army and strategically placed them around the enemy to win a tactical victory.

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Despite these misgivings, Paullus thought it unwise to withdraw the army after the initial success, and camped two-thirds of the army east of the river Aufidus, sending the remainder to fortify a position on the opposite side, 2 km (1.2 mi) away from the main camp. The purpose of this second camp was to cover the foraging parties from the main camp and harass those of the enemy.

2144:, believed Maharbal was right; when a more powerful adversary is down, he must be dispatched. "Hannibal's single chance of winning the larger war was to begin marching his army towards Rome," O'Connell adds. "In the end it still would have been a long shot. But it was his only shot. Instead, Hannibal chose another route, and the war became only a matter of time." 2431:

flanks be crushed. The wings should not be sought at the advanced points of the front but rather along the entire depth and extension of the enemy formation. The annihilation is completed through an attack against the enemy's rear... To bring about a decisive and annihilating victory requires an attack against the front and against one or both flanks...

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the Aufidus to the Roman troops, sent his cavalry to the smaller Roman camp to harass water-bearing soldiers that were found outside the camp fortifications. According to Polybius, Hannibal's cavalry boldly rode up to the edge of the Roman encampment, causing havoc and thoroughly disrupting the supply of water to the Roman camp.

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Trasimene (217 BC) and Cannae, and the fact that he first attacked Rome only five years later in 211 BC, suggests that his strategic aim was not the destruction of his foe but to dishearten the Romans by carnage on the battlefield and to wear them down to a moderate peace agreement by stripping them of their allies.

1660:, who were famous for their accuracy, carried short, medium and long slings used to cast stones or bullets. They may have carried a small shield or simple leather pelt on their arms, but this is uncertain. Hannibal himself, like many Roman officers on the opposing side, might have been wearing a bronze 2136:

Even after the tremendous losses suffered at Cannae and the defection of a number of her allies, Rome still had abundant manpower to prevent this and maintain considerable forces in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia and elsewhere, despite Hannibal's presence in Italy. Hannibal's conduct after the victories at

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Livy wrote, "Forty-five thousand and five hundred foot, two thousand seven hundred horse, there being an equal number of citizens and allies, are said to have been slain." He also reports that 3,000 Roman and allied infantry and 1,500 Roman and allied cavalry were taken prisoner by the Carthaginians.

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Hannibal had deployed his forces based on the particular fighting qualities of each unit, taking into consideration both their strengths and weaknesses. This aspect of Hannibal's leadership was highlighted in the use of a Spanish unit, the Balearic slingers, whom he placed behind the infantry to hurl

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Figures for troops involved in ancient battles are often unreliable, and Cannae is no exception. They should be treated with caution, especially those for the Carthaginian side. The Carthaginian army was a combination of warriors from numerous regions, and may have numbered between 40,000 and 50,000.

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The two armies stayed in their respective locations for two days. During the second day (August 1) Hannibal, aware that Varro would be in command the following day, left his camp and offered battle, but Paullus refused. When his request was rejected, Hannibal, recognizing the importance of water from

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Paullus was opposed to the engagement as it was taking shape. Unlike Varro, he was prudent and cautious, and he believed it was foolish to fight on open ground, despite the Romans' numerical strength. This was especially true since Hannibal held the advantage in cavalry, in both quality and quantity.

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For the remainder of the war in Italy, the Romans did not amass large forces under one command against Hannibal; they used several independent armies, still outnumbering the Punic forces in numbers of soldiers. The war in Italy still had occasional battles, but was focused on taking strongpoints and

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pointed out, due to the high numbers of killed and wounded among its ranks, the Punic army was not in a condition to mount a direct assault on Rome. It would have been a fruitless demonstration that would have nullified the psychological effect of Cannae on the Roman allies. Even if his army were at

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described, "So many thousands of Romans were dying... Some, whom their wounds, pinched by the morning cold, had roused, as they were rising up, covered with blood, from the midst of the heaps of slain, were overpowered by the enemy. Some were found with their heads plunged into the earth, which they

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When the Carthaginian cavalry attacked the Romans in the rear and the African flanking echelons assailed them on their right and left, the advance of the Roman infantry was brought to an abrupt halt. The Romans were henceforth enclosed in a pocket with no means of escape. The Carthaginians created a

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While the Carthaginian cavalry were in the process of defeating the Roman horsemen, the masses of infantry on both sides advanced towards each other in the center of the field. The wind from the east blew dust in the Romans' faces and obscured their vision. While the wind was not a major factor, the

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Roman sources claim their placement was chosen for being the most expendable and unreliable troops, but modern reflections believe those forces were actually selected for their battle-hardening to carry the weight of the Punic side, as they would be tasked with the controlled retreat that ultimately

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The equipment of the Libyan line infantry has been much debated. Duncan Head has argued in favor of short stabbing spears. Polybius states that the Libyans fought with equipment taken from previously defeated Romans. It is unclear whether he meant only shields and armor or offensive weapons as well,

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reportedly remarked to Hannibal that the size of the Roman army was astonishing. "There is one thing, Gisgo, yet more astonishing", Hannibal coolly replied, "which you take no notice of." He then explained, "In all those great numbers before us, there is not one man called Gisgo", provoking laughter

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Rome typically employed four legions each year, each consisting of 4,000 foot soldiers and 200 cavalry. Per contemporary Roman sources, for the first time ever the Senate introduced eight legions, each consisting of 5,000 foot soldiers and 300 cavalry, with allied troops numbering the same number of

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later still. Appian's account describes events that have no relation with those of Livy and Polybius. Polybius portrays the battle as the nadir of Roman fortunes, perhaps to emphasise the subsequent Roman recovery—some historians contend that his casualty figures are exaggerated—"more symbolic than

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I swear with all the passion in my heart that I will never desert our homeland, or permit any other citizen of Rome to leave her in the lurch. If I willfully break my oath may Jupiter, Greatest and Best, bring me to a shameful death, with my house, my family, and all I possess! Swear the same oath,

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As Livy noted, "How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae than those which preceded it, can be seen by the behavior of Rome's allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman power." Following the battle,

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For a brief period, the Romans were in complete disarray. Their best armies in the peninsula had been destroyed, the few remnants severely demoralized, and the only remaining consul (Varro) completely discredited. As the story goes, Rome declared a national day of mourning as there was not a single

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Never when the city was in safety was there so great a panic and confusion within the walls of Rome. I shall therefore shrink from the task, and not attempt to relate what in describing I must make less than the reality. The consul and his army having been lost at the Trasimenus the year before, it

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Some modern historians, while rejecting Polybius's figure as flawed, are willing to accept Livy's figure. Other historians have come up with far lower estimates. In 1891, Cantalupi proposed Roman losses of 10,500 to 16,000. Samuels in 1990 also regarded Livy's figure as far too high, on the grounds

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This also gave the Carthaginian cavalry time to drive the Roman cavalry off on both flanks and attack the Roman center in the rear. The Roman infantry, now stripped of protection on both its flanks, formed a wedge that drove deeper and deeper into the Carthaginian semicircle, driving itself into an

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Soon they were compacted together so closely that they had little space to wield their weapons. In pressing so far forward in their desire to destroy the retreating and seemingly collapsing line of Hispanic and Gallic troops, the Romans had ignored (possibly due to the dust) the African troops that

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The Romans were in front of the hill leading to Cannae and hemmed in on their right flank by the river Aufidus, so that their left flank was the only viable means of retreat. In addition, the Carthaginian forces had maneuvered so that the Romans would face east. Not only would the morning sun shine

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were very lightly equipped, lacking saddles and bridles for their horses, and wearing no armor but carrying small shields, javelins and possibly a knife or a longer blade. In contrast, the heavier Iberian peninsular cavalry carried round shields, swords, javelins and thrusting spears. The similarly

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into the field, which had never been done at Rome before, each legion consisting of five thousand men besides allies. ...Most of their wars are decided by one consul and two legions, with their quota of allies; and they rarely employ all four at one time and on one service. But on this occasion, so

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to negotiate a peace treaty with the Senate on moderate terms. Despite the multiple catastrophes Rome had suffered, the Senate refused to parley. Instead, they redoubled their efforts, declaring full mobilization of the male Roman population, and raised new legions, enlisting landless peasants and

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Hannibal intended that his cavalry, comprising mainly medium Hispanic cavalry and Numidian light horse, and positioned on the flanks, would defeat the weaker Roman cavalry and swing around to attack the Roman infantry from the rear as it pressed upon Hannibal's weakened center. His veteran African

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In the spring of 216 BC Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae, in the Apulian plain, placing himself between the Romans and their crucial source of supply. As Polybius noted, the capture of Cannae "caused great commotion in the Roman army; for it was not only the

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The two consuls were each assigned two of the four legions to command, unusually employing all four legions at once on the same assignment. However, the Senate feared a real threat, and deployed not just four legions to the field but all eight, including allies. Ordinarily, each of the two consuls

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Historian Martin Samuels has questioned whether it was in fact Varro in command on the day on the grounds that Paullus may have been in command on the right. The warm reception that Varro received after the battle from the Senate was in striking contrast to the savage criticism meted out to other

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The light infantry on both sides engaged in indecisive skirmishing, inflicting few casualties and quickly withdrawing through the ranks of their heavy infantry. As the Roman heavy infantry attacked, Hannibal stood with his men in the weak center and held them together in a controlled retreat. The

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It is believed that the purpose of this formation was to break the forward momentum of the Roman infantry, and delay its advance before other developments allowed Hannibal to deploy his African infantry most effectively. While the majority of historians feel that Hannibal's action was deliberate,

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A battle of annihilation can be carried out today according to the same plan devised by Hannibal in long forgotten times. The enemy front is not the goal of the principal attack. The mass of the troops and the reserves should not be concentrated against the enemy front; the essential is that the

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the classic example of Cannae". "Cannae" has become a byword for military success, and the battle is studied in military academies around the world. The notion that an entire army could be encircled and annihilated within a single stroke led to a fascination among Western generals for centuries,

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The dust was not the only psychological factor involved in battle. Because of the somewhat distant battle location, both sides were forced to fight on little sleep. Another Roman disadvantage was thirst caused by Hannibal's attack on the Roman encampment during the previous day. Furthermore, the

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The battle began with a fierce cavalry engagement on the flanks. Polybius described many of the Hispanic and Celtic horsemen facing the Romans dismounting due to the lack of space to fight on horseback, and called the struggle "barbaric" in the sense of its utter brutality. When the Carthaginian

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Even though they outnumbered the Carthaginians, this depth-oriented deployment meant that the Roman lines had a front of roughly equal size to their numerically inferior opponents. The typical style of ancient warfare was to continuously pour infantry into the center and attempt to overpower the

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according to Livy, handed their weapons to the Romans as a sign of good will while retaining hidden short swords in their clothes. Once the battle started, following Hannibal's plans, the mercenaries attacked, stealing weapons and shields from their victims and causing chaos and confusion in the

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As the armies advanced on one another, Hannibal gradually extended the center of his line, as Polybius described: "After thus drawing up his whole army in a straight line, he took the central companies of Hispanics and Celts and advanced with them, keeping the rest of them in contact with these

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In the years following Cannae, striking reforms were introduced to address these deficiencies. First, the Romans "articulated the phalanx, then divided it into columns, and finally split it up into a great number of small tactical bodies that were capable, now of closing together in a compact

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The conventional deployment for armies of the time was placement of infantry in the center, with the cavalry in two flanking wings. The Romans followed this convention fairly closely, but chose extra depth rather than breadth for the infantry in hopes of breaking quickly through the center of

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since their inability to maneuver independently from the mass of the army made it impossible for them to counter the strategic encirclement used by the Carthaginian cavalry. The laws of the Roman state requiring command to alternate between the two consuls restricted strategic consistency.

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some have called this account fanciful, and claim that the actions of the day represent either the natural curvature that occurs when a broad front of infantry marches forward, or the bending back of the Carthaginian center from the shock action of meeting the heavily massed Roman center.

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led the Hispanic and Gallic cavalry on the left (south near the river Aufidus) of the Carthaginian army. By placing the flank of his army on the Aufidus, Hannibal prevented this flank from being overlapped by the more numerous Romans. Hasdrubal was given 6,000–7,000 cavalry, and

2117:, urged Hannibal to seize the opportunity and march immediately on Rome. It is told that the latter's refusal caused Maharbal's exclamation: "Assuredly, no one man has been blessed with all God's gifts. You, Hannibal, know how to gain a victory; you do not know how to use it." 1316:, which had given the Carthaginian army a chance to regroup. The majority of Romans were eager to see a quick conclusion to the war. It was feared that, if Hannibal continued plundering Italy unopposed, Rome's allies might defect to the Carthaginian side for self-preservation. 1793:

low into the Romans' eyes, but the southeasterly winds would blow sand and dust into their faces as they approached the battlefield. Hannibal's deployment of his army, based on his perception of the terrain and understanding of the capabilities of his troops, proved decisive.

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foot soldiers but 900 cavalry per legion—more than triple the legion numbers. Eight legions—some 40,000 Roman soldiers and an estimated 2,400 cavalry—formed the core of this massive new army. Livy quotes one source stating the Romans added only 10,000 men to their usual army.

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Another 2,000 Roman fugitives were rounded up at the unfortified village of Cannae by Carthaginian cavalry commanded by Carthalo, 7,000 fell prisoner in the smaller Roman camp and 5,800 in the larger. Although Livy does not cite his source by name, it is likely to have been

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Livy portrays the Senate in heroic terms and assigns blame for the Roman defeat to the low-born Varro. This lifts blame from the Roman soldiers, whom Livy idealizes. Scholars tend to discount Appian's account. The verdict of Philip Sabin—"a worthless farrago"—is typical.

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loss of the place and the stores in it that distressed them, but the fact that it commanded the surrounding district". The consuls, resolving to confront Hannibal, marched southward in search of him. After two days' march, they found him on the left bank of the river

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had been slain; and a number of Roman allies had gone over to the Carthaginians. Then Mago concluded his report by having a collection of golden rings poured upon the council floor in front of the assembled senators. He explained that each ring belonged to one

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Within just three campaign seasons (20 months), Rome had lost one-fifth (150,000) of the entire population of male citizens over 17 years of age. The morale effect of this victory was such that most of southern Italy joined Hannibal's cause. After Cannae, the

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them. Varro repelled the attack and continued slowly on his way to Cannae. This victory, though essentially a mere skirmish with no lasting strategic value, greatly bolstered the confidence of the Roman army, perhaps leading to overconfidence on Varro's part.

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Few battles of ancient times are more marked by ability... than the battle of Cannae. The position was such as to place every advantage on Hannibal's side. The manner in which the far from perfect Hispanic and Gallic foot was advanced in a wedge in

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but, as Delbrück wrote, it "effected an internal transformation that increased her military potentiality enormously" while foreshadowing the decline of the Republic's political institutions. Furthermore, the battle exposed the limits of a

1682:, Polybius says that "...against Hannibal, the defeats they suffered had nothing to do with weapons or formations" because "Hannibal himself... discarded the equipment with which he had started out armed his troops with Roman weapons". 2075:, who had returned to Carthage with news of the victory. He reported to their senate that in several engagements with the Romans Hannibal had killed over 200,000 soldiers and taken 50,000 prisoner; of six commanders, two consuls and a 1399:

The traditional account puts Varro in command on the day of the battle, and much of the blame for the defeat has been laid on his shoulders. His low origins seem to be exaggerated in the sources, and Varro may have been made a

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commanders. Samuels doubts whether Varro would have been received with such warmth had he been in command. Gregory Daly notes that, in the Roman military, the right was always the place of command. He suggests that at the

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wall and began to systematically massacre them. Polybius wrote: "as their outer ranks were continually cut down, and the survivors forced to pull back and huddle together, they were finally all killed where they stood."

2140:"In fact there were many good reasons for not marching on Rome," military expert Robert O'Connell writes, "and only one good reason for going." While the scholars provide reasons not to march, a soldier, Field Marshal 2099:

with other Roman refugees. Demoralized at the defeat, they discussed the possibility of setting sail overseas and finding employment as mercenaries for some foreign prince. Word of this meeting reached the young

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tactic and surrounded his enemy, trapping the majority of the Roman army, who were then slaughtered. The loss of life on the Roman side meant it was one of the most lethal single days of fighting in history;

1522:, either by accident or for political advantage. A review of the evidence led P.S. Derow to identify the equivalent Julian date as 1 July 216 BC. Other authorities have suggested other Julian dates. 1674:

though a general reading suggests he meant the whole panoply of arms and armor, and even tactical organization. Apart from his description of the battle itself, when later discussing the subject of the

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Polybius writes that of the Roman and allied infantry, 70,000 were killed, 10,000 captured, and "perhaps" 3,000 survived. He also reports that of the 6,000 Roman and allied cavalry, only 370 survived.

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made possible Hannibal's pincer movement. Meanwhile, infantry from Punic Africa was on the wings at the very edge of his infantry line. This infantry would remain cohesive and attack the Roman flanks.

715: 2394:, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in World War II, wrote, "Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation; so far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in 4467: 2084:

who had been slain in battle and had earned the ring through exceptional bravery. Livy notes that one unnamed authority stated the volume of jewelry amounted to three and one-half measures (

750: 1250:, the authorities lowered the draft age and enlisted criminals, debtors and even slaves. Despite the extreme loss of men and equipment, and a second massive defeat later that same year at 4752: 1625:(thrusting spears) as weapons as well as traditional bronze helmets, bodyshields and body armor. In contrast, the Carthaginian army used a variety of equipment. The Iberians fought with 1983:

person who was not either related to or acquainted with a person who had died. The Romans became so desperate that they resorted to human sacrifice, twice burying people alive at the

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who, with only a few followers, burst into the room where the discussion was underway. Holding his naked sword over the heads of the wavering men, Scipio is reported to have cried:

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dust that both armies created would have been potentially debilitating to sight. Although it made seeing difficult, troops would still have been able to see others in the vicinity.

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alley formed by the African infantry on the wings. At this decisive point, Hannibal ordered his African infantry to turn inwards and advance against the Roman flanks, creating an

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and 6,000 mixed-nationality javelinmen, possibly including Lusitanians among them. The uniting factor for the Carthaginian army was the personal tie each group had with Hannibal.

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was made general-in-chief of the Roman armies in Africa, and was assured this role for the duration of the war. This appointment may have violated the constitutional laws of the

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by the aristocratic establishment. He lacked the powerful descendants that Paullus had, descendants who were willing and able to protect his reputation—most notably his grandson

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claims that nearly six hundred legionaries were slaughtered each minute until darkness brought an end to the bloodletting. Only 14,000 Roman troops managed to escape, including

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massive number of troops would have led to an overwhelming amount of background noise. All of these psychological factors made battle especially difficult for the infantrymen.

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Gregory Daly is inclined to the view that Libyan infantry would have copied the Iberian use of the sword during their fighting there and so were armed similarly to the Romans.

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in 168 BC as occurring on 4 September, when astronomical calculations show it happened on Julian day 21 June of that year. This discrepancy arose from the failure of the

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Ancient historians rarely provide the precise dates for the events they describe. For example, Livy provides no explicit dates for any of the battles of the Second Punic War.

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The battle was seen as a major Roman disaster. In modern times, Cannae has acquired a mythic quality and is often used as an example of the perfect defeat of an enemy army.

785: 4897: 1254:, the Romans refused to surrender to Hannibal. His offer to ransom survivors was brusquely refused. The Romans fought for 14 more years until they achieved victory at the 745: 4306: 1024: 2268:

impenetrable union, now of changing the pattern with consummate flexibility, of separating one from the other and turning in this or that direction." For instance, at

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full strength, a successful siege of Rome would have required Hannibal to subdue a considerable part of the hinterland to cut the enemy's supplies and secure his own.

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even slaves. So firm were these measures that the word "peace" was prohibited, mourning was limited to only 30 days, and public tears were prohibited even to women.

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would command his own portion of the army, but since the two armies were combined into one, Roman law required them to alternate their command on a daily basis.

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in 1916". Only about 15,000 Romans, most of whom were from the garrisons of the camps and had not taken part in the battle, escaped death. Following the defeat,

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in the middle, alternating the ethnic composition between Hispanics and Gauls across the front line, with himself at the front and center alongside his brother

2248: 629: 2288:—a deployment that allowed a greater degree of mobility and maneuverability. The culminating result of this change marked the transition from the traditional 1953:

Livy recorded Hannibal's losses at "about 8,000 of his bravest men." Polybius reports 5,700 dead: 4,000 Gauls, 1,500 Hispanics and Africans, and 200 cavalry.

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As news of this defeat reached Rome, the city was gripped in panic. Authorities resorted to extraordinary measures, which included consulting the

4302: 2252: 1895:, a Roman historian who fought in and wrote about the Second Punic War. It is Pictor whom Livy names when reporting the casualties at the 50: 4781: 4380: 2793: 2545:

troops were left to garrison the 2 Roman camps at the day of battle. These troops would later be captured after the Carthaginian victory.

2422:" was inspired by Hannibal's double envelopment maneuver. Schlieffen believed that the "Cannae model" would continue to be applicable in 2360:

wrote, "It was a supreme example of generalship, never bettered in history... and it set the lines of military tactics for 2,000 years".

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at Cannae is often viewed as one of the greatest battlefield maneuvers in history, and is cited as the first successful use of the

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Hannibal claimed to have fought Paullus at Cannae and concludes that it is impossible to be sure who was in command on the day.

2332:. Not only did Hannibal inflict a defeat on the Roman Republic in a manner unrepeated for over a century until the lesser-known 1183:

and one of the worst defeats in Roman history, and it cemented Hannibal's reputation as one of antiquity's greatest tacticians.

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depicting Hannibal's victory at Cannae, an allusion to France's conflict with the Holy Roman Empire during the 16th century.

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agreed, "50,000 Romans fell in that battle... 4,000 were taken alive in the field and 10,000 in the camps of both consuls".

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great was the alarm and terror of what would happen, they resolved to bring not only four but eight legions into the field.

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were elected as consuls, placed in command of a newly raised army of unprecedented size and directed to engage Hannibal.

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Mommsen History of Rome. Book 03 From the Union of Italy to the Subjugation of Carthage and the Greek States, p. 50

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Hannibal had good reasons to judge the strategic situation after the battle differently from Maharbal. As the historian

1428:, who was determined to defeat Hannibal. As the Romans approached Cannae, some of Hannibal's light infantry and cavalry 5093: 5013: 4949: 4807: 4654: 4625: 1282: 1019: 668: 594: 4954: 4719: 4607: 4599: 4581: 4560: 4527: 4480: 4408: 4038: 3936: 3713: 3614: 3406: 3365: 3322: 2958: 2230: 2208: 1294: 1870:, who managed to escape the encirclement with 500 men, most of whom had cut their way through to the nearby town of 3996: 2329: 1922:, and 80 "senators or men who had held offices which would have given them the right to be elected to the Senate". 3694: 3264: 3062: 4774: 1730:, ready to push forward at first contact to ensure the Romans presented a unified front. As Polybius wrote, "the 1701:

and by Daly because they could not have carried an unwieldy pike at the same time as a heavy Roman-style shield.

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say Hannibal sent a small contingent of 500–600 mercenaries to pretend to desert to the Roman side. Those men,

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were nearer each other, or the intervals were decreased... and the maniples showed more depth than front".

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Delbrück's seminal study of the battle influenced German military theorists, particularly the Chief of the

2088:?), only to add "it is generally and more credibly held that there was not more than one measure of them". 2071:

Livy illustrates the state of Roman morale with two vivid anecdotes. The first concerns Hannibal's brother

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had excavated; having thus, as it appeared, made pits for themselves, and having suffocated themselves."

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Varro, in command on the first day, is presented by contemporary sources as a man of reckless nature and

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troops would then press in from the flanks at the crucial moment, and encircle the overextended Romans.

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In addition, a unified command came to be seen as a necessity. After various political experiments,

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Scipio's role on the battlefield is a surprising blank in the primary sources. See R. T. Ridley,

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doctrine in a series of articles, many of which were translated and published in a work entitled

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Caecilius! And the rest of you, swear it too. If anyone refuses, against him this sword is drawn.

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Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015

3398: 1285:

during the summer and early autumn of 218 BC. He quickly won major victories over the Romans at

5195: 5175: 5112: 5058: 4969: 4847: 3310: 2449: 2387: 2341: 2293: 2046: 1778: 1586: 1251: 1216: 1157: 952: 895: 735: 424: 306: 2789: 5135: 5078: 4907: 4739: 4522:. Translated by Walter J. Renfroe Jr. (3rd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 2415: 1938: 1919: 1892: 1348: 1235: 1172: 1009: 840: 820: 254: 182: 4153: 3851: 2383:

Apart from being one of the greatest defeats inflicted on Roman arms, Cannae represents the

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There are three main accounts of the battle, none of them contemporary. The closest is

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army. Following Cannae, the Roman army gradually developed into a professional force.

5351: 5220: 5210: 5185: 5180: 5023: 4993: 4959: 4877: 4832: 4812: 4715: 4689: 4650: 4621: 4603: 4595: 4577: 4556: 4523: 4476: 4425: 4404: 4034: 3932: 3908: 3857: 3709: 3708:, Cowley, Robert and Parker, Geoffrey (edd.), p. 70. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996, 3610: 3402: 3394: 3361: 3318: 2954: 2350: 2333: 1811: 1657: 1405: 1305: 1215:

equates the death toll at Cannae to "the massed slaughter of the British Army on the

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De guerreros a soldados: el ejército de Aníbal como un ejército cartaginés atípico

2129: 1714:. Varro knew how the Roman infantry had managed to penetrate Hannibal's center at 1444:

On the morning of the battle, as the forces drew up, a Carthaginian officer named

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by the Romans, apart from public executions of defeated enemies dedicated to

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for Carthage, the majority of authors do not apply this label to the result.

1902:

In addition to the consul Paullus, Livy recorded that among the dead were 2

1801: 1656:

Skirmishers acting as light infantry carried either slings or javelins. The

4331: 2787:("The Histories"), iii.107; translated by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh, taken from 2297: 2152:. This finally forced Hannibal with his shortage of manpower to retreat to 1988: 1843: 1755: 1675: 1560: 1551:(8,000 were left at camp the day of battle) and 8,000 of several tribes of 1460: 1364: 1336: 1319: 1247: 1165: 1153: 355: 19:

For the 11th century battle in the Norman conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see

2033:

Sicily's Greek cities rose in revolt against Roman political control. The

1570:

Hannibal's cavalry also came from diverse backgrounds. He commanded 4,000

4647:

The Ghosts of Cannae: Hannibal and the Darkest Hour of the Roman republic

4094:

The Ghosts of Cannae: Hannibal and the Darkest Hour of the Roman republic

2843:

The Cambridge Ancient History VIII: Rome and the Mediterranean 218–133 BC

2357: 2255:. At Cannae, the Roman infantry assumed a formation similar to the Greek 2002: 1984: 1838:

stood uncommitted on the projecting ends of this now-reversed crescent.

1564: 1145: 415: 143: 87: 3993: 4791: 3059: 2468: 2215: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2072: 1934: 1763: 1579: 1507: 1224: 4192:

Alfred Von Schlieffen's Military Writings: Military History and Policy

1925:

Later Roman and Greco-Roman historians largely follow Livy's figures.

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did not renew his dictatorial powers and command was given to consuls

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their ranged missiles into the masses of Roman troops. He placed his

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pledged his support to Hannibal following the Carthaginian victory.

1930: 1903: 1871: 1751: 1694: 1653:, with the wealthier ones being clad in mail, a Gallic invention. 1597: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1495: 1408:, the patron of Polybius, one of the main sources of this history. 1356: 1278: 1149: 607: 559: 521: 468: 443: 395: 316: 291: 231: 187: 2045:

against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with the new king

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Archaeological site believed to be where the battle took place

3668: 3575: 3504: 3452: 3411: 2091:

The second concerns Lucius Caecilius Metellus and three other

4107:

Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age

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Roman camp. However, the veracity of this part is disputed.

1308:

against Hannibal, cutting off his supply lines and avoiding

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Cantalupi, P. "Le Legioni Romane nella Guerra d'Annibale",

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Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War

3644: 3632: 3620: 3587: 3545: 3528: 3516: 3440: 3423: 3371: 3285: 3273: 2599: 2597: 2504:, specifically the essays "Fabius" and "Aemilius Paulus". 1206:

in a deeper formation than usual, while Hannibal used the

3393:, Trabajos del Museo Arqueologico de Ibiza y Formentera, 3160: 3136: 2964: 2932: 2917: 2902: 2890: 2750: 2738: 2697: 2657: 2633: 2621: 2113:

After the battle, the commander of the Numidian cavalry,

1089: 4519:

History of the Art of War volume 1: Warfare in Antiquity

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Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War

4403:. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 2645: 1574:, 2,000 Iberian peninsular, 4,000 Gallic and 450 Libyan- 1335:

Therefore, when Fabius came to the end of his term, the

1136:, fought on 2 August 216 BC near the ancient village of 4135:, vol. III (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944), p. 51. 3209: 2878: 2594: 2021:

of Arpi, Salapia, and Uzentum, including the cities of

1480:

A modern monument near the site of the Battle of Cannae

4508:. London.: Book Club Associates/Thames and Hudson Ltd. 4258: 4233: 4221: 4209: 3768: 3494: 3492: 3124: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2496:

Although he has no connected narrative of the battle,

1929:

gave 50,000 killed and "a great many" taken prisoner.

4506:

Hannibal: The Struggle for Power in the Mediterranean

4088: 4086: 3831: 3242: 3240: 3112: 2989:. London: George Werdenfeld and Nicholson Ltd., 1980. 2168: 1092: 1086: 4270: 3856:(4th ed.). McFarland & Company. p. 7. 2953:

Cottrell, Leonard. Enemy of Rome. Evans Bros, 1965,

2259:. This left them vulnerable to Hannibal's tactic of 60:

The Death of Paulus Aemilius at the Battle of Cannae

4401:

The Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed., Volume VIII

3806: 3656: 3565: 3563: 3489: 3477: 3226: 3224: 3148: 3100: 2861: 2480:, who wrote his account 50 years after the battle. 1629:, while Celtiberians and Lusitanians used straight 1381: 1194:(217 BC), the Romans decided to engage Hannibal at 1083: 4122:(New York: Perseus Publishing, 2004), pp. 378–379. 4083: 3252: 3237: 3197: 3088: 3076: 3014: 2041:, pledged his support to Hannibal, initiating the 1697:states they carried spears shorter than the Roman 4147:"Reconnaissance on the Rappahannock Field Manual" 2500:provides a number of details about Cannae in his 2472:A medieval representation of the battle of Cannae 2390:, a strategy that has rarely succeeded since. As 2156:from where he was called to Africa for the final 1937:: "60,000 men were slain by Hannibal at Cannae". 1277:Shortly after the start of the Second Punic War, 5328: 3560: 3221: 2300:, as the basic infantry unit of the Roman army. 1987:of Rome and abandoning an oversized baby in the 1745:The initial deployment and Roman attack (in red) 3724: 3722: 3186: 3184: 2825: 2823: 1246:as a sacrifice to their gods. To raise two new 2407:, who attempted to create their own "Cannae". 1977:, on the Roman Senate's reaction to the defeat 1601:A modern interpretation of a slinger from the 1227:defected from the Roman Republic to Carthage. 142:Carthaginian forces gain foothold in southern 4789: 4775: 4413: 4105:Peter Paret, Gordon A. Craig, Felix Gilbert, 2528:Although some authors state the result was a 2319: 1148:. The Carthaginians and their allies, led by 623: 16:Major battle of the Second Punic War (216 BC) 3719: 3181: 2820: 2049:, the only independent king left in Sicily. 1531:Their infantry comprised an estimated 8,000 1506:are known not to correspond to its namesake 1449:that spread through the Carthaginian ranks. 4738:– a treatise by General Fieldmarshal Count 4573:Cannae 216 BC: Hannibal smashes Rome's Army 4547: 4203: 4096:(New York: Random House, 2010), p. 165 4065: 3896: 3650: 3638: 3626: 3593: 3581: 3554: 3539: 3522: 3510: 3458: 3446: 3434: 3417: 3377: 3291: 3279: 3175: 3142: 2973: 2941: 2926: 2911: 2896: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2756: 2744: 2703: 2675: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2627: 2378: 2120:Instead, Hannibal sent a delegation led by 1846:in one of the earliest known examples of a 1649:heavy Gallic cavalry added the four-horned 1293:. After these losses, the Romans appointed 146:; defection of some Roman allies including 4782: 4768: 3849: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3706:The Reader's Companion to Military History 2556:Traditional English pronunciation of Latin 2243:Cannae played a major role in shaping the 2163: 2056:Hannibal counting the signet rings of the 1693:. This has been disputed by Head, because 630: 616: 4679: 3689: 3687: 2722:. New York City, New York: Penguin, 1967. 2231:Learn how and when to remove this message 2160:, where the Roman victory ended the war. 4512: 4456: 4344: 4077: 4053: 3464: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 2762: 2615: 2603: 2467: 2172: 2051: 2001: 1800: 1740: 1605:, famous for the skill of their slingers 1596: 1475: 1318: 1268: 1175:. It is regarded as one of the greatest 585: 4659: 4620:. Wilts: University of Oklahoma Press. 4613: 4503: 4264: 4144: 3837: 3735: 3347:. New York: Chelsea House, 2008. Print. 3234:(Wargames Research Group, 1983) p. 144. 3232:Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars 2282:were formed up well to the rear of the 1264: 5329: 4297: 4194:(Robert Foley, Ed.,Trans.). Routledge. 3902: 3774: 3684: 3474:. London: Macmillan London Ltd., 1981. 1991:(perhaps one of the last instances of 1724:were stationed immediately behind the 1704: 1198:, with approximately 86,000 Roman and 1186:Having recovered from their losses at 4763: 4569: 4459:Enemy of Rome:The Battles of Hannibal 4453:. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2002. 3662: 3498: 3483: 3297: 2979: 2790:"Internet Ancient History Sourcebook" 2463: 1689:has argued that they were armed as a 1582:contingent consisting of 1,000–2,000 1363:The Senate determined to bring eight 1347:. In 216 BC, when elections resumed, 1119: 611: 4714:. London/New York: Routledge, 1985, 4465: 4276: 4239: 4227: 4215: 3812: 3569: 3258: 3246: 3215: 3203: 3154: 3130: 3118: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3020: 2884: 2872: 2709: 2213:adding citations to reliable sources 2184: 2060:killed during the battle, statue by 1421:, and encamped 8 km (5 miles) away. 1283:traversing the Pyrenees and the Alps 637: 2845:, Cambridge University Press, 1965. 2578:"Slaughter at the Battle of Cannae" 2484:wrote in the time of Augustus, and 2435:Schlieffen later developed his own 2328:as it is for the role it played in 2324:Cannae is as famous for Hannibal's 2148:constant fighting according to the 1578:cavalry. Hannibal had an auxiliary 1331:and Cannae, anticlockwise, from top 598:Location of the battle within Italy 13: 4290: 3060:"The Roman Calendar, 218–191 B.C." 2169:Effects on Roman military doctrine 1234:, dispatching a delegation led by 14: 5373: 4727: 4667:Militärgeschichtliche Zeitschrift 4461:. London: Evans Brothers Limited. 4392: 3994:"Was Scipio Africanus at Cannae?" 1805:The destruction of the Roman army 1295:Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus 5302: 5301: 4921: 4649:. New York: Random House, 2010. 4245: 4184: 4171: 4138: 4125: 4112: 4099: 4023: 2189: 1390: 1382:Estimates of Roman troop numbers 1217:first day of the Somme offensive 1079: 584: 577: 74:2 August 216 BC (2239 years ago) 49: 5362:Battles of the Second Punic War 4950:Hamilcar's victory with Naravas 4696:from the original on 2022-01-24 4634:from the original on 2023-02-20 4614:Lazenby, John Francis (1998) . 4594:. Bristol Phoenix Press, 2005, 4592:Hannibal: Rome's Greatest Enemy 4536:from the original on 2023-02-20 4438:from the original on 2022-01-24 4421:Livy: Ab urbe condita Book XXII 4356:from the original on 2023-02-20 4309:from the original on 2021-02-01 4285: 4190:von Schlieffen, Alfred (2012). 4010: 3986: 3973: 3960: 3942: 3921: 3883: 3870: 3843: 3818: 3793: 3780: 3755: 3599: 3383: 3350: 3337: 3328: 3052: 3039: 3026: 2992: 2947: 2848: 2836: 2807: 2796:from the original on 2006-02-13 2725: 2681: 2200:needs additional citations for 1948: 1492:, states the battle was fought 4424:. Cambridge University Press. 2792:. Fordham University website. 2570: 2548: 2535: 2522: 1510:. For example, Livy records a 1124:) was a key engagement of the 129: 1: 4576:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 3826:Beloch Studi di Storia Antica 3334:Livy, Book 22, Chapters 44-52 2564: 2426:throughout the 20th century: 1877: 1502:The months of the pre-Julian 1490:Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius 4152:. p. 65. Archived from 3850:Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). 3801:Abridgement of Roman History 1956: 1592: 1488:, citing the Roman annalist 1273:Hannibal's route of invasion 7: 4451:The Military Quotation Book 4305:. Perseus Digital Library. 1609:Rome's forces used typical 1164:and Italian army under the 10: 5378: 5357:Military history of Apulia 4712:Atlas of Classical History 4457:Cottrell, Leonard (1960). 4352:. Loeb Classical Library. 3905:Rome and Carthage at peace 3903:Palmer, Robert EA (1997). 2375:to be recorded in detail. 2320:Status in military history 2095:, who had taken refuge at 1960: 1411: 1301:to deal with the threat. 1223:and several other Italian 128:Carthaginian victory (see 25: 18: 5297: 5259: 4978: 4930: 4919: 4798: 4133:The Story of Civilization 3907:. Stuttgart, F. Steiner. 1796: 1670:as his personal sidearm. 1525: 1375:The Histories of Polybius 1244:burying four people alive 716:Crossing of the Apennines 649: 572: 492: 325: 245: 158: 66: 48: 40: 35: 4681:10.1524/mgzs.1990.47.1.7 4660:Samuels, Martin (1990). 4350:"Life of Fabius Maximus" 4118:Theodore Ayrault Dodge, 4080:, pp. 338–339, 362. 4007:, 34 (1975), pp. 161–165 3270:Connolly (1998), p. 148. 2515: 2340:. As military historian 2102:Publius Cornelius Scipio 1912:Gnaeus Servilius Geminus 1882: 1463:according to Appian and 1341:Gnaeus Servilius Geminus 26:Not to be confused with 5236:Great Plains (Bagradas) 4662:"The Reality of Cannae" 4504:De Beer, Gavin (1974). 3389:Fernando Quesada-Sanz, 2582:Warfare History Network 2164:Historical significance 1471: 1353:Lucius Aemilius Paullus 1169:Lucius Aemilius Paullus 260:Lucius Aemilius Paullus 21:Battle of Cannae (1018) 4708:Talbert, Richard J. A. 4466:Daly, Gregory (2002). 3073:, 30 (1976), pp. 277ff 2473: 2450:Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. 2433: 2388:battle of annihilation 2355: 2342:Theodore Ayrault Dodge 2182: 2111: 2068: 2047:Hieronymus of Syracuse 2010: 1980: 1806: 1746: 1606: 1481: 1379: 1345:Marcus Atilius Regulus 1332: 1281:crossed into Italy by 1274: 246:Commanders and leaders 4740:Alfred von Schlieffen 4645:O'Connell, Robert L. 4475:. London: Routledge. 4177:Eisenhower, D. 1948. 4159:on September 30, 2015 2471: 2428: 2416:Alfred von Schlieffen 2346: 2253:Roman Republican army 2249:tactical organization 2176: 2106: 2055: 2005: 1966: 1961:Further information: 1920:Marcus Minucius Rufus 1893:Quintus Fabius Pictor 1804: 1744: 1637:and various types of 1619:(heavy javelins) and 1600: 1494:ante diem iiii nones 1479: 1361: 1349:Gaius Terentius Varro 1322: 1272: 1236:Quintus Fabius Pictor 1173:Gaius Terentius Varro 493:Casualties and losses 338:15,000 light infantry 255:Gaius Terentius Varro 174:Allied Italian states 109:41.30639°N 16.13250°E 5014:Crossing of the Alps 4570:Healy, Mark (1994). 4414:Briscoe, John & 4145:O'Neill, Timothy R. 4033:. Evans Bros, 1965, 3931:. Evans Bros, 1965, 3609:. Evans Bros, 1965, 3360:. Evans Bros, 1965, 2618:, pp. 320, 327. 2412:German General Staff 2392:Dwight D. Eisenhower 2209:improve this article 2043:First Macedonian War 1518:to properly perform 1265:Strategic background 1202:. They massed their 669:Crossing of the Alps 595:class=notpageimage| 499:Total: 67,500–80,000 410:8,000 light infantry 4555:. London: Cassell. 4549:Goldsworthy, Adrian 4068:, pp. 162–163. 4056:, pp. 337–338. 4029:Cottrell, Leonard. 3927:Cottrell, Leonard. 3788:Institutio Oratoria 3605:Cottrell, Leonard. 3584:, pp. 114–116. 3513:, pp. 118–120. 3461:, pp. 111–112. 3420:, pp. 110–111. 3356:Cottrell, Leonard. 3218:, pp. 107–108. 2887:, pp. 119–120. 2716:Liddell Hart, Basil 2401:Frederick the Great 2007:Philip V of Macedon 1864:Victor Davis Hanson 1705:Tactical deployment 994:Sicily and Sardinia 105: / 5105:Claw of Archimedes 4913:Treaty of Lutatius 4383:2018-09-11 at the 4341:by Cannon Roberts. 4337:2019-06-08 at the 3999:2021-09-21 at the 3700:2005-09-21 at the 3133:, pp. 81–112. 3065:2018-09-13 at the 2474: 2464:Historical sources 2405:Helmuth von Moltke 2365:double envelopment 2261:double envelopment 2245:military structure 2183: 2179:Henry II of France 2142:Bernard Montgomery 2069: 2019:southern provinces 2011: 1807: 1747: 1607: 1482: 1333: 1275: 1213:Adrian Goldsworthy 1208:double envelopment 1121:[ˈkanːae̯] 540:Total: 5,700–8,000 114:41.30639; 16.13250 5342:210s BC conflicts 5324: 5323: 4590:Hoyos, Dexter B. 4431:978-1-108-48014-7 4399:Astin, A.E. (ed) 4242:, pp. 24–25. 4230:, pp. 21–23. 4218:, pp. 17–18. 4179:Crusade in Europe 3914:978-3-515-07040-9 3863:978-1-4766-2585-0 3121:, pp. 29–32. 2678:, pp. 36–37. 2448:In 1991, General 2334:Battle of Arausio 2241: 2240: 2233: 2093:military tribunes 1914:, and the former 1908:military tribunes 1812:echelon formation 1678:versus the Greek 1658:Balearic slingers 1406:Scipio Aemilianus 1306:attrition warfare 1070: 1069: 746:Nuceria Alfaterna 606: 605: 273:Servilius Geminus 154: 153: 28:Battle of Carrhae 5369: 5315:Military history 5305: 5304: 5279:Port of Carthage 5115: 5108: 5107: 4987: 4980:Second Punic War 4925: 4863:Bagradas (Tunis) 4784: 4777: 4770: 4761: 4760: 4753:Battle At Cannae 4704: 4702: 4701: 4683: 4642: 4640: 4639: 4587: 4566: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4509: 4500: 4498: 4497: 4491: 4485:. Archived from 4474: 4462: 4449:Carlton, James. 4446: 4444: 4443: 4416:Simon Hornblower 4364: 4362: 4361: 4317: 4315: 4314: 4303:"Hannibalic War" 4280: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4256: 4249: 4243: 4237: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4204:Goldsworthy 2001 4201: 4195: 4188: 4182: 4175: 4169: 4168: 4166: 4164: 4158: 4151: 4142: 4136: 4129: 4123: 4116: 4110: 4103: 4097: 4090: 4081: 4075: 4069: 4066:Goldsworthy 2001 4063: 4057: 4051: 4042: 4027: 4021: 4014: 4008: 3990: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3964: 3958: 3957: 3946: 3940: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3900: 3894: 3887: 3881: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3847: 3841: 3835: 3829: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3797: 3791: 3784: 3778: 3772: 3766: 3759: 3753: 3746: 3733: 3726: 3717: 3695:Battle of Cannae 3691: 3682: 3675: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3651:Goldsworthy 2001 3648: 3642: 3639:Goldsworthy 2001 3636: 3630: 3627:Goldsworthy 2001 3624: 3618: 3603: 3597: 3594:Goldsworthy 2001 3591: 3585: 3582:Goldsworthy 2001 3579: 3573: 3567: 3558: 3555:Goldsworthy 2001 3552: 3543: 3540:Goldsworthy 2001 3537: 3526: 3523:Goldsworthy 2001 3520: 3514: 3511:Goldsworthy 2001 3508: 3502: 3496: 3487: 3481: 3475: 3468: 3462: 3459:Goldsworthy 2001 3456: 3450: 3447:Goldsworthy 2001 3444: 3438: 3435:Goldsworthy 2001 3432: 3421: 3418:Goldsworthy 2001 3415: 3409: 3387: 3381: 3378:Goldsworthy 2001 3375: 3369: 3354: 3348: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3326: 3308: 3295: 3292:Goldsworthy 2001 3289: 3283: 3280:Goldsworthy 2001 3277: 3271: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3235: 3228: 3219: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3195: 3188: 3179: 3176:Goldsworthy 2001 3173: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3143:Goldsworthy 2001 3140: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3080: 3074: 3056: 3050: 3043: 3037: 3030: 3024: 3018: 3012: 3009:"Fabius Maximus" 2996: 2990: 2983: 2977: 2974:Goldsworthy 2001 2971: 2962: 2951: 2945: 2942:Goldsworthy 2001 2939: 2930: 2927:Goldsworthy 2001 2924: 2915: 2912:Goldsworthy 2001 2909: 2900: 2897:Goldsworthy 2001 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2870: 2859: 2852: 2846: 2840: 2834: 2827: 2818: 2811: 2805: 2804: 2802: 2801: 2779: 2760: 2757:Goldsworthy 2001 2754: 2748: 2745:Goldsworthy 2001 2742: 2736: 2729: 2723: 2713: 2707: 2704:Goldsworthy 2001 2701: 2695: 2685: 2679: 2676:Goldsworthy 2001 2673: 2667: 2664:Goldsworthy 2001 2661: 2655: 2652:Goldsworthy 2001 2649: 2643: 2640:Goldsworthy 2001 2637: 2631: 2628:Goldsworthy 2001 2625: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2592: 2591: 2589: 2588: 2574: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2539: 2533: 2530:decisive victory 2526: 2454:coalition forces 2424:maneuver warfare 2338:military history 2305:Scipio Africanus 2236: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2216: 2193: 2185: 2062:Sébastien Slodtz 1993:human sacrifices 1978: 1963:Second Punic War 1916:Magister equitum 1897:Battle of Trebia 1868:Scipio Africanus 1781:had 3,000–4,000 1646:Numidian cavalry 1603:Balearic Islands 1377: 1181:military history 1156:and practically 1126:Second Punic War 1123: 1118: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1075:Battle of Cannae 988:2nd New Carthage 953:1st New Carthage 644: 642: 641:Second Punic War 632: 625: 618: 609: 608: 588: 587: 581: 463:Numidian cavalry 281: 268: 216: 177: 120: 119: 117: 116: 115: 110: 106: 103: 102: 101: 98: 68: 67: 53: 43:Second Punic War 36:Battle of Cannae 33: 32: 5377: 5376: 5372: 5371: 5370: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5293: 5261:Third Punic War 5255: 5216:Carteia (naval) 5111: 5099: 5098: 4983: 4982: 4974: 4926: 4917: 4888:Drepana (siege) 4800:First Punic War 4794: 4790:Battles of the 4788: 4730: 4725: 4699: 4697: 4637: 4635: 4628: 4584: 4563: 4539: 4537: 4530: 4495: 4493: 4489: 4483: 4472: 4441: 4439: 4432: 4418:, eds. (2020). 4395: 4390: 4385:Wayback Machine 4359: 4357: 4339:Wayback Machine 4327:Ab Urbe Condita 4312: 4310: 4293: 4291:Ancient sources 4288: 4283: 4275: 4271: 4263: 4259: 4251:Sabin, Philip. 4250: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4226: 4222: 4214: 4210: 4202: 4198: 4189: 4185: 4176: 4172: 4162: 4160: 4156: 4149: 4143: 4139: 4130: 4126: 4117: 4113: 4104: 4100: 4091: 4084: 4076: 4072: 4064: 4060: 4052: 4045: 4028: 4024: 4018:Ab Urbe Condita 4015: 4011: 4001:Wayback Machine 3991: 3987: 3981:Ab Urbe Condita 3978: 3974: 3968:Ab Urbe Condita 3965: 3961: 3948: 3947: 3943: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3901: 3897: 3891:Ab Urbe Condita 3888: 3884: 3878:Ab Urbe Condita 3875: 3871: 3864: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3832: 3823: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3798: 3794: 3785: 3781: 3773: 3769: 3763:Ab Urbe Condita 3760: 3756: 3750:Ab Urbe Condita 3747: 3736: 3727: 3720: 3702:Wayback Machine 3692: 3685: 3679:Ab Urbe Condita 3676: 3669: 3661: 3657: 3649: 3645: 3637: 3633: 3625: 3621: 3604: 3600: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3568: 3561: 3553: 3546: 3538: 3529: 3521: 3517: 3509: 3505: 3497: 3490: 3482: 3478: 3469: 3465: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3424: 3416: 3412: 3401:, Nº 56, 2005, 3388: 3384: 3376: 3372: 3355: 3351: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3329: 3311:Dodge, Theodore 3309: 3298: 3290: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3257: 3253: 3245: 3238: 3229: 3222: 3214: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3189: 3182: 3174: 3161: 3157:, pp. 100. 3153: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3129: 3125: 3117: 3113: 3109:, pp. 106. 3105: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3067:Wayback Machine 3057: 3053: 3047:Ab Urbe Condita 3044: 3040: 3031: 3027: 3019: 3015: 2997: 2993: 2984: 2980: 2972: 2965: 2952: 2948: 2940: 2933: 2925: 2918: 2910: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2871: 2862: 2856:Ab Urbe Condita 2853: 2849: 2841: 2837: 2828: 2821: 2812: 2808: 2799: 2797: 2788: 2780: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2733:Ab Urbe Condita 2730: 2726: 2714: 2710: 2702: 2698: 2692:Ab Urbe Condita 2686: 2682: 2674: 2670: 2662: 2658: 2650: 2646: 2638: 2634: 2626: 2622: 2614: 2610: 2602: 2595: 2586: 2584: 2576: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2561: 2553: 2549: 2540: 2536: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2466: 2452:, commander of 2420:Schlieffen Plan 2381: 2369:pincer movement 2322: 2237: 2226: 2220: 2217: 2206: 2194: 2171: 2166: 2150:Fabian strategy 2077:Master of horse 2035:Macedonian king 1979: 1973: 1965: 1959: 1951: 1906:, 29 of the 48 1885: 1880: 1848:pincer movement 1799: 1707: 1666:and carrying a 1611:Roman equipment 1595: 1528: 1499:, or 2 August. 1474: 1414: 1393: 1384: 1378: 1372: 1323:The battles of 1314:Fabian strategy 1310:pitched battles 1267: 1242:in Greece, and 1238:to consult the 1232:Sibylline Books 1116: 1106: 1100: 1082: 1078: 1071: 1066: 645: 640: 638: 636: 602: 601: 600: 599: 597: 591: 590: 589: 568: 556: 555: 554: 553: 542: 536: 530:10,000 captured 518: 517:14,000+ escaped 514:19,300 captured 501: 488: 485: 454: 432:32,000 infantry 429: 406: 400: 388: 366: 350:55,000 infantry 347: 334: 321: 285: 277: 264: 241: 218: 217: 214: 197: 179: 178: 175: 138: 113: 111: 107: 104: 99: 96: 94: 92: 91: 90: 54: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5375: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5347:Ancient Apulia 5344: 5339: 5322: 5321: 5319: 5318: 5311: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5265: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5211:Carteia (land) 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5126:2nd Beneventum 5123: 5118: 5117: 5116: 5109: 5091: 5089:1st Beneventum 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5039:Lake Trasimene 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4990: 4988: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4936: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4920: 4918: 4916: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4823:Lipari Islands 4820: 4815: 4810: 4804: 4802: 4796: 4795: 4787: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4764: 4758: 4757: 4749: 4742: 4729: 4728:External links 4726: 4724: 4723: 4705: 4657: 4655:978-1400067022 4643: 4627:978-0806130040 4626: 4611: 4588: 4582: 4567: 4561: 4545: 4528: 4514:Delbrück, Hans 4510: 4501: 4481: 4463: 4454: 4447: 4430: 4411: 4396: 4394: 4393:Modern sources 4391: 4389: 4388: 4387:by W.R. Paton. 4365: 4342: 4320:Titus Livius ( 4318: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4279:, p. 120. 4269: 4257: 4244: 4232: 4220: 4208: 4206:, p. 180. 4196: 4183: 4170: 4137: 4124: 4111: 4098: 4082: 4070: 4058: 4043: 4022: 4009: 3985: 3972: 3959: 3954:In Italy Today 3941: 3920: 3913: 3895: 3882: 3869: 3862: 3842: 3830: 3817: 3815:, p. 202. 3805: 3792: 3779: 3767: 3754: 3734: 3718: 3683: 3667: 3655: 3653:, p. 152. 3643: 3641:, p. 150. 3631: 3629:, p. 148. 3619: 3598: 3596:, p. 147. 3586: 3574: 3559: 3557:, p. 149. 3544: 3542:, p. 126. 3527: 3525:, p. 120. 3515: 3503: 3488: 3476: 3463: 3451: 3449:, p. 108. 3439: 3437:, p. 112. 3422: 3410: 3382: 3380:, p. 110. 3370: 3349: 3343:Mills, Cliff. 3336: 3327: 3296: 3294:, p. 102. 3284: 3282:, p. 100. 3272: 3263: 3251: 3236: 3220: 3208: 3206:, pp. 99. 3196: 3180: 3159: 3147: 3135: 3123: 3111: 3099: 3097:, pp. 94. 3087: 3075: 3051: 3038: 3025: 3023:, pp. 43. 3013: 3004:Parallel Lives 2991: 2978: 2963: 2946: 2931: 2916: 2901: 2889: 2877: 2875:, p. 119. 2860: 2847: 2835: 2819: 2806: 2761: 2749: 2737: 2724: 2708: 2696: 2680: 2668: 2656: 2644: 2642:, p. 159. 2632: 2630:, p. 194. 2620: 2608: 2593: 2568: 2566: 2563: 2560: 2559: 2547: 2534: 2520: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2510:Battle of Zama 2502:Parallel Lives 2465: 2462: 2380: 2379:"Cannae model" 2377: 2321: 2318: 2309:Roman Republic 2292:system to the 2239: 2238: 2197: 2195: 2188: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2158:battle of Zama 1971: 1958: 1955: 1950: 1947: 1884: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1798: 1795: 1785:on the right. 1706: 1703: 1687:Peter Connolly 1594: 1591: 1527: 1524: 1520:intercalations 1504:Roman calendar 1473: 1470: 1413: 1410: 1392: 1389: 1383: 1380: 1370: 1329:Lake Trasimene 1291:Lake Trasimene 1266: 1263: 1256:Battle of Zama 1240:Delphic oracle 1204:heavy infantry 1192:Lake Trasimene 1130:Roman Republic 1068: 1067: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1038: 1037: 1033: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 996: 995: 991: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 914: 913: 909: 908: 903: 898: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 806:2nd Beneventum 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 776:1st Beneventum 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 706:Lake Trasimene 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 677: 676: 672: 671: 666: 661: 655: 654: 650: 647: 646: 635: 634: 627: 620: 612: 604: 603: 593: 592: 583: 582: 576: 575: 574: 573: 570: 569: 567: 566: 563: 557: 550: 543: 537: 535: 534: 531: 528: 525: 519: 515: 512: 509: 502: 495: 494: 490: 489: 487: 486: 484: 483: 474: 465: 458: 457:10,000 cavalry 455: 453: 452: 446: 440: 433: 430: 428: 427: 418: 411: 407: 401: 399: 398: 389: 387: 386: 377: 370: 367: 365: 364: 358: 351: 348: 346: 345: 339: 335: 328: 327: 323: 322: 320: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 288: 286: 284: 283: 270: 257: 251: 248: 247: 243: 242: 240: 239: 234: 229: 224: 212: 211: 210: 201: 196: 195: 190: 185: 173: 172: 171: 167:Roman Republic 161: 160: 156: 155: 152: 151: 140: 134: 133: 126: 122: 121: 82: 80: 76: 75: 72: 64: 63: 46: 45: 38: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5374: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5310: 5309: 5300: 5299: 5296: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5097: 5096: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5044:Ager Falernus 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4981: 4977: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4932:Mercenary War 4929: 4924: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4868:Cape Hermaeum 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4785: 4780: 4778: 4773: 4771: 4766: 4765: 4762: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4748: 4747: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4731: 4721: 4720:0-415-03463-9 4717: 4713: 4709: 4706: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4633: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4618: 4612: 4609: 4608:1-904675-47-6 4605: 4601: 4600:1-904675-46-8 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4583:1-85532-470-9 4579: 4575: 4574: 4568: 4564: 4562:0-304-35714-6 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4535: 4531: 4529:0-8032-6584-0 4525: 4521: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4502: 4492:on 2020-12-18 4488: 4484: 4482:0-415-26147-3 4478: 4471: 4470: 4464: 4460: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4437: 4433: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4410: 4409:0-521-23448-4 4406: 4402: 4398: 4397: 4386: 4382: 4379: 4375: 4374: 4373:The Histories 4369: 4366: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4333: 4329: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4278: 4273: 4267:, p. 23. 4266: 4261: 4254: 4248: 4241: 4236: 4229: 4224: 4217: 4212: 4205: 4200: 4193: 4187: 4180: 4174: 4155: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4131:Will Durant, 4128: 4121: 4115: 4108: 4102: 4095: 4089: 4087: 4079: 4078:Delbrück 1975 4074: 4067: 4062: 4055: 4054:Delbrück 1975 4050: 4048: 4040: 4039:0-237-44320-1 4036: 4032: 4031:Enemy of Rome 4026: 4019: 4013: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3995: 3989: 3983:, xxiii.11–12 3982: 3976: 3969: 3963: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3938: 3937:0-237-44320-1 3934: 3930: 3929:Enemy of Rome 3924: 3916: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3892: 3886: 3879: 3873: 3865: 3859: 3855: 3854: 3846: 3840:, p. 25. 3839: 3834: 3827: 3821: 3814: 3809: 3802: 3796: 3789: 3783: 3776: 3771: 3764: 3758: 3751: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3731: 3725: 3723: 3715: 3714:0-395-66969-3 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3696: 3690: 3688: 3680: 3674: 3672: 3665:, p. 85. 3664: 3659: 3652: 3647: 3640: 3635: 3628: 3623: 3616: 3615:0-237-44320-1 3612: 3608: 3607:Enemy of Rome 3602: 3595: 3590: 3583: 3578: 3571: 3566: 3564: 3556: 3551: 3549: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3524: 3519: 3512: 3507: 3501:, p. 84. 3500: 3495: 3493: 3486:, p. 77. 3485: 3480: 3473: 3470:Bradford, E. 3467: 3460: 3455: 3448: 3443: 3436: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3419: 3414: 3408: 3407:84-87143-37-7 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3386: 3379: 3374: 3367: 3366:0-237-44320-1 3363: 3359: 3358:Enemy of Rome 3353: 3346: 3340: 3331: 3324: 3323:0-306-81362-9 3320: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3293: 3288: 3281: 3276: 3267: 3261:, p. 90. 3260: 3255: 3249:, p. 89. 3248: 3243: 3241: 3233: 3230:Duncan Head, 3227: 3225: 3217: 3212: 3205: 3200: 3193: 3187: 3185: 3178:, p. 54. 3177: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3156: 3151: 3145:, p. 44. 3144: 3139: 3132: 3127: 3120: 3115: 3108: 3103: 3096: 3091: 3085:, p. 32. 3084: 3079: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3061: 3055: 3048: 3042: 3035: 3029: 3022: 3017: 3010: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2988: 2982: 2976:, p. 82. 2975: 2970: 2968: 2960: 2959:0-237-44320-1 2956: 2950: 2944:, p. 81. 2943: 2938: 2936: 2929:, p. 80. 2928: 2923: 2921: 2914:, p. 77. 2913: 2908: 2906: 2899:, p. 75. 2898: 2893: 2886: 2881: 2874: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2857: 2851: 2844: 2839: 2832: 2826: 2824: 2816: 2810: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2785: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2759:, p. 60. 2758: 2753: 2747:, p. 40. 2746: 2741: 2734: 2728: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2706:, p. 38. 2705: 2700: 2693: 2689: 2684: 2677: 2672: 2666:, p. 33. 2665: 2660: 2654:, p. 28. 2653: 2648: 2641: 2636: 2629: 2624: 2617: 2616:Delbrück 1975 2612: 2605: 2604:Plutarch 1916 2600: 2598: 2583: 2579: 2573: 2569: 2557: 2551: 2544: 2538: 2531: 2525: 2521: 2513: 2511: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2490: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2470: 2461: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2444: 2443: 2438: 2432: 2427: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2406: 2402: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2386: 2376: 2374: 2373:Western world 2370: 2366: 2361: 2359: 2354: 2352: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2330:Roman history 2327: 2317: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2265: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2235: 2232: 2224: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2198:This section 2196: 2192: 2187: 2186: 2180: 2175: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2145: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2131: 2130:Hans Delbrück 2126: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2078: 2074: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2058:Roman knights 2054: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1954: 1946: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1888: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1813: 1803: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1713: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1671: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1647: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1633:, as well as 1632: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1604: 1599: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1512:lunar eclipse 1509: 1505: 1500: 1498: 1497: 1491: 1487: 1478: 1469: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1422: 1420: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1397: 1391:Roman command 1388: 1376: 1369: 1366: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1271: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1200:allied troops 1197: 1193: 1190:(218 BC) and 1189: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1112: 1076: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 997: 993: 992: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 915: 911: 910: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 811:Campi Veteres 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 787: 786:2nd Casilinum 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 751:1st Casilinum 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 721:Ager Falernus 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 678: 674: 673: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 656: 652: 651: 648: 643: 633: 628: 626: 621: 619: 614: 613: 610: 596: 580: 571: 564: 561: 558: 551: 548: 545: 544: 541: 538: 533:3,000 escaped 532: 529: 527:70,000 killed 526: 523: 520: 516: 513: 511:48,200 killed 510: 507: 504: 503: 500: 497: 496: 491: 482: 479: 475: 473: 470: 466: 464: 460: 459: 456: 451: 447: 445: 441: 439: 435: 434: 431: 426: 423: 419: 417: 413: 412: 409: 408: 405: 404:Total: 50,000 402: 397: 394: 390: 385: 382: 378: 376: 375:Roman cavalry 372: 371: 369:6,400 cavalry 368: 363: 359: 357: 353: 352: 349: 344: 341: 340: 337: 336: 333: 332:Total: 86,400 330: 329: 324: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 289: 287: 282: 280: 274: 271: 269: 267: 261: 258: 256: 253: 252: 250: 249: 244: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 219: 213:Allied tribes 209: 208: 207: 202: 200: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 180: 170: 169: 168: 163: 162: 157: 149: 145: 141: 136: 135: 131: 127: 124: 123: 118: 89: 85: 81: 78: 77: 73: 70: 69: 65: 61: 57: 56:John Trumbull 52: 47: 44: 39: 34: 29: 22: 5313: 5306: 5284:2nd Nepheris 5274:1st Nepheris 5176:New Carthage 5171:2nd Tarentum 5156:2nd Herdonia 5146:Upper Baetis 5141:1st Herdonia 5121:1st Tarentum 5059:Silva Litana 5053: 4970:Leptis Parva 4903:2nd Mt. Eryx 4898:1st Mt. Eryx 4848:Cape Ecnomus 4751: 4744: 4733: 4711: 4698:. Retrieved 4671: 4665: 4646: 4636:. Retrieved 4616: 4591: 4572: 4552: 4538:. Retrieved 4518: 4505: 4494:. Retrieved 4487:the original 4468: 4458: 4450: 4440:. Retrieved 4420: 4400: 4371: 4358:. Retrieved 4325: 4311:. Retrieved 4286:Bibliography 4272: 4265:Samuels 1990 4260: 4253:Lost Battles 4252: 4247: 4235: 4223: 4211: 4199: 4191: 4186: 4178: 4173: 4161:. Retrieved 4154:the original 4140: 4132: 4127: 4119: 4114: 4106: 4101: 4093: 4073: 4061: 4030: 4025: 4017: 4012: 4004: 3988: 3980: 3975: 3967: 3962: 3953: 3944: 3928: 3923: 3904: 3898: 3890: 3885: 3877: 3872: 3852: 3845: 3838:Samuels 1990 3833: 3825: 3820: 3808: 3800: 3795: 3787: 3786:Quintilian. 3782: 3770: 3762: 3757: 3749: 3729: 3705: 3678: 3658: 3646: 3634: 3622: 3606: 3601: 3589: 3577: 3518: 3506: 3479: 3471: 3466: 3454: 3442: 3413: 3390: 3385: 3373: 3357: 3352: 3344: 3339: 3330: 3314: 3287: 3275: 3266: 3254: 3231: 3211: 3199: 3191: 3150: 3138: 3126: 3114: 3102: 3090: 3078: 3070: 3054: 3046: 3041: 3033: 3028: 3016: 3002: 2994: 2986: 2981: 2949: 2892: 2880: 2855: 2850: 2842: 2838: 2830: 2814: 2809: 2798:. Retrieved 2782: 2752: 2740: 2732: 2727: 2719: 2711: 2699: 2691: 2688:Titus Livius 2683: 2671: 2659: 2647: 2635: 2623: 2611: 2585:. Retrieved 2581: 2572: 2550: 2537: 2524: 2506: 2501: 2495: 2491: 2475: 2447: 2440: 2434: 2429: 2409: 2382: 2362: 2356: 2347: 2323: 2302: 2298:Gaius Marius 2283: 2277: 2266: 2242: 2227: 2218: 2207:Please help 2202:verification 2199: 2177:A shield of 2146: 2139: 2135: 2127: 2119: 2112: 2107: 2090: 2070: 2031: 2012: 1989:Adriatic Sea 1981: 1967: 1952: 1949:Carthaginian 1943: 1924: 1901: 1889: 1886: 1856: 1852: 1844:encirclement 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1808: 1791: 1787: 1772: 1768: 1756:Celtiberians 1748: 1736: 1725: 1719: 1708: 1691:pike phalanx 1684: 1676:Roman legion 1672: 1661: 1655: 1643: 1620: 1614: 1608: 1569: 1561:Celtiberians 1555:, including 1529: 1501: 1493: 1483: 1461:Celtiberians 1451: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1423: 1415: 1398: 1394: 1385: 1374: 1362: 1334: 1304:Fabius used 1303: 1276: 1260: 1252:Silva Litana 1229: 1185: 1144:, southeast 1128:between the 1074: 1072: 1052:Great Plains 1036:North Africa 948:Upper Baetis 871:2nd Tarentum 846:2nd Herdonia 826:1st Herdonia 801:1st Tarentum 736:Silva Litana 730: 711:Umbrian Lake 565:5,700 killed 552:8,000 killed 539: 498: 403: 331: 278: 265: 204: 203: 165: 164: 159:Belligerents 59: 41:Part of the 5079:Decimomannu 4893:Mount Ercte 4674:(1): 7–31. 4378:translation 4332:translation 4092:O'Connell, 3880:, xxii.52.6 3799:Eutropius. 3775:Appian 1999 3049:, XLIV.37.8 3032:Macrobius, 2489:factual". 2437:operational 2371:within the 2363:Hannibal's 2358:Will Durant 2016:Hellenistic 1710:Hannibal's 1565:Lusitanians 1225:city-states 1158:annihilated 1010:Decimomannu 983:2nd Carteia 978:1st Carteia 881:2nd Petelia 841:Sapriportis 761:1st Petelia 416:Skirmishers 150:to Carthage 137:Territorial 112: / 5331:Categories 5269:Lake Tunis 5034:Ebro River 4818:Agrigentum 4792:Punic Wars 4700:2020-04-15 4638:2018-08-02 4540:2020-04-15 4496:2020-04-15 4442:2023-02-20 4360:2021-02-19 4313:2021-02-20 3728:Polybius, 3663:Healy 1994 3499:Healy 1994 3484:Healy 1994 3190:Polybius, 3036:, 1.1.6.26 3034:Saturnalia 2987:Punic Wars 2985:Caven, B. 2829:Polybius, 2813:Polybius, 2800:2006-02-07 2781:Polybius, 2587:2023-09-06 2565:References 2399:including 2396:modern war 2385:archetypal 1935:Quintilian 1878:Casualties 1613:including 1580:skirmisher 1576:Phoenician 1516:pontifices 1508:Julian day 1373:Polybius, 1154:surrounded 1030:Agrigentum 933:Illiturgis 923:Ebro River 701:Victumulae 297:Mago Barca 97:41°18′23″N 5231:2nd Utica 5226:1st Utica 5191:Grumentum 5151:2nd Capua 5131:1st Capua 4999:Lilybaeum 4985:(Battles) 4883:Lilybaeum 4690:164703621 4516:(1975) . 4277:Daly 2002 4255:, p. 183. 4240:Daly 2002 4228:Daly 2002 4216:Daly 2002 4020:, xxii.53 3970:, xxii.61 3893:, xxii.54 3813:Daly 2002 3803:, iii.10. 3790:, 8.6.26. 3752:, xxii.49 3732:, iii.117 3730:Historiae 3693:Hanson, " 3681:, xxii.51 3570:Daly 2002 3399:1130-8095 3259:Daly 2002 3247:Daly 2002 3216:Daly 2002 3204:Daly 2002 3194:, iii.114 3192:Historiae 3155:Daly 2002 3131:Daly 2002 3119:Daly 2002 3107:Daly 2002 3095:Daly 2002 3083:Daly 2002 3021:Daly 2002 2885:Daly 2002 2873:Daly 2002 2858:, xxii.36 2833:, iii.107 2831:Historiae 2815:Historiae 2784:Historiae 2418:, whose " 2290:manipular 2279:principes 2221:July 2022 1957:Aftermath 1939:Eutropius 1904:quaestors 1783:Numidians 1774:Hasdrubal 1721:principes 1663:musculata 1593:Equipment 1543:, mainly 1539:, 16,000 1537:Gaetulian 1486:Macrobius 1465:Numidians 1402:scapegoat 1179:feats in 1160:a larger 1047:2nd Utica 1042:1st Utica 1000:Lilybaeum 891:Grumentum 831:2nd Capua 816:1st Capua 696:Placentia 444:Hispanics 312:Hasdrubal 232:Hispanics 222:Numidians 183:Etruscans 130:Aftermath 100:16°7′57″E 5352:Barletta 5308:Category 5289:Carthage 5246:Insubria 5196:Metaurus 5166:Canusium 5161:Numistro 5101:Heat ray 5094:Syracuse 5084:3rd Nola 5074:2nd Nola 5064:1st Nola 5049:Geronium 4994:Saguntum 4955:Carthage 4945:Bagradas 4873:Panormus 4843:Tyndaris 4808:Treaties 4694:Archived 4632:Archived 4551:(2001). 4534:Archived 4436:Archived 4381:Archived 4368:Polybius 4354:Archived 4348:(1916). 4346:Plutarch 4335:Archived 4307:Archived 4301:(1999). 4120:Hannibal 4041:. p. 104 3997:Archived 3950:"ORDONA" 3939:. p. 102 3765:, xxii.7 3698:Archived 3472:Hannibal 3345:Hannibal 3315:Hannibal 3063:Archived 2999:Plutarch 2794:Archived 2735:, xxi.19 2720:Strategy 2694:, xxii.8 2498:Plutarch 2478:Polybius 2458:Gulf War 2312:citizen- 2122:Carthalo 2115:Maharbal 2097:Canusium 2064:, 1704, 2039:Philip V 2027:Tarentum 1972:— 1931:Plutarch 1872:Canusium 1752:Iberians 1732:maniples 1695:Plutarch 1635:javelins 1627:falcatas 1587:slingers 1584:Balearic 1572:Numidian 1557:Iberians 1553:Hispania 1549:Insubres 1535:, 5,500 1496:Sextilis 1430:ambushed 1371:— 1357:Polybius 1299:dictator 1279:Hannibal 1177:tactical 1150:Hannibal 1134:Carthage 1020:Syracuse 1015:Leontini 906:Insubria 896:Metaurus 866:Caulonia 861:Manduria 856:Canusium 851:Numistro 781:3rd Nola 771:2nd Nola 741:1st Nola 726:Geronium 659:Saguntum 560:Polybius 522:Polybius 469:Hispanic 425:slingers 422:Balearic 396:garrison 326:Strength 317:Maharbal 292:Hannibal 206:Carthage 188:Samnites 79:Location 5221:Crotona 5186:Petelia 5181:Baecula 5136:Silarus 5113:Sambuca 5024:Ticinus 4960:The Saw 4908:Aegates 4878:Drepana 4833:Thermae 4813:Messana 4163:July 4, 4005:Latomus 3777:, 4.25. 3617:. p. 99 3368:. p. 95 3071:Phoenix 3058:Derow, 2961:. p. 94 2606:, 16.8. 2541:10,000 2456:in the 2351:echelon 2344:wrote: 2326:tactics 2314:militia 2285:hastati 2257:phalanx 2251:of the 2086:Congius 1727:hastati 1699:triarii 1680:phalanx 1668:falcata 1533:Libyans 1419:Aufidus 1412:Prelude 1365:legions 1359:wrote: 1289:and at 1248:legions 1166:consuls 963:Baecula 901:Crotona 886:Venusia 821:Silarus 791:Lucania 681:Ticinus 653:Prelude 481:cavalry 472:cavalry 450:Libyans 436:21,000 391:10,000 384:cavalry 360:30,000 354:25,000 343:Velites 279:† 266:† 227:Libyans 193:Iapyges 139:changes 5337:216 BC 5054:Cannae 5029:Trebia 4735:Cannae 4718: 4710:(ed.) 4688: 4653: 4624: 4610:(pbk). 4606: 4602:(hbk) 4598: 4580: 4559: 4553:Cannae 4526: 4479: 4428: 4407: 4299:Appian 4181:, 325. 4037: 4016:Livy, 3979:Livy, 3966:Livy, 3935: 3911: 3889:Livy, 3876:Livy, 3860: 3761:Livy, 3748:Livy, 3712: 3677:Livy, 3613: 3405: 3397: 3364: 3321: 3045:Livy, 2957: 2854:Livy, 2817:, i.16 2731:Livy, 2543:allied 2486:Appian 2442:Cannae 2296:under 2294:cohort 2276:, the 2154:Croton 2066:Louvre 1927:Appian 1797:Battle 1716:Trebia 1651:saddle 1639:spears 1631:gladii 1622:hastae 1526:Armies 1453:Appian 1426:hubris 1337:Senate 1325:Trebia 1287:Trebia 1196:Cannae 1188:Trebia 1142:Apulia 1138:Cannae 1117:Latin: 1025:Himera 943:Orongi 912:Iberia 731:Cannae 691:Mutina 686:Trebia 478:Gallic 476:4,000 467:2,000 461:4,000 448:8,000 442:3,000 420:2,000 414:6,000 393:allied 381:allied 379:4,000 373:2,400 362:allies 356:Romans 275: 262: 199:Veneti 125:Result 84:Cannae 62:(1773) 5241:Cirta 5206:Sucro 5201:Ilipa 5069:Ibera 5019:Cissa 5009:Rhone 5004:Malta 4965:Tunis 4940:Utica 4853:Aspis 4838:Sulci 4828:Mylae 4686:S2CID 4490:(PDF) 4473:(PDF) 4157:(PDF) 4150:(PDF) 2516:Notes 2270:Ilipa 2082:eques 2023:Capua 1985:Forum 1883:Roman 1779:Hanno 1760:Gauls 1541:Gauls 1446:Gisgo 1221:Capua 1162:Roman 1146:Italy 1057:Cirta 1005:Malta 973:Sucro 968:Ilipa 958:Baria 938:Munda 928:Ibera 918:Cissa 876:Locri 766:Cumae 756:Hamae 675:Italy 664:Rhone 438:Gauls 307:Hanno 302:Gisgo 237:Gauls 148:Capua 144:Italy 88:Italy 5251:Zama 5103:and 4858:Adys 4716:ISBN 4651:ISBN 4622:ISBN 4604:ISBN 4596:ISBN 4578:ISBN 4557:ISBN 4524:ISBN 4477:ISBN 4426:ISBN 4405:ISBN 4322:Livy 4165:2013 4035:ISBN 3933:ISBN 3909:ISBN 3858:ISBN 3710:ISBN 3611:ISBN 3403:ISBN 3395:ISSN 3362:ISBN 3319:ISBN 2955:ISBN 2554:See 2482:Livy 2403:and 2274:Zama 2272:and 2247:and 2073:Mago 2025:and 1997:Mars 1975:Livy 1859:Livy 1764:Mago 1758:and 1712:line 1644:The 1616:pila 1563:and 1547:and 1545:Boii 1472:Date 1457:Livy 1455:and 1351:and 1343:and 1171:and 1132:and 1073:The 1062:Zama 836:Rome 796:Arpi 547:Livy 506:Livy 71:Date 4676:doi 4324:), 2211:by 1999:). 1899:. 1857:As 1814:. 1766:. 1567:. 1297:as 1140:in 5333:: 4692:. 4684:. 4672:47 4670:. 4664:. 4630:. 4532:. 4434:. 4376:, 4370:, 4330:, 4085:^ 4046:^ 4003:, 3952:. 3737:^ 3721:^ 3704:" 3686:^ 3670:^ 3562:^ 3547:^ 3530:^ 3491:^ 3425:^ 3313:. 3299:^ 3239:^ 3223:^ 3183:^ 3162:^ 3069:, 3007:, 3001:, 2966:^ 2934:^ 2919:^ 2904:^ 2863:^ 2822:^ 2764:^ 2718:. 2690:, 2596:^ 2580:. 2445:. 2414:, 2037:, 1918:, 1874:. 1850:. 1754:, 1559:, 1327:, 1258:. 1152:, 1115:; 1108:aɪ 1105:,- 1102:eɪ 1099:,- 86:, 58:, 4783:e 4776:t 4769:v 4722:. 4703:. 4678:: 4641:. 4586:. 4565:. 4543:. 4499:. 4445:. 4363:. 4316:. 4167:. 3956:. 3917:. 3866:. 3828:. 3716:. 3572:. 3325:. 3011:. 2803:. 2590:. 2234:) 2228:( 2223:) 2219:( 2205:. 1111:/ 1096:i 1093:n 1090:æ 1087:k 1084:ˈ 1081:/ 1077:( 631:e 624:t 617:v 562:: 549:: 524:: 508:: 215:: 176:: 132:) 30:. 23:.

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